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CIENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT . August 2021
Vol. 25 (8) 1505-1512
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Assessment of the Physicochemical Parameters of Bodo Creek, Rivers State, Nigeria: A
Pre-spill, Post-spill and Post-clean-up Review
*1NKEEH, DK; 2HART, AI; 3ERONDU, ES; 3ZABBEY, N
*1
Department of Environmental Technology and Management, World Bank Africa Centre of Excellence, Centre for Oilfield Chemicals
Research, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, P.M.B.5323, Rivers State, Nigeria.
2
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, P.M.B.5323, Rivers State,
Nigeria.
3
Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, P.M.B.5323, Rivers State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author Email: kootedumbari@gmail.com

ABSTRACT: Water bodies are a source of ecosystem services such as water supply, production, recreation, and
aesthetics. In 2008, two major oil spills took place in Bodo creek. A major challenge with the assessment and monitoring
of an environment is the lack of baseline data. However, Bodo Creek has been studied extensively. This paper, therefore,
reviews pre-spill, post-spill, and post-clean-up studies on physicochemical parameters in Bodo Creek. This paper revealed
that the difference in the levels of the physicochemical parameters including pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and temperature in Bodo Creek, before and after the oil spill was not statistically
significant (P > 0.05); other physicochemical parameters examined in this paper are alkalinity, total hardness, chemical
oxygen demand (COD) and total dissolved solids (TDS). This paper also revealed that pH and temperature were higher
in the post-cleanup study, while DO and conductivity were higher in the pre-cleanup study. BOD was significantly higher
in the post-spill study than the pre-spill study, indicating a high level of pollution as a result of the oil spill. This review
also shows that there are higher pH and temperature levels in post-clean-up studies than the pre-cleanup studies. Pre-
clean-up DO and conductivity were higher than the levels in the post-clean-up study.

DOI:https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v25i8.34

Copyright: Copyright © 2021 Nkeeh et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CCL), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

Dates: Received: 10 May 2021; Revised: 28 June 2021; Accepted: 01 July 2021

Keywords: Water quality, pre-spill, post-spill, Bodo Creek, and Physico-chemical

Water is a basic life-supporting system for the ecological parameters of the two components,
survival, growth, and reproduction of aquatic depending on the surrounding ambient conditions.
organisms. Water also serves as a means by which According to Onwugbuta-Enyi et al. (2008),
fishing boats or fishing trawls are moved from one Physicochemical and biological factors determine the
point to the other, for small-scale fish farmers and quality of any given water body, as there is an
industrial fishers respectively. According to Awah interactional relationship between these factors and
(2008), water is a basic component of the changing with an intrinsic parameter of each variable to highly
aquatic life-supporting system for the dissolution or determine the water quality characteristics. Water
suspension of organic and inorganic substances and quality affects the composition of species, distribution,
supports the existence of an interactional relationship and assemblages of plankton, benthos, and fish. Water
between wide varieties of organisms. According to a body pollution in the developing countries has reached
study by Onwugbuta-Enyi et al. (2008), water bodies an alarming state, Nigeria inclusive. There are several
are a source of ecosystem services, for example, water works of literature for Physico-chemical parameters of
supply, production, recreation, and aesthetics; the surface water in Nigeria (Vincent et al., 2020).
availability of water inadequate quality and quantity According to Vincent-Akpu and Nwachukwu (2016),
contributes to health maintenance,human activities water bodies have been exposed to different forms of
deteriorate surface water. Zabbey and Arimoro (2017) degradation as a result of pollution coming from
identified hydrology, Physico-chemical parameters, domestic waste, industrial activities; runoffs from
and biological communities as the three basic agriculture and transportation activities.They further
components of water quality studies. According to stressed that recently, transportation activities have
their report, sediment and interstitial water been associated with increasing levels of
environmental quality are linked mutually to the environmental impact.Their study also revealed that
changing conditions of the overlying water column, using waterways for inland navigation may be a source
due to bottom-up and top-down fluxes between the of threat to aquatic organisms and can have significant
*Corresponding Author Email: kootedumbari@gmail.com
Assessment of the Physicochemical Parameters of Bodo Creek….. 1506

impacts on the water bodies.The impact includes the According to a study by Sibe et al. (2019), artisanal
change in hydrological conditions; water quality refining is used to describe the illegitimate distillation
deterioration and as a source of pollutant emission. of crude oil in locally constructed stills. This activity
They also reported that there is an increase in the has greatly heightened the level of environmental
demand for water transport; resulting in chemical pollution and degradation as a result of oil exploration
substances (especially oil) spills from ships, the and exploitation. The study further stated that artisanal
release of nutrient overload, and invasion by species refinery is usually cited on the coastline of creeks,
representing an important aspect of water quality. lakes, seas, e.t.c., thus destroying the biodiversity and
Some of the wastes from water transportation are leading to ecological imbalance. Also, in Bodo West,
sewage, gray and bilge water, gas emissions, solid and in Bonny LGA, an increase in artisanal refining
hazardous waste, with metals, mineral oil and between 2007 and 2011 has been accompanied by 10
lubricants, and organic substances as main percent of healthy mangrove cover, or
constituents. 307,381m2.According to Sibe et al. (2019), crude oil
is released into the sea, creeks, during bunkering,
Bodo is a coastal community located in Gokana Local transportation of the crude to site, and during the
Government Area, Ogoni in Rivers State, Niger Delta, refining process. Bunkered oil is transported by canoe
Nigeria. Other Local Government Areas that make up which mostly has leakages that allow for seepages into
Ogoni are Khana, Tai, and Eleme. Politically, Bodo the river. Their study, however, reported that the main
community is in the southeast Senatorial District of source of hydrocarbon contamination from artisanal
Rivers State. Bodo is a rural community occupying refining is accidental disposal of crude oil, refined
(latitude 4836'N, longitude 7821'E) in the upper fractions, and indiscriminate storage of the heavy and
reaches of the Andoni-Bonny estuarine ecosystem. bottom fractions of the petroleum refining process.
Mangrove swamps, some island forests, and brackish Heavier fractions such as bitumen and lubricating oil
water creeks occupy over 65% of the community. This cannot be processed by the refinery facilities.
is generally called Bodo Creek. Every day, the creeks Therefore, they are usually stored or disposed of in pits
in Bodo are exposed and submerged due to the around the refining sites. According to Attah (2012),
influence of the low and high tide, respectively. The the process is highly inefficient that most likely as
community is divided into 35 villages under the much as 80 percent of the bottom fractions of the crude
leadership of a monarch king and his council of chiefs oil cannot be refined and are therefore discharged
(Onwugbuta-Enyi et al., 2008). indiscriminately into the environment; which are
eventually washed into the sea, river or lake when the
Crude Oil Exploration and Exploitation, Oil Spill and tide is high and are deposited at the foreshore and
Its Effects on Water Quality:For over 5 decades, the seabed (Sibe et al., 2019).The Niger Delta over the
exploration and exploitation of crude oil have been the years has experienced several oil spill incidents.
major contributor to the economy of Nigeria. There is According to Dan-Kalio and Braide (2002), there
a significant oil reserve and natural gas, estimated at could be disastrous consequences following oil
37.4 billion barrels (OPEC, 2017) and 192 trillion pollution and Nigeria has experienced some disasters
standard cubic feet, respectively, in the Niger Delta from oil blowouts in addition to oil pollution from
region, which produces the oil. Crude oil in other sources. This includes blowouts and pipeline
marketable quantity was first discovered in Oloibiri, leakages from the Shell-Bp Bomu 11 in 1970, the
Bayelsa State, Nigeria in the year 1956 (NDDC, 2001; Safran (now Elf) Obagi 21 blowout of 1972, the
Okonta, 2008). Twenty years later (1958), crude oil Texaco blowout of 1980, and the AgipOyakama
was discovered in second commercial quantity at the pipeline leakage of 1980, have all led to disastrous
oil field in Bomu, Ogoni, Rivers State. The later impacts on land, freshwater swamps, and the marine
discovery of oil made a significant contribution to the environment. Globally, there have been recorded
first export of oil from Nigeria to other countries. This incidents of major oil spills. This ranges from the
was later expanded to fifty-seven oil wells, having five World's largest known oil spill known as the Persian
flow stations in Ogoni. There is a flow station called Gulf War Oil Spill in 1991, to BP's Deepwater
Bodo West field located in Bodo Creek mangrove Horizon oil spill in 2010. Other major oil spills
mainland, Ogoni (UNEP, 2011; Linden and Palsson, include; the Ixtoc 1 Oil Spill (1979), the Atlantic
2013; Zabbey and Uyi, 2014). In 2008, two major oil Empress Oil Spill (1979) and the Mingbulak (or
spills occurred in Bodo Creek (Nkeeh et al., 2021). Fergana Valley) Oil Spill (1992), the Kolva River Spill
Although two major oil spills resulted from the (1994), the Incidents at the Nowruz Oil Field, the
activity of oil multinationals in Bodo Creek in 2008, Castillo de Bellver Oil Spill (1983) and the Amoco
oil spill from artisanal refining of crude oil is also a Cadiz Oil Spill (1978) (EBI, 2021). Oil spills have a
major challenge impacting negatively on Bodo Creek. potential negative impact on the stability of freshwater
NKEEH, DK; HART, AI; ERONDU, ES; ZABBEY, N
Assessment of the Physicochemical Parameters of Bodo Creek….. 1507

and marine ecosystems, having been reported to chemical parameters in surface water of Elelenwo
impact negatively on near-shore biodiversity (Smeltz River, Rivers State, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Their study
et al. 2017) and functioning (Kotta et al. 2007; Venosa observed that the levels of conductivity and turbidity
and Zhu 2005). In the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, were above the limit recommended for domestic water
reputed as the Nation's oil and gas region, there is the by WHO. The study however noted that other
frequent occurrence of oil spills and the impacts variables including TSS, TDS, temperature, pH, and
persist as a result of the poor management regimes for salinity were within acceptable limits. Etim et al.
clean-up and remediation (UNEP 2011; Sam et al. (2013) reported the water quality index for the
2017a). Studies have shown that contamination assessment of water quality from different sources in
resulting from oil spill incidents have the potential to the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Their report
alter the hydrology, disrupt plant-water relation, revealed that all the borehole and pipe-borne water
reduce the exchange of oxygen, lead to growth samples analyzed are fit, potable, and can be used for
inhibition and reduction in fish production, and other domestic purposes. The stream water samples
interfere with the ecological food chain and web (Ko were found unfit and thus not potable, going by the
and Day 2004; Nwipie et al., 2019). water quality index standard applied in the study.

Global Overview of Physicochemical Parameters of Assessment of the Physicochemical Parameters of

Water: In a study on the evaluation of Physico- Bodo Creek, Pre-Spill, and Post-Spill: Traditionally,
chemical parameters of Manchar Lake water, Bodo Creek is a strong livelihood support base for the
Pakistan, and their comparison with other global people of the area and even beyond. The creek is used
published values by Arain et al. (2008), they for fishing and subsistent agriculture, transportation,
concluded that the water samples of the study area are cassava fermentation, production of fuel wood, and
polluted; they attributed this to wastewater coming disposal of domestic waste. Also, the quietness around
from agricultural land as well as domestic wastes of the mangrove-sheltered waterfronts provides the
Urban areas. The correlation study on Physico- necessary haven to relax and for solitude. Moreover,
chemical parameters and quality assessment of Kosi mangrove canopy and moveable spaces under the
River Water, Uttarakhand, India, revealed that all the shade are a source of benign defecation environment
measured physico-chemistry of the study area are for the locals (Onwugbuta-Enyi et al., 2008).
within the WHO maximum permissible limit. The According to Zabbey and Hart (2014) the bulk of
only exemptions were turbidity and BOD (Bhandari periwinkle, Tympanotonus fuscatus that are sold in the
and Nayal, 2008). According to Simpi et al. (2011), in markets of Bodo, Bori, and Onne communities come
the analysis of water quality using Physico-chemical from Bodo Creek.They also reported that some
parameters of Hosahali Tank in Shimoga District, industrial development such as an uncompleted 500
Karnataka, India, stated that all measured Physico- hectares fish farm owned by the Niger Delta Basin
chemical parameters were within the permissible Development Authority (NDBDA) and Bodo West
limits. Gereyohannes et al. (2015) in the investigation Oilfield is supported by the Creek.Their study further
of Physico-chemical parameters and its pollution revealed that the interaction of environmental factors
implications of Ella River, Mekelle, Tigray, Ethiopia structures biological communities. Also, biotic and
reported that throughout the river, there was pollution abiotic variables influence one another, mostly in
generally. Their study further stated that the pollution complicated fashions that cannot be easily explained.
poses a danger to aquatic lives, the river as well as A major challenge facing the assessment and
those who use it for domestic applications and other monitoring of fluvial systems and wetland restoration
activities. According to Mezegbe et al. (2015) in the is the paucity of pre-impact data. How biotic
assessment of physico-chemical parameters of components recover is linked directly to improvement
TsaedaAgam River in Mekelle City, Tigray, Ethiopia in Physico-chemical variables of the focal catchment
stated that most of the Physico-chemical parameters (Zabbey and Arimoro, 2017). However, several
exceeded the WHO permissible limit for drinking studies have been carried out in Bodo Creek to assess
water. The study however noted that the water can be Physico-chemical parameters pre-spill (Onwugbuta-
used for irrigation because most of the parameters are Enyi et al., 2008; Zabbey and Arimoro, 2017; Zabbey,
within the FAO permissible limit. Adeyemo et al. 2012) and post-spill (Vincent-Akpu et al., 2015;
(2008) evaluated the seasonal changes in Physico- Eludoyin et al., 2018;Nwipie et al., 2019). From figure
chemical parameters and nutrient load of river 1, there was a decrease in mean dissolved oxygen
sediments in Ibadan City, Nigeria. They reported that (DO) and an increase in mean biological oxygen
the Physico-chemical quality of water in the study area demand (BOD) post-spill. After the oil spill, there was
was deteriorating at an alarming rate. Edori et al. a marginal increase in mean pH. There was a decrease
(2020) evaluated the variation of some Physico- in mean salinity and mean temperature after the oil
NKEEH, DK; HART, AI; ERONDU, ES; ZABBEY, N
Assessment of the Physicochemical Parameters of Bodo Creek….. 1508

spill.To compare the pre-spill and post-spill levels of Creek, the average values of these parameters in tables
pH, salinity, DO, BOD, and temperature in Bodo 1 and 2 were subjected to a t-test in SPSS version 23.

Table 1: Pre-spill Physicochemical parameters of Bodo Creek

Reference and data collection date Parameter Range
Onwugbuta-Enyi et al. (2008) Temperature 26.7-30.1oC
December 2005-July, 2006 pH 6.5-8.6
Salinity 11.6-16.1
DO 4.6-11.8mg/L
Zabbey (2012) Temperature 25-34oC
May, 2006-April, 2008 pH 6.64-8.10
Salinity 5-28psu
DO 0-7.60mg/L
Zabbey and Arimoro (2017) Temperature 25.3-34oC
pH 6.6-8.6
BOD5 10.89-14.64mg/L
Alkalinity Lowest (7.46mg/L)

Table 2: post-spill physicochemical parameters of Bodo Creek

Reference and data collection date Parameters Range
Vincent-Akpu et al. (2015) Temperature 26.7-27.8oC
September 2011-January, 2012 pH 8.8-8.9
DO 4.7-5.5mg/L
BOD 13-19mg/L
COD 24-44mg/L
Salinity 2580-16200mg/L
TDS 3070-188000mg/L
Conductivity 195-287ms/cm
Total hardness 151-453mg/L
Eludoyin et al. (2018) Salinity 8.12-15.31ppt
December 2017 DO 1.50-3.31mg/L
Nwipie et al. (2019) pH 5.9-8.6
September 2015-February, 2016 Temperature 27.0-31.2oC
DO 1.1-4.5mg/L
Conductivity 10.0-27.5ms/cm
TDS 2.0-18.4ppt
BOD 8.0-51.2mg/L

Table 3: Mean and standard error of the mean (SEM) for pre-spill and post-spill Physico-chemical parameters in Bodo Creek
Parameter Pre-spill (Mean±SEM) Post-spill (Mean±SEM) P-Value
pH 8.60±0.00 8.75±0.15 0.423
Salinity 22.05±5.95 15.76±0.45 0.402
DO 9.70±2.10 4.41±1.10 0.155
BOD 11.42±3.22 35.10±16.10 0.286
Temperature 32.05±1.95 29.50±1.70 0.428

Table 3 shows the result of the statistical analysis. physicochemical parameters shows no statistically
From table 3, the difference in pH between the pre- significant difference (P > 0.05).
spill study and post-spill study was not statistically
significant (P > 0.05 = 0.423). The difference in Pre-Spill Study: Before the two major oil spills in
salinity between the pre-spill study and post-spill Bodo Creek in 2008, several studies were carried out
study was not statistically significant (P > 0.05 in the creek to investigate the water quality of the
=0.402). There was no statistically significant creek. This review examines three of the pre-spill
difference in DO (P > 0.05 =0.155) between pre-spill studies on the physico-chemical parameters of the
and post-spill studies. There was no statistically creek.
significant difference in BOD (P > 0.05 =0.286) Case study 1:Onwugbuta-Enyi et al. (2008)
between pre-spill and post-spill studies. The difference investigated the water quality of Bodo Creek in the
in temperature between the pre-spill and the post-spill Lower Niger Delta Basin. The study revealed that
study was not statistically significant (P > 0.05 significant variations (P<0.05) in temperature
=0.428). Figure 1 shows that BOD was significantly occurred across the sampled months, with a peak in
higher after the oil spill. This higher level of BOD is a February; higher pH values were recorded in the wet
result of the pollution from the oil spill. From figure 2, months compared to the dry months. The study also
a comparison of all the pre-spill and post-spill reported a peak in salinity and BOD in February and

NKEEH, DK; HART, AI; ERONDU, ES; ZABBEY, N

Assessment of the Physicochemical Parameters of Bodo Creek….. 1509

July respectively. Variations in dissolved oxygen

(DO) between months were significant (p<0.05). Case study 3: A study of the spatial and temporal
Case study 2:In a study on the environmental forcing variability in interstitial water quality of soft-bottom
of intertidal benthic macrofauna of Bodo Creek by flats at Bodo Creek was conducted by Zabbey (2012).
Zabbey and Arimoro (2017), they reported that the From the study, mean temperatures varied
monthly mean temperature varied significantly, with significantly between months, with a peak and least
the highest mean value in March and least value in value in March and August respectively. Mean pH
August. From the study, hydrogen ion concentration, value was least in November, highest in December,
pH, lowest values were recorded in September and and was similar in the wet and dry seasons. Salinity
November, while it peaked in June and December. The was highest in March and least in September. The dry
monthly mean salinity was highest in March, while the season had significantly higher mean salinity. DO was
least mean values were reported in September and highest in September.
August. Conductivity decreased from May to
November, at which time it was least, and started to Post-Spill Study: After the 2008 devastation of Bodo
increase in December with a peak in April. Monthly Creek by two major oil-spills, scientists over time have
Mean DO values were almost similar except in carefully assessed the physico-chemical parameters in
September and April that recorded highest and lowest the creek. Three of such studies are briefly reviewed
DO, respectively; DO in these months varied below.
statistically from other months. The study also Case study 1:Vincent-Akpu et al. (2015), assessed the
revealed that the mean alkalinity (mg/l) value physicochemical properties of water in Bodo Creek.
fluctuated significantly (ANOVA = 2.85 >P The study showed a temperature range that is typical
(2.13)0.05) between months. for the Niger Delta region. Salinity increased with the
onset of the dry season. The study also revealed that
the mean BOD, COD, and total hardness were above
the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) (2002)
acceptable maximum permissible limits for domestic
use in Nigeria.
Case study 2:The spatial assessment of heavy metal
concentrations in giant tiger shrimps in Bodo Creek by
Eludoyin et al. (2018), showed a weakly acidic pH of
the water surface. The study further revealed a higher
concentration of conductivity and salinity in the
upstream, with the highest DO in the midstream. The
pH was lower than the permissible levels except that
of the upstream that was within the WHO/EPA
permissible range. However, the mean DO,
Fig 1: Average pre-spill and post-spill levels of Physico-chemical conductivity, salinity, and temperature of surface
parameters in Bodo Creek water in Bodo Creek was less than the EPA
permissible levels.
Case study 3: Nwipie et al. (2019) investigated the
recovery of infaunamacrobenthic invertebrates in oil-
polluted tropical soft-bottom tidal flats of Bodo Creek,
seven years after the spill and discovered that all the
physicochemical factors followed a similar Spatio-
temporal trend as recorded during the pre-spill
baseline studies.

Pre-Cleanup and Post-Cleanup Physicochemical

Parameters of Bodo Creek: After the two major oil
spills in Bodo Creek in 2008, SPDC commenced the
cleanup of the creek in 2019. After the cleanup, Nkeeh
(2021), assessed the Physico-chemical parameters of
the creek. The post-cleanup study was conducted at the
four stations previously sampled by Nwipie et al.
Fig 2: P-Value for pre-spill and post-spill physicochemical (2019) before the clean-up.
parameters

NKEEH, DK; HART, AI; ERONDU, ES; ZABBEY, N

Assessment of the Physicochemical Parameters of Bodo Creek….. 1510

review, therefore, compares the level of pH,

temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), and conductivity
from the pre-cleanup and post-cleanup studies in the
four sampled stations. From figure 3, the level of pH
after the oil spill clean-up was higher than the pH level
before the clean-up, in each of the four stations. Figure
4 shows that pre-clean-up temperature was lower than
post-clean-up temperature, in each of the four stations.
From figure 5, post-clean-up DO was relatively lower
than pre-clean-up DO throughout the four study
stations. Figure 6 shows that conductivity before the
clean-up was higher than the conductivity after the
clean-up, in each of the four stations.

Fig 3: Pre-cleanup and post-cleanup variation in pH

Fig 6: Pre-cleanup and post-cleanup Conductivity

Conclusion:The difference in the levels of the physic-

chemical parameters in Bodo Creek, before and after
Fig 4: Pre-cleanup and post-spill variation in temperature the oil spill was not statistically significant. Generally,
pH and temperature were higher in the post-clean-up
study, while DO and conductivity were higher in the
pre-clean-up study. This review, therefore, helps to
better understand the changes in the environment as a
result of any human intervention such as the oil spill
clean-up.

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