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MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY

MODULE II

METAL FORMING - ROLLING PROCESS

NASEEF ALI
ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF MECHANICAL
MEA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, PERINTHALMANNA
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Metal Forming Rolling Process

ROLLING PROCESS

Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into products. It can be done
by metal casting, forming and shaping processes, material removing processes/machining,
joining processes, powder metallurgy, etc.

Metal Forming is a manufacturing process in which the forces are applied on the
material such that the stresses induced will be greater than yield stress and less than
ultimate stress, so that material can experience permanent plastic deformation to change
shape of the metals to desired shapes.

σ y < σ < σu

Eg: Rolling, Extrusion, Wire drawing, Forging, etc.

Advantages
 No waste of material in metal forming process
 Grain orientation is possible
 faster production process
 The strength and hardness of the material will be improved in some metal forming
process
 Surface finish produced is excellent in some metal forming process
Limitations
 Energy required for producing metal forming process is much higher than other
manufacturing methods
 Complex shaped components can’t be produced
 Only uniform cross section components are produced by all forming processes
except forging
 Surface finish produced will be very poor in some metal forming process

Cold working & Hot working

Metal forming can be done in two different processes - Cold working & Hot working.
If the deformation of component is produced at a temperature less than the
recrystallisation temperature, called cold working.
If the deformation of component is produced at a temperature greater than the
recrystallisation temperature, called hot working.

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Mechanical Working of metals is needed for the following purposes

1. To reduce original block or ingot to the finished dimensions of the part, saving
material machining cost and time.
2. To improve the mechanical properties of the metals.
3. Refinement of grain structure.
4. Removing defects (blow holes etc) from the metal.

Recrystallization:

 Recrystallization Temperature (RCT) is the minimum temperature at which formation

of new grains or crystals has been completed.
 Whenever the behavior of grain is completely changed to new behavior, called new
grain or new crystal.
 When the material is heated, the energy supplied by heating will be absorbed by the
grains. Whenever the threshold energy level crossed, the grains are completely
forgetting their old behavior and showing new behavior is called new crystal
formation and corresponding temperature is called Recrystallization Temperature. On
further heating beyond RCT, energy will be used for increasing the grain size called
grain growth.
 Recrystallization temperature depends up on various factors.
 RCT is different for different material; it is taken as property of material.
 Generally, RCT = 1/3 to 1/2 of melting point
 Lead (Pb) & Tin (Sn) is having RCT less than Room Temperature. Zinc (Zn)
&Cadmium ( Cd) is having RCT nearly equal to RT. Thus these materials at RT are
always considered as hot working only.
 Deforming the Tungsten (W) at 1100 C is still considered as cold working only. (MP
of tungsten is above 3400 C)
 Although recrystallization temperature for steel is 600C, hot working of steel is
carried at 900C to 1100 C.
 During recrystallization, old grain boundaries disappear and small new grains begin to
grow, aligning nearby atoms into their orderly lattice pattern.
 The more severely the material has been worked, the lower is the temperature at
which recrystallization begins. Grain growth is more rapid at higher temperatures.

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 Recrystallization is a process whereby a distorted grain structure of cold worked

metals is replaced by a new, stress-free grain structure as a result of annealing above a
specific minimum temperature for a specific time.

Features of Hot and Cold working operations

 For same amount of deformation to be produced, the force and energy required for
cold working is greater than hot working.
Grain size ↑ => strength & hardness↓ , ductility & toughness ↑
 Oxides or scales may form in hot working due to heating at high temp which causes
poor dimensional accuracy, poor surface finish, etc.
 Handling of component is easier in cold working
 The strength and hardness of cold worked material is higher than original material
because of decrease in grain size. But the ductility and toughness will be lower than
original material.
 From the given materials, which ever material is having the widest plastic
deformation zone, the corresponding material is considered as easy for metal forming.

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 For making a material easy for metal forming, its plastic deformation zon must be
widened. It can be done by,
(i) Increasing the ultimate strength of material.

- σu can be increased by performing cold working. But with cold working, σy also

increases. Therefore length of plastic deformation zone remains same.

(ii) By reducing the yield strength of the material.

- This will be done by heating the material. Here the σu will be reduced by very
small amount, therefore plastic deformation zone increases.
 Flow stress is the stress above which the flow behavior of a solid is like a fluid.
Whenever a material is stressed beyond flow stress, the deformation produced will be
100% permanent.

ROLLING

The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls is known as

’Rolling'. In this process the work is subjected to high compressive stresses from the
squeezing action of rolls and to surface shear stresses as a result of the friction between
the rolls and the metal. Also, the frictional forces help for drawing the metal into the rolls.

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Metal Forming Rolling Process

Rolling is the plastic deformation of materials caused by compressive force

applied through a set of rolls. The cross section of the work piece is reduced by the
process. The material gets squeezed between a pair of rolls, as a result of which the
thickness gets reduced and the length gets increased.

Rolling processes are broadly classified by the geometry of the final rolled shape
of the workpiece material such as flat rolling that is used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross-section, and shape rolling that is used to produce shaped sections such
as I-Beam from a square or rectangular cross-section. Various structural members, plates
and sheets as well as pipes are produced by rolling at very high productivity although due
to high tooling cost, it is economical for large batch size only.

Principle of Rolling

 Rolling basically consists of passing the metal piece through two rolls rotating in
opposite directions. The space between the rolls is adjusted to the desired thickness of
the rolled section.
 The rolls are in contact with passing metal piece over a sufficient distance represented
by the arc AB in the diagram.
 The angle AOB is called Angle of Contact or the Maximum angle of Bite.
 The friction between metal piece and rolls provide sufficient grip for the rolls to move
the metal piece through the rolls.
 The reduction in thickness increases with coefficient of friction.

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 The pressure exerted by over the metal by the rolls varies as represented by the
pressure distribution curve in the diagram.
 The pressure exerted will be minimum at both the extremities and will be maximum at
a point somewhere in the curve.
 The line representing the maximum pressure is called Neutral line or No Slip Line and
the point C is known as Neutral Point or No Slip Point or the Point of Maximum
Pressure. As the Arc of Contact increases, this point tends to move towards the exit
B. Also when this arc of contact becomes so big that the maximum angle of bite AOB
becomes more than two times the angle of friction between the rolls and the work and
hence point C coincides with B and then rolls cannot draw the work through them.
 At the point C the surface of metal and the roll move at the same speed. Before this
point metal moves slower than the rolls. After crossing the rolls metal move at a faster
rate.

Mechanics of flat rolling

Flat rolling: A sheet or block or strip is introduced between rollers and then
compressed and squeezed. Thickness is reduced. The amount of strain (deformation)
introduced determines the hardness, strength and other material properties of the finished
product. It is used to produce sheet metals predominantly.

(a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip
surfaces. (c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls.

Consider the rolling of a strip of initial thickness ho, between a pair of rolls of radius
R. The rolls are rotating in same direction. The strip is reduced in thickness to hf with
width of the strip assumed to remain constant during rolling – because width is much
larger than thickness. Flat rolling is a plane strain compression process.

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Strip rolling process – geometry and parameters

Draft refers to reduction in thickness.

Draft, ∆h = ho-hf

Reduction (r) is the ratio of thickness reduction

R = (ho-hf)/ ho = 1 - hf/ ho (1)

If the change in width of the strip is taken into consideration, we can find the final width
by applying the volume constancy principle.

Volume of material before rolling = Volume after rolling.

That is, hoLowo = hfLfwf (2)

Lo & Lf are the length of the strip before and after rolling respectively.

Flat rolling-terminology:
R – Roll radius Vf - velocity of strip at roll exit
L – Contact arc length N – neutral point
Lp – projected arc length ho – strip initial thickness
hf – strip final thickness α – angle of bite
Vr – velocity of roll Vo – velocity of strip at entrance to roll

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Vf > Vr > Vo

From the diagram above, we note that the velocity of the strip increases from Vo to Vf as
it passes through the rolls. This velocity increase takes place in order to satisfy the
principle of volume constancy of the billet during the deformation process.

i.e. howVo = hfwVf => (Vf/Vo) = (ho/hf) (3)

ho/hf > 1 => Vf > Vo)

w is width of the strip, which is assumed to be constant during rolling. From equation 3
we find that the strip velocity increases during rolling, as it passes between the rolls. At
some section the velocity of rolls and strip velocity are equal. This point is called Neutral
Point. Ahead of neutral point, the strip is trailing behind the rolls. Beyond the neutral
point the strip leads the rolls.
Between the entry point and neutral point, the strip is lagging behind the rollers,
called as lagging zone. Between the neutral point and exit point, the strip is running ahead
of the rollers, called as leading zone.

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Frictional shear stress τ acts tangential to the rolls at any section along the arc of
contact between rolls and strip. However, the direction of τ reverses at the neutral point.
Between the entry section of the roll gap and the neutral section, the direction of friction
is the same as the direction of motion of the strip – into the roll gap. Therefore, the
friction aids in pulling the strip into the rolls in this part of the travel. The direction of
friction reverses after the neutral point, as the velocity of strip is higher than the velocity
of the rolls. Friction force opposes the forward motion of the strip in sections beyond the
neutral section.

Roll pressure and frictional shear stress acting at the roll-work piece interface

However, the magnitude of the friction acting ahead of neutral section is greater
than that beyond the neutral section. Therefore, the net friction is acting along the
direction of the strip movement, thereby aiding the pulling of the strip into the roll gap.

Geometry of roll deformation zone

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The projected arc length (Lp), which is the length of the straight line got by projecting the
arc of contact onto a horizontal line or plane.

From the geometry of the arc of contact, we can get Lp as below:

Lp2 = R2 – (R-∆h)2

Ignoring power of small quantity, ∆h, etc, we get

Lp = √(R ∆h) (5)

Where ∆h is the draft and is ∆h = ho - hf

Δhmax = μ2R (6)

From equation 6 we can conclude that decreasing the roll radius reduces the
maximum achievable reduction in thickness of strip. We can also conclude that higher
coefficient of friction can allow larger thickness of the strip to be drawn into the roll
throat. Longitudinal grooves are made on the roll surface in order to increase friction.
This enables the breakdown of large thickness ingots during hot rolling.

Variation of rolling load with roll dia or strip thickness reduction

Roll Force & Power Required

Roll Force, F is obtained as,

F = σy Lp w

where, Lp – Roll gap or Roll-strip contact length

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w – Width of work piece or Average strip width despite the fact that spreading, or
an increase in width, may actually occur if edger mills are not used

σy – Yield stress of the strip in the roll gap

As we assumes no friction and thus it predicts lower roll force than the actual value
Power required per roll is obtained as, (SI units)

P = 2πFLpN / 60,000 kW

where, F is in Newtons, Lp is in meters, and N is rpm of roll

When the force is acting by the rollers on to the strip in rolling process, equal and
opposite reaction force produced by the strip is acting on to the rollers which is trying to
separate the rollers. Therefore it is called Roll separating force.

Roll Forces that deflect and flatten the rolls can be reduced by,
–Reducing friction
–Using smaller diameter rolls to reduce the contact area
–Taking smaller reductions per pass (also to reduce the contact area)
–Rolling at elevated temperatures to lower the strength of the material
–Apply longitudinal tension to the strip during rolling –back tension on the pay-off reel or
front tension on the take-up reel

Hot Rolling & Cold Rolling

Hot Rolling is usually performed when large amount of deformation is required while
Cold Rolling is performed for finished sheet and plate stock.

Hot Rolling

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 Hot rolling is the process of rolling a metal above its recrystallization temperature.
The first hot working operation for most steel products is done in the blooming mills.
Blooming mills are usually high reversing mills, with forged rolls each weighing up to
20 tones. They are driven by a reversing electric motor of up to 20 MW capacity.
 As a result of squeezing, the grains are elongated in the direction of rolling and after
crossing the stress zone, grains start refining.

Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot
rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals for improved
strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous castings are converted to a
wrought structure by hot working.

Advantages
 Hot rolling brings homogeneity in rolled components.
 Grain refinement gives optimum mechanical properties to the alloy.
 Time taken to produce the component is less compared to cold rolling.

Disadvantages
 Surface oxidation takes place.
 Chance of scale inclusion exists.
 Process is more expensive.
 More care is needed to handle the hot part.

Cold Rolling
 Cold Rolling is a process of rolling metals and alloys below their recrystallization
temperatures. Generally they are worked at room temperatures.
 In Cold Rolling, the grains tend to retain the shape acquired during rolling.

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Advantages
1. Cold rolling is used to produce sheets and strips of fine surface finish and accuracy.
2. Strength of cold rolling will be high because of strain hardening.
3. Close dimensional tolerances can be achieved.
4. Reduced defects.

Disadvantages
1. Internal stresses are induced into the cold worked metal thus making the metal hard
and brittle.
2. Ductility is loosed to great extent.

SL.No Hot Working Cold Working

Metal heated above its Metal heated below its recrystallization
1.
recrystallization temperature. temperature.
Being carried out at recrystallization
temperature, there is no strain No recrystallization leading to strain
2.
hardening.(ie. Recrystallization takes hardening(work hardening).
pace with deformation)
Co-efficient of friction between rolls
3. Lesser.
and work is higher.
Heavy reduction in area can be Heavy reduction in area cannot be
4.
obtained. obtained.
Mechanical properties are improved. Hardness increases. Brittleness increases.
5.
Less decrease in ductility. Ductility decreases.
Blow-holes and other similar defects
6. Excessive cold rolling generates cracks.
are removed.

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7. Roll radius is generally larger. Smaller.

Very thin sections are not obtained.
Thin sections can be obtained. (0.002
8. Hot rolling sheets less than 1.25mm
mm)
is not economical.
Hot Rolling has scale(metal oxide)
9. Oxide free.
on it.
10. Surface finish is not good. Good surface finish.
Used for ferrous and non-ferrous.
Steels, aluminum, copper, brass,
11. Equally applicable.
bronze, etc. used to change ingot to
billets, slabs, sheets etc.
More due to deformation of crystals and
12. Residual Stresses are less.
work hardening effect.

Shapes used in rolling

1. Ingot: It is the initial product obtained by, the casting of molten metal. (600mm x
600mm)
2. Bloom: A bloom is the product of the first breakdown of ingot. It is usually of square
cross section. (150mm x 150mm)usually square/rectangle.
3. Billet: Hot rolling of bloom yields billet. (40 x 40 thickness, 150x 150 width)
4. Slab : Produced by Reducing ingot. (Width 500 -1800mm and thickness 50-300mm).
5. Plate and Sheet : Plate(above 6mm) has more thickness than sheet (less than 6mm).
6. Sheet and Strip : Both sheet and strip has less thickness. But strip has less width
compared to sheet.

Types of Rolling Mills

Rolling mill consists of rolls, bearings to support the rolls, gear box, motor, speed
control devices, hydraulic systems etc. The basic type of rolling mill is two high rolling
mill. In this mill, two opposing rolls are used. The direction of rotation of the rolls can be
changed in case of reversing mills, so that the work can be fed into the rolls from either
direction. Such mills increase the productivity. Non reversing mills have rolls rotating in
same direction. Therefore, the work piece cannot be fed from the other side.

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Rolling power is directly proportional to roll diameter. Smaller dia rolls can
therefore reduce power input. Strength of small diameter rolls are poor. Therefore, rolls
may bend. As a result, larger dia backup rolls are used for supporting the smaller rolls.
Four high rolling mill is one such mill. Thin sections can be rolled using smaller diameter
rolls. Cluster mill and Sendzimir mill are used for rolling thin strips of high strength
materials and foils [0.0025 mm thick]. The work roll in these mills may be as small as 6
mm diameter – made of tungsten carbide. Several rolling mills arranged in succession so
as to increase productivity is called rolling stand.

Rolling mills can be conveniently classified with respect to the number and arrangement
of the rolls as follows:

1. Two High Mill

 This is the simplest and most common type of rolling.
 These are further classified as reversing and non reversing mills.
 In non reversing mills, rolls of equal size are rotated only in one direction.
 In two high reversing mill the work can be passed to and fro through the rolls by
reversing their direction of rotation.

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 The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper roll.
 Used for breaking down of ingots.

2. Three High Mill

 This consists of three rolls of equal size one above the other. In the upper and
lower rolls are power driven, while the middle roll rotates by friction.
 The direction of upper and lower rolls is the same.
 Used for the production of steel shapes such as I-beams, angles, channels etc.

3. Four High Mill

 This consists of two small diameter working rolls and two large diameter backup
rolls placed one above the other.

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 The larger diameter called as Backup rolls and its function is to prevent the
deflection of small rolls.
 The smaller rolls are called as Working rolls.
 Less power needed as less friction due to less contact area.
 Generally used for sheet rolling.
 For rolling special sections, rolls are designed so as to obtain the desired section.
 Used for slab production.

4. Cluster Mill

 Each of the work rolls (which are Power driven) are supported by two backing
rolls.
 Used for the production of thin sheet.

5. Planetary Mill

Planetary mill has a pair of large heavy rolls, surrounded by a number of smaller
rolls around their circumference. In this mill, a slab can be reduced to strip directly in
one pass. Feeder rolls may be needed in order to feed the work piece into the rolls.

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6. Tandem Mill

 In this, a series of rolling mills are after the other, to facilitate high production
each stand.
 Each set of rolls is called stand.
 Since different reduction takes place at each stand, the strip will be moving at
different velocities.

Defects in Rolled Products

1. In hot rolling scaling may take place.
2. Surface cracks may occur if strain hardening is excessive.
3. Non-uniform thickness may be produced if the camber and roll pressure are not
matched.

Causes
1. Defects due to Roll Gap: To produce a flat and even component, the roll gap should
be perfectly parallel.
2. Defects due to in homogeneities in deformation :
3. Defects due to Defective ingots.

The defects in rolling can be classified as (a) surface defects, and (b) structural
defects. The surface defects include rusting and scaling, scratches and cracks on the
surface, pits left on the surface due to subsequent detachment or removal of scales. The
structural defects are more important rolling defects some of which are difficult to
remove. Some common structural defects in rolling are Edge cracks, centre split, Wavy
edges, zipper cracks, Alligatoring, etc.

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Roll deflection and roll flattening

Deflection of rolls is a major issue in rolling. If perfectly cylindrical rolls are used,
they will bend under load which results in a barrel shaped product. To overcome this
problem, the rolls are designed with crowns to compensate the deflection in the rolled
plates.

(a) Bending of straight cylindrical rolls caused by roll forces. (b) Bending of rolls ground
with camber, producing a strip with uniform thickness through the strip width.
Deflections have been exaggerated for clarity.

Due to roll force, the rolls are subjected to deflection and they bend resulting in
larger thickness at the centre of the rolled sheet and the edge being thinner. This defect is
known as crown and camber. In order to avoid this rolls are given a slight curvature on
surface by grinding so that the centre of the rolls has higher diameter than the edges. This
is called cambering of rolls. The bulged rolls, when subjected to bending during rolling
will produce flat sheets. For sheet rolling, normally camber of 0.5 mm on roll diameter is
provided. Also during hot rolling, rolls get heated up and bulge out at the center, causing
camber of the rolls. This is due to temperature variation between edges and the center of
rolls. Roll camber has to be varied during rolling in order to take care of roll camber due
to both thermal effects and roll deflection. This also avoids uneven roll wear – rolls wear
more at edges than at center.

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Effect of roll deflection

Roll camber can be varied by [1] bending the work rolls by applying external
force. [2] Shifting of work rolls laterally with respect to centerline of the strip, [3] using
shaped rolls – rolls with profiles, [4] Rotation of the axis of the work roll with respect to
axis of backup roll in horizontal plane – results in deflection of work roll ends, producing
camber. Roll flattening: There is increase in radius of curvature of rolls due to the roll
pressure which causes elastic deformation of rolls. This is known as roll flattening. Roll
flattening leads to increase in contact length and hence an increase in roll force.

Rolling defects:

Mill spring is a defect in which the rolled sheet is thicker than the required
thickness because, the rolls get deflected by high rolling forces. Elastic deformation of the
mill takes place. If we use stiffer rolls, namely roll material of high stiffness or elastic
constant, we could avoid mill spring. Normally elastic constant for mills may range from
1 to 4 GNm-1.

Roll elastic deformation may result in uneven sheet thickness across. Roll material
should have high elastic modulus for reducing the roll deformation. For producing very
thin gage sheets like foils, small diameter rolls are used. They are supported with larger
rolls. We can say the minimum thickness of rolled sheets achieved is directly proportional

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to roll radius, friction, flow stress. Flatness of rolled sheets depends on the roll deflection.
Sheets become wavy as roll deflection occurs.

Wavy edges and zipper cracks

These defects are caused due to bending of rolls under the rolling pressure. If rolls
are elastically deflected, the rolled sheets become thin along the edge, whereas at centre,
the thickness is higher. Similarly, deflected rolls result in longer edges than the centre.
Edges of the sheet elongate more than the centre.

Wavy edge Zipper cracks

Due to continuity of the sheet, we could say that the centre is subjected to tension,
while edges are subjected to compression. This leads to waviness along edges. Along the
centre zipper cracks occur due to high tensile stress there.

Cambering of rolls can prevent such defects. However, one camber works out
only for a particular roll force. In order to correct roll deflection for a range of rolling
conditions, hydraulic jacks are used, which control the elastic deformation of rolls
according to requirement.

Edge cracks and centre split

These defects are caused due to non-homogeneous plastic deformation of metal
across the width.

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Centre crack Edge cracks

If rolls have excess convexity then the center of the sheet metal will have more
elongation than the edges. This leads to a defect called centre buckle.

Edge defect due to heavy reduction

Small thickness sheets are more sensitive to roll gap defects leading to greater
defects. Thin strips are more likely to undergo waviness or buckling. These defects are
corrected by doing roller leveling or stretch leveling under tension. Stretch leveling is
carried out between roller leveler rolls.
During rolling the sheet will have a tendency to deform in lateral direction.
Friction is high at the centre. Therefore, spread is the least at the centre. This leads to
rounding of ends of the sheet. The edges of the sheet are subjected to tensile deformation.
This leads to edge cracks. If the center of the sheet is severely restrained and subjected to
excess tensile stress, center split may happen. Non-homogeneous material deformation
across the thickness leads to high secondary tensile stress along edge. This leads to edge
cracks. Secondary tensile stresses are due to bulging of free surface. Edge cracks can be
avoided by using edge rolls.

Alligatoring
Due to friction present between the roll surface and the upper or lower workpiece
surface, the elongation on the top and bottom surfaces is less than the deforming material
at the centre of thickness. If conditions become severe, it may lead to opening up at the
free end of the rolled sheet (like the mouth of an alligator) that is referred to alligatoring.

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It is due to non homogeneous flow of material across the thickness of the sheet.
This is due to the fact that the surface is subjected to tensile deformation and centre to
compressive deformation. This is because greater spread of material occurs at center.

Folds
This defect is encountered when the reduction per pass is very low.

Laminations
Laminations mean layers. If the ingot is not sound and has a piping or blow holes
and during rolling they do not get completely welded it will cause a defect called
laminations.

Possible effects when rolling with insufficient camber

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- Thicker centre means the edges would be plastically elongated more than the
centre, normally called long edges.
- This induces the residual stress pattern of compression at the edges and tension
along the centreline (fig. b).
- This can cause centreline cracking (c), warping (d) or edge wrinkling or crepe-
paper effect or wavy edge (e).

Possible effects when rolls are over-cambered

- Thicker edges than the centre means the centre would be plastically elongated
more than the edges, resulting in lateral spread.
- The residual stress pattern is now under compression in the centreline and tension
at the edges (b).
- This may cause edge cracking (c), centre splitting (d) and centreline wrinkling (e).

Mild shape problems may be corrected by stretch levelling the sheet in tension or by
bend flexing the sheet in a roller-leveller.

(a) A method of roller leveling to flatten rolled sheets. (b) Roller leveling to straighten
drawn bars.

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Edging
Edging can also be caused by inhomogeneous deformation in the thickness
direction.

If only the surface of the workpiece is deformed (as in a light reduction on a thick
slab), the edges are concaved (a). The overhanging material is not compressed in the
subsequent step of rolling, causing this area under tensile stress and leading to edge
cracking. With heavy reduction, the centre tends to expand more laterally than the surface
to produced barrelled edges (b). This causes secondary tensile stresses by barrelling,
which are susceptible to edge cracking.
Alligatoring (c) will occur when lateral spread is greater in the centre than the surface
(surface in tension, centre in compression) and with the presence of metallurgical
weakness along the centreline.

Surface defects are more easily found in rolling due to high surface to volume
ratio. Grinding, chipping or descaling of defects on the surface of cast ingots or billets are
recommended before being rolled.
Laps - due to misplace of rolls can cause undesired shapes.

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Flakes or cooling cracks - along edges result in decreased ductility in hot rolling such as
blooming of extra coarse grained ingot.
Scratches - due to tooling and handling.
Variation in thickness - due to deflection of rolls or rolling speed.

A special type of cold rolling in which flat slap is progressively bent into complex shapes
by passing it through a series of driven rolls

Residual stress in rolling

Compressive stress is induced on the surface of rolled product if small diameter

rolls are used or if smaller reductions are affected during rolling. Stress in the bulk of the
strip is tensile in the above case. Larger reductions or rolling using large diameter rolls
leads to tensile stress on the skin and compressive stress in the bulk of the metal. Stress
relieving operation can be used to relieve the residual stresses of rolled products.

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Special rolling processes

Bulk deformation processes such as shape rolling, thread rolling, roll piercing, ring
rolling also use pair of rolls. Some of such important processes are discussed briefly
below:

Thread rolling

Threads on cylindrical work pieces can be cold formed using a pair of flat dies or
cylindrical rolls under reciprocating or rotary motion. Screws, bolts and other externally
threaded fasteners are produced by thread rolling.

Thread rolling is a high productivity process involving no loss of material. Due to

grain flow in thread rolling strength is increased. Surface finish of rolled threads is very
good. Gears can also be produced by the thread rolling process. Compressive stresses
introduced during the process are favourable for fatigue applications. Auto power
transmission gears are made by thread rolling.

Thread-rolling processes: (a) and (b) reciprocating flat dies; (c) two-roller dies

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(a) Features of a machined or rolled thread. Grain flow in (b) machined and (c) rolled
threads. Unlike machining, which cuts through the grains of the metal, the rolling of
threads imparts improved strength because of cold Working and favorable grain flow.

The thread-rolling process has the advantages of generating threads with good
strength (due to cold working) and without any loss of material (scrap). The surface finish
produced is very smooth, and the process induces compressive residual stresses on the
workpiece surfaces, thus improving fatigue life. Thread rolling is superior to other
methods of thread manufacture, because machining the threads cuts through the grain-
flow lines of the material, whereas rolling the threads results in a grain-flow pattern that
improves the strength of the thread.

Ring rolling

Smaller diameter, thicker ring can be enlarged to larger diameter, thinner section
by ring rolling. In this process, two circular rolls, one of which is idler roll and the other
is driven roll are used. A pair of edging rollers is used for maintaining the height constant.
The ring is rotated and the rings are moved closer to each other, thereby reducing the
thickness of ring and increasing its diameter. Rings of different cross-sections can be
produced. The major merits of this process are high productivity, material saving,
dimensional accuracy and grain flow which is advantageous.

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Ring rolling process

(a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction results in an

increase in the part diameter. (b) through (d) Examples of cross sections that can be
formed by ring rolling.

Note that the thickness of rings also can be reduced by an open-die forging
process; however, dimensional control and surface finish will not be as good as in ring
rolling.

Typical applications of ring rolling are large rings for rockets and turbines, jet
engine cases, gearwheel rims, ball-bearing and roller-bearing races, flanges, and
reinforcing rings for pipes. The process can be carried out at room temperature or at an
elevated temperature, depending on the size (which can be up to 3 m, in diameter),
strength, and ductility of the workpiece material. Compared with other manufacturing
processes capable of producing the same part, the advantages of ring rolling are short
production times, material savings, close dimensional tolerances, and favorable grain
flow in the product, thus enhancing its strength in the desired direction.

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Production of Pipes and Tubes

1. Seamless Pipes (Tube Rolling or Roll Piercing)

 Heated billet is pierced using a punch to create a hole of predetermined depth

(operation called Punch Piercing).
 A mandrel is placed inside the workpiece and is placed between conical shaped
roller dies and is rolled.
 Diameter of the mandrel controls the inner diameter of the tube to be produced.

Tube Rolling
The diameter and thickness of pipes and tubing can be reduced by tube rolling,
which utilizes shaped rolls (Fig. below). Some of these operations can be carried out
either with or without an internal mandrel.

Schematic illustration of various tube-rolling processes: (a) with a fixed mandrel; (b)
with a floating mandrel; (c) Without a mandrel; and (d) pilger rolling over a mandrel and
a pair of shaped rolls. Tube diameters and thicknesses also can be changed by other
processes, such as drawing, extrusion, and spinning.

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In the pilger mill, the tube and an internal mandrel undergo a reciprocating
motion; the rolls are specially shaped and are rotated continuously. During the gap cycle
on the roll, the tube is advanced and rotated, starting another cycle of tube reduction. As a
result, the tube undergoes a reduction in both diameter and Wall thickness.

Diagrammatic illustration of the four main tube drawing processes

Tube piercing

Rotary tube piercing is used for producing long thick walled tubes. Cavity forms
at the center due to tensile stress, in a round rod when subjected to external compressive
stress – especially cyclic compressive stress.

Cavity formation in a solid, round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing
process for making seamless pipe and tubing.

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The Mannesmann process makes use of a tube piercing in rotary mode. A pair of
skewed rolls are used for drawing the work piece inside the rolls. The roll axes are
oriented at 6 degrees with reference to axis of work piece. A mandrel is used for
expanding the central hole, and sizing the inner diameter. Pilger mill uses reciprocating
motion of both work and mandrel to produce tubes. Work is periodically rotated
additionally.

The piercing process as performed on a Mannesmann cross roll piercing mill

2. Fabricated Pipes

Lap Welded pipe is made from a heated flat strip. Edges of the strip are beveled.
This strip is called as Skelp. Skelp is rolled in to give a cylindrical shape to it. After being
reheated, the bent skelp is passed between two grooved rolls. A mandrel used control the
inner diameter of the tube. The edges are lap-welded by pressure between rolls and the
mandrel. As the heated metal edges are pressed together, the ends upset slightly. This
excess metal is trimmed off. Lap welded pipe is made in sizes 2 to 16 inches in diameter.

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Lap Welded Pipe

Butt Welded Pipe is also made from a heated flat strip. Edges are beveled.
Heated skelp is then pulled thorough a welding bell which forms it into a round shape and
simultaneously the edges are pressed together to complete the cylindrical shape. The
welded pipe is then passed through sizing rolls to correct it to the correct diameter.

Open seam tube by high frequency conduction welding

1- Open seam tube; 2- welding gap entry angle; 3 & 3’ – sliding contacts; 4- welding
generator; 5- squeeze rolls; 6- welding point; 7- weld

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Open seam tube by high frequency induction welding

1- Open seam tube; 2- welding gap entry angle; 3 induction coil; 4- welding generator;
5- squeeze rolls; 6- welding point; 7- weld

Shape rolling

Steps in the shape rolling of an I-beam part. Various other structural sections, such as
channels and rails, also are rolled by this kind of process.

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Metal Forming Rolling Process

Structural sections such as I-sections, L-beams, U-channels, rails, channels can be

rolled using set of shaped rolls. Blooms are usually taken as raw materials for shape
rolling. Multiple steps are required in shape rolling.

A variety of sections can be produced by roll forming process using a series of

forming rollers in a continuous method to roll the metal sheet to a specific shape.

A variety of rolled sections

The application of these various sections produced by rolling include construction

materials, partition beam, ceiling panel, roofing panels, steel pipe, automotive parts,
household appliances, metal furniture, door and window frames, etc.

Roll Pass Design

 An ingot or bloom need to be passed many times between different rolls before it is
shaped into flat, round or section.
 Plates, sheets and strips are produced by rolling between smooth, cylindrical rolls.
 Bars, rods and sections are produced by passing the work between rolls having
grooves cut in them.
 The shape formed when the grooves of mating rolls are matched together is called the
Pass.

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 Dotted lines in the figure show the previous shape of the stock.
 After being shaped in one pass, the stock is turned 90 about its axis before being
entered into next pass.

1. Roughening Pass
Roughening Pass reduce the cross section of the stock.
a) Box Pass: Used in Blooming Mills.
b) Diamond - diamond Pass :
c) Diamond Square Pass
d) Oval – Square Pass

2. Leader Pass
Leader Pass serves to bring the cross-section of the stock to the final shape.

3. Finishing Pass
Finishing Pass imparts final shape to the product.

Rolling of Rounds, Flats and Sections

Operational Steps
 Surface scales and other defects are removed.
 Metal is heated.
 Material is rolled.

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Rolling of Square Sections

Rolling of Flats, Angle Section, I-Beams, Channels

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Rolling of Rounds

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Additional Figures
Steel Wheel Rim Manufacturing Process

1. Low Carbon Steel Strip 2. Rim band feeding 3. Deburring for both sides
4. Stamping mark 5. Rim band coiling 6. Flattening weld joint
7. AC flash butt welding 8. Trimming welding slag 9. Planishing
10. End cutting 11. Cooling 12. Rerounding
13. Initial flaring 14. 1st roll forming 15. 2nd roll forming
16. 3rd roll forming 17. 4th roll forming for non skid pattern
18. Edge flanging 19. Final expanding 20. Valve hole punching
21. Press disc into rim 22. Combined welding for rim and disc
23. Bolting rim and disc

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Rolling operations of axles

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Schematic set-up of flat rolling process.

V0 and Vf refer to the initial and the final velocities of the sheet, respectively. t0 and tf are
the initial and the final thickness of the sheet material.

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(a) A method of roller leveling to flatten rolled sheets. (b) Roller leveling to straighten
drawn bars.

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(a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction results in

an increase in the part diameter. (b) Examples of cross-sections that can be
formed by ring rolling

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Thread rolling with flat dies

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Cavity formation in a solid round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing
process for making seamless pipe and tubing. (The Mannesmann mill was developed in
the 1880s.)

Mannesmann Mill

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Steps in the shape rolling of an I-beam part. Various other structural sections, such as
channels and rails, also are rolled by this kind of process.

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