Materials and Processes for Agricultural

and Biosystems Engineering

The Industrial Shaping of Metals

Introduction
Materials have to be processed into a great variety of shapes in order to make
component parts of every type. The shapes required vary enormously, both in
size and complexity, ranging from micro-electronic components to large
castings and forgings of , perhaps, several hundred tones mass (1 tones = 1000
kg = 1 Mg). The engineer must have some awareness of the range of
manufacturing processes available, and of the advantages and limitations of
the various processes. The properties of the material in the finished component
are also influenced to a considerable extent by the type of shaping process
employed, and by the conditions existing during processing.
Introduction
Metals and alloys may be shaped into something approaching the final required
form by one of the following operations:
(a) casting into either a sand or a metal mould;
(b) casting as an ingot followed by a hot-working process;
(c) casting as an ingot followed by a cold-working process;
(d) sintering from a powdered metal.

There are other processes, such as electro-deposition and the condensation of

metal vapors, but these operations are usually confined to the surface treatment
of metallic components rather than to their actual shaping. Electro-deposition is
sometimes used to build up parts which have become badly worn.
Forming Operations
Forming operations are those in which the shape of a metal piece is changed by
plastic deformation; for example, forging, rolling, extrusion, and drawing are
common forming techniques. Of course, the deformation must be induced by
an external force or stress, the magnitude of which must exceed the yield
strength of the material.
Forming Operations
When deformation is achieved at a temperature above that at which
recrystallization occurs, the process is termed hot working ; otherwise, it is cold
working. With most of the forming techniques, both hot- and cold- working
procedures are possible. For hot-working operations, large deformations are
possible, which may be successively repeated because the metal remains soft
and ductile. Also, deformation energy requirements are less than for cold
working.
Forming Operations
However, most metals experience some surface oxidation, which results in
material loss and a poor final surface finish. Cold working produces an increase
in strength with the attendant decrease in ductility, since the metal strain
hardens; advantages over hot working include a higher quality surface finish,
better mechanical properties and a greater variety of them, and closer
dimensional control of the finished piece. On occasion, the total deformation is
accomplished in a series of steps in which the piece is successively cold worked
a small amount and then process annealed ; however, this is an expensive and
inconvenient procedure.
Forming Operations
CASTING
Casting is a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is poured into a
mold cavity having the desired shape; upon solidification, the metal assumes the
shape of the mold but experiences some shrinkage. Casting techniques are
employed when (1) the finished shape is so large or complicated that any other
method would be impractical, (2) a particular alloy is so low in ductility that
forming by either hot or cold working would be difficult, and (3) in comparison to
other fabrication processes, casting is the most economical. Furthermore, the
final step in the refining of even ductile metals may involve a casting process.
Forming Operations
CASTING | Sand Casting
With sand casting, probably the most common method, ordinary sand is used as
the mold material. A two-piece mold is formed by packing sand around a
pattern that has the shape of the intended casting. Furthermore, a gating system
is usually incorporated into the mold to expedite the flow of molten metal into the
cavity and to minimize internal casting defects. Sandcast parts include
automotive cylinder blocks, fire hydrants, and large pipe fittings.

Mould for a Sand-Casting

Forming Operations
CASTING | Die Casting
In die casting, the liquid metal is forced into a
mold under pressure and at a relatively high
velocity, and allowed to solidify with the
pressure maintained. A two piece permanent
steel mold or die is employed; when clamped
together, the two pieces form the desired
shape. When complete solidification has been
achieved, the die pieces are opened and the
cast piece is ejected. Rapid casting rates are
possible, making this an inexpensive method; A Pressure Die-casting
furthermore, a single set of dies may be used Machine
for thousands of castings.
Forming Operations
HOT WORKING
Any increase in the temperature of a metal leads to an increase in atomic
spacing so that the bond strength will decrease slightly. Moreover, a dislocation
does not produce as much distortion and can move more easily through the
crystal. Consequently the yield strength falls as the temperature rises.

However, hot-working operations invariably take place above the

recrystallization temperature of a metal or alloy. The importance of this will be at
once apparent. Deformation and recrystallization will be taking place
simultaneously, so that a considerable speeding-up of the process is possible,
with no tedious inter-stage anneals as are necessary in cold-deformation
processes.
Forming Operations
HOT WORKING
Moreover, with most alloys, malleability and plasticity are considerably increased
at high temperatures, so that far less power is needed to produce deformation.
With some alloys it is essential to use a hot-working process, since they are hard
or brittle when cold, owing to the presence of a hard micro-constituent which is
absorbed at the hot- working temperature.

There are many types of hot working processes which are: Hot –rolling, Forging,
Prop-forging, Heading, Hot-pressing and Extrusion.
Forming Operations
HOT WORKING | Hot-Rolling
Hot-rolling is universally applied to the "breaking-down" of large steel ingots to
sections, strip, sheet and rod of various sizes. In fact, the only conditions under
which cold-work is applied to steel are when the section is too small to retain its
heat, or when a superior finish is required in the product.

A steel-rolling shop consists of a powerful "two-high" reversing mill, to break down

the white-hot ingots, followed by trains of rolls which will be either plain or
grooved according to the type of product being manufactured. Hot-rolling is
similarly applied to most of the non-ferrous alloys in the initial breaking-down
stages, but the finishing operations are more likely to involve cold-work.
Forming Operations
HOT WORKING | Forging
The simplest and most ancient working process known to metallurgical industry is
essentially that which was employed by Tubal Cain, and which is still employed
by a skilled blacksmith. Although power-driven hammers are now used, skill is still
necessary on the part of the smith, since he works with comparatively simple
shaping tools known as "swages".

Wrought iron is always associated with the blacksmith, but many other ferrous
and non-ferrous alloys can be shaped by both hand and mechanical forging
processes. During forging, the coarse "as-cast" structure is broken down and
replaced by one which is of relatively fine grain. At the same time impurities are
redistributed in a more or less fibrous form. Therefore it is more satisfactory, all
other things being equal, to forge a component than to cast it to shape.
Forming Operations
HOT WORKING | Extrusion
The extrusion process is now used for shaping a variety of ferrous and non-ferrous
metals and alloys. Its most important feature is that we are able to force the
metal through a die, and, in a single process from the cast billet, to obtain quite
complicated sections of tolerably accurate dimensions. The metal billet is
heated to the required extrusion temperature and placed in the container of
the extrusion press. The ram is then driven hydraulically with sufficient pressure to
force the metal through a hard alloy-steel die.

Using this process, a wide variety of sections can be produced, including round
rod, hexagonal brass rod (for parting off as nuts), brass curtain rail, small-
diameter rod (for drawing still further to wire), tubes 'tress-bearing sections in
aluminum alloys (mainly for aircraft construction).
Forming Operations
COLD WORKING
Cold-working from the ingot to the finished product, with, of course, the
necessary intermediate annealing stages, is applied only in the case of a few
alloys. These include both alloys which are very malleable in the cold and, on
the other hand, those which become brittle when heated.

Cold-working is more often applied in the finishing stages of production.

Then its functions are:
(a) to enable accurate dimensions to be attained in the finished product;
(b) to obtain a clean, smooth finish;
(c) by adjusting the amount of cold-work in the final operation after annealing,
to obtain the required degree of hardness, or "temper", in alloys which cannot
be hardened by heat-treatment.
Forming Operations
COLD WORKING
Raising the temperature of an alloy generally increases its malleability, but
reduces its ductility because of the attendant reduction in yield strength. Thus in
hot-working processes we are always pushing the alloy into shape, whilst in cold-
working operations we frequently make use of the high ductility of some alloys
when cold, by pulling them into their required shapes. Therefore, processes
involving the putting or "drawing" of metal through a die are always cold-
working operations.
Forming Operations
COLD WORKING | Cold-Rolling
Cold-rolling is applied during the finishing stages of production of both strip and
section and also in the production of very thin materials such as foil. In most
other cases cold-rolling mills are similar in design to those used for hot-rolling. The
production of mirror-finished metal foil is carried out in rolls enclosed in an "air-
conditioned" cubicle, and the rolls themselves are polished frequently with clean
cotton wool. Only by working in perfectly clean surroundings, with highly
polished rolls, can really high grade foil be obtained.
Forming Operations
COLD WORKING | Coining
Coining, or embossing, is really a cold-forging process and, as its name implies, it
is used for the production of coinage, medallions and the like. It has also been
used on an experimental scale for producing engineering components to exact
dimensions. A malleable alloy is essential for this type of process if excessive wear
on the dies is to be avoided.
Forming Operations
SINTERING FROM A POWDER
This method of producing metallic structures has become increasingly important in
recent years, and is particularly useful when there is a big difference in the melting
points of the metals to be alloyed, or when a metal has an extremely high melting
point. The metal to be sintered is obtained as a fine powder, either by grinding; by
volatilization and condensation; or by reduction of its powdered oxide. Any necessary
mixing is carried out, and the mixed powdered metals are then placed in a hardened
steel die and compressed. The pressures used vary with the metals to be sintered, but
are usually between 70 and 700 N mm2. The brittle compressed mass is then heated in
a small electric furnace to a temperature which will cause sintering to take place and
produce a mechanically satisfactory product. Sintering will often occur below the
melting point of either metal, though frequently it is above the melting point of one of
them.