CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Groundwater is the most important source of domestic, industrial and agricultural

water supply in the world, and assessment of its quality status is important for

socio-economic growth and development (Ishaku et al., 2011). Many communities

in the developing world depend heavily on groundwater due to increasing pollution

with the concomitant rise in the cost of surface water treatment (Kortatsi, 2007).

Groundwater quality reflects inputs from the atmosphere, soil and water-rock

reactions as well as pollutant sources such as mining, land clearance, agriculture,

acid precipitation, and domestic and industrial wastes (Appelo and Postma, 1993;

Zhang et al., 2011).

According to WHO (2011a), quality assessment of groundwater is essential to

ensure sustainable safe use of the resource for drinking, agricultural, and industrial

purposes. In the developing World, 80% of all diseases are directly related to poor

drinking water and poor sanitary conditions. Water composition may concentrate

salts in soils or water to such an extent that crop yield is affected (Bernstein, 1975).

Just like any other agrarian community, it is obvious that the people of Oguta and

Mgbidi Local Government depend greatly on the quality of rainwater and

groundwater for their economic development. The availability and quality of water
1
(rain or ground) do not only control the level of agrarian productivity but also

determine the level of good health enjoyed by the people of any environment.

Researches and surveys have however shown that geographical location, human

activities as well as industrial emissions, contribute very largely to the variability

in quality and availability of rain and groundwater. These factors are therefore of

great importance to the physical, economic and environmental development of

Oguta and Mgbidi Local Government.

Thus, groundwater is recharged and eventually flows to the surface naturally;

natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps and can form oases or wetlands.

Groundwater can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep or

shallow and may rise or fall depending on many factors. The speed of which

ground water flows depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rocks and how

well the spaces are connected. The area where water fills these spaces is called the

saturated zone (Schmoll et al., 2006). The study therefore is to assess groundwater

quality in Oguta and Mgbidi Local Government of Imo State

1.2 Problem statement

Groundwater remains one of the purest forms of water available in nature for

domestic purposes and meets the overall demand of rural and semi-urban

communities. However, the development of human societies and technological

advancement result in bio-environmental problems (Dimitrov et al., 2008). Thus,

2
the use of farm implements and agro-chemicals (e.g. NO3 - ) render the soil an

impure medium that releases and allows contaminants into groundwater systems

during recharge or discharge (Dimitrov et al., 2008). Generally, characteristics of

irrigation water vary with the source of the water (Ayers and Westcott, 1985).

Regional differences in groundwater characteristics will result from variation of

geology and climatic parameters. Moreover, there may also be great differences in

the quality of water available on a local level depending on whether the source is

from surface water bodies (rivers and ponds) or from aquifers with varying

geology, and whether the water has been chemically treated. According to Rowe et

al. (1995), the chemical constituents of irrigation water can affect plant growth

directly through toxicity or deficiency, or indirectly by altering plant availability of

nutrients.

Usually, possible sources of contamination are anthropogenic and natural, that

occur in the proximity of water bodies and are likely to influence water quality

from the ground (Anim et al., 2010). For example, in some places, refuse dumps

and places of convenience (toilets) are sited close to well locations. In other cases,

organic and inorganic wastes as well as wastewater from various human activities

have been disposed of near or into water bodies, which also served as sources of

water for some the communities. WHO (2008) states that there is therefore a high

level of probability that these substances, both organic and inorganic, contaminate
3
the water in aquifers that are shallow, which are below or adjacent to these sources

of contamination. As a result, the study seeks to assess and evaluate groundwater

resources in the study area for its suitability for domestic and agricultural purposes.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The objective of the study is to assess water quality of in Oguta and Mgbidi Local

Government of Imo State. The specific objectives are:

i. To assess the bacteriological quality of ground water at the Agbowo

community via the use of microbial counts (Total aerobic plate and Total

coliform)

ii. To determine the microbial quality of the ground water and the relationship

between the distances of the wells to septic tanks

iii. To determine the differences in the bacterial counts between covered and

uncovered wells

iv. To determine if the mean distance of wells from the septic tanks was below

the limit set by United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study on completion would provide a ready guide to policy makers on

environmental harzard and it would contribute to the existing literature body.

4
The results of the study will serve as baseline information on groundwater quality

in terms of the selected physico-chemical and microbial parameters of groundwater

quality in the Thiririka Sub Catchment.

The outcome of this research could be beneficial to Local, District, County and

National Governments as it will be useful in generating base line data for further

studies and intervention, policy formulation, implementation, monitoring and

evaluation, especially on issues relating to groundwater quality for both domestic

and commercial use in the Sub Catchment.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Groundwater Quality Assessment

Groundwater quality assessment involves evaluation of the physical, chemical and

biological nature of groundwater in relation to its natural quality, human effects

and intended uses, particularly uses which may affect human health and the health

of the aquatic system itself (UNESCO/WHO/UNEP, 2016). The quality status of

groundwater is a crucial factor in what the groundwater is to be used for (Udom

and Acra, 2016). For example, groundwater meant for drinking and other domestic

purposes must meet laid down local and international standards, [eg. NEMA,

USEPA and WHO quality standards for domestic water] otherwise the consumer

stands the risk of water-borne diseases such as typhoid fever, dysentery, diarrhea,

and hepatitis. Therefore, different uses require different criteria of water quality

assessments as well as standard methods for reporting and comparing results of

water analysis (Babiker, 2017). The overall goal of any groundwater quality

assessment programme is to obtain a comprehensive representation of the spatial

distribution of groundwater quality and the changes in time that arise, either

naturally or under the demands of man (Tiwari and Nayak, 2022). The physical,

chemical, and microbial parameters are the important indicators used in the

characterization of groundwater quality (Genthe, 2017). The physical qualities

6
include temperature, turbidity, colour, taste, and odour while pH, turbidity,

sulphates, phosphates, nitrates, and other trace metals make up the chemical

parameters. Microbial ana1ysis consists of tests to detect the presence of coliform

organisms, which indicate the sanitary quality of water for human consumption, as

certain coliform organisms are normally found in intestines of man and animals.

The presence of these (coliform organisms) in groundwater is indication of its

contact with a human or animal sewage source (Todd, 2013).

2.2 Water Quality Parameters

2.2.1 Temperature

Temperature is one of the physical aspects of groundwater quality (Price, 1985).

The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of groundwater are directly

affected by its temperature. Temperature is one of the important factors that

influence bacterial growth in groundwater (Momba and Notshe, 2013). An increase

in temperature causes pH of water to approach neutrality and hence favours growth

of micro organisms. Several factors influence the rise and fall of groundwater

temperature the most important being, the season, time of day and the weather. The

temperature of groundwater is buffered by the reduced interaction with the

atmosphere and is warmer due to the geothermal heat flux (Boyd, 2020). The

recommended temperature range for drinking water is 20-35oC according to

NEMA (2016) and WHO (2014) standards for domestic water.

7
2.2.2 Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the amount of light scattered and absorbed by water

because of the suspended matter in the water. Turbidity in groundwater is caused

by the presence of suspended matter, which usually consists of a mixture of

inorganic matter, such as clay and soil particles and organic matter (DWAF, 2016).

Micro organisms (bacteria, viruses and protozoa) are typically attached to

particulates and removal of turbidity by filtration will significantly reduce

microbial contamination in treated water. Turbidity in groundwater sources is a

consequence of inert clay or chalk particles or the precipitation of non-soluble

reduced iron and other oxides when water is pumped from anaerobic or water

sources. According to WHO (2021), turbidity can have a considerable effect on the

microbiological quality of drinking water. High turbidity values, even in the

absence of faecal indicator bacteria, imply reduced protection against

contamination and it may also indicate that sanitary integrity has been

compromised (Howard et al., 2023). Consumption of highly turbid waters is not

necessarily a health hazard, but may constitute a health risk if the suspended

particles, harbor micro organisms capable of causing disease in humans or particles

may have absorbed toxic organic or inorganic compounds.

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2.2.3 pH

pH is a measure of the activity of hydrogen (H+ ) or hydroxyl (OH- ) ions in

solution. The pH of water is a measure of how acidic or alkaline (basic) the water

is on a scale of 0 to 14. Pure distilled water is neutral with a pH of 7. pH

measurements below 7 indicate that the water is acidic containing high (H+ ) ions

than (OH- ) ions. Measurement above 7 indicates that the water is alkaline (basic)

thus containing high (OH- ) ions than (H+ ) ions. pH is often a controlling variable

in many other chemical reactions in groundwater (Boyd, 2020). Although no health

based guideline is proposed for pH, sometimes, eye irritation and other skin

disorders are associated with values of pH greater than 11. Water having a pH

value ranging from 10 to 12.5 causes hair to swell and in sensitive individuals

gastrointestinal irritation may occur while lower pH values will also lead to a

similar effect (Khan and Ahmad, 2021). According to the WHO, the range of

desirable pH values of water prescribed for drinking purposes is 6.5 – 9.2 (WHO,

2014) while the desirable range for pH set by USEPA (2012) and NEMA (2016) is

6.5 - 8.5. The value of the pH can influence the rate of dissolution of certain

minerals and is influenced by the local geology and nutrient levels (Langmuir,

1997). A low pH value in groundwater will result in minerals such as calcite being

dissolved more rapidly and can cause corrosion of metal pipes carrying water,

thereby releasing toxic metals such as zinc, lead, cadmium, copper etc. (Trivedy
9
and Goel, 1986) while, higher values of pH hasten the formation of scales in water

heaters and reduce the germicidal potential of chlorine (Mohapathra and Purohit,

2020).

2.2.4 Alkalinity

Alkalinity is the measure of the capacity of water to accept protons (Langmuir,

1997) and is the sum of all the titratable bases (American Public Health

Association [APHA], 1998). The presence of carbonates, bicarbonates and

hydroxides are the main cause of alkalinity in natural waters. The alkalinity of

groundwater is generally due to the presence of bicarbonates formed in reactions in

the soils through which the water percolates. Bicarbonates represent the major

form since they are formed in considerable amounts from the action of carbonates

upon the basic materials in the soil. WHO (2014) has suggested the permissible

limit of 500 mg/L. Beyond the permissible limit, alkalinity causes problems like

hardness of kidney stone, gas trouble; severe irritation of the eye, skin and mucus

membrane (Bangash and Alam, 2014). Alkalinity is significant in groundwater due

to it being a good measure of the dissolution of carbonate minerals; including

calcitic limestone and dolomitic limestone (Boyd, 2020). Carbonate minerals are

the primary source for alkalinity in groundwater and through dissolution of

calcium carbonate; bicarbonate and calcium ions are released into solution (Boyd,

2020). A high alkalinity in groundwater is indicative of rapid dissolution of

10
calcium carbonate and relates well to levels of calcium and bicarbonate ions in

solution and indicates the presence of industrial or chemical pollution (Nathanson,

2023).

2.2.5 Total Hardness

Total Hardness in water is caused by a variety of dissolved polyvalent metallic

ions, predominantly calcium and magnesium cations. Hardness in water is mainly a

natural occurrence indicating that there is a lot of calcium, magnesium, carbonate,

hydrogencarbonate and sulphate ions present in the water. (Abubakar and Adekola,

2012) and this reduces lather formation and also increases the boiling point of the

water (Murhekar, 2011). The principal natural sources of hardness in groundwater

are sedimentary rocks and seepage and runoff from soils. In general, hard waters

originate in areas with thick topsoil and limestone formations. Hardness is

expressed as milligrams of calcium carbonate per liter [mg/l CaCO3]. Nowadays,

the analysis comprises the determination of calcium and magnesium which are the

main constituents of hardness. The widespread abundance of these metals in rock

formations often leads to very considerable hardness levels in groundwater. In

groundwater, hardness is mainly due to carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates and

chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Groundwater is generally harder than surface

water. Groundwater rich in carbonic acid and appreciable amounts of minerals,

such as calcite, gypsum and dolomite, hardness levels up to several thousand

11
milligrams per liter can result. The two main industrial sources of hardness are the

inorganic chemical and mining industries.

Although hardness is caused by cations, it is often discussed in terms of

bicarbonate (temporary) and non-carbonate (permanent) hardness. Tempoary

hardness refers to the amount of carbonates and bicarbonates that can be removed

or precipitated from solution by boiling. This type of hardness is responsible for

the deposition of scale in hot water pipes and tea kettles. Non-carbonate hardness

is caused by the association of the hardness causing cations with sulphates,

chlorides and nitrates. It is also referred to as "permanent hardness" because it

cannot be removed by boiling.

The disadvantages of hard waters are that they neutralize the lathering power of

soap and more importantly cause blockage of pipes and severely reduce boiler

efficiency because of scale formation. These effects will increase as the hardness

rises to and beyond 200 mg/L CaCO3. It has been suggested that a hardness level

of 80 to 100 mg/L (as CaCO3) provides an acceptable balance between corrosion

and incrustation (Bean, 1968). The guideline value set for hardness by WHO

(2006) is 500 mg/L.

2.2.6 Electrical Conductivity

Electrical Conductivity is the capacity of electrical current to pass through water.

Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the amount of ions in groundwater as a

12
result of dissolution of minerals in the aquifer‟s geology (Schwartz and Zhang,

2023). Electrical Conductivity is a function of temperature, types, and the

concentrations of the ions present and may also be related to the problem of

excessive hardness. Acid mine drainage can add iron, sulphates, copper, cadmium

and other ions if minerals containing them are exposed to air and water. Sewage

and farm runoff can raise conductivity due to the presence of nitrates and

phosphates. Runoff from roads can also carry salt and other materials that

contribute ions to water. A low EC values further signifies the anoxic condition of

groundwater (Raghunath et al., 2001). WHO (2014) recommended 1500 µS/cm as

the maximum contaminant limit for drinking water.

2.2.7 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Salts (TDS) comprise mainly of inorganic salts (bicarbonates,

chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium) and some

small amounts of organic matter that are soluble in water. In other words, the total

dissolved solids concentration is the sum of the cations and anions in the water.

Therefore, the total dissolved solids test provides a measure of the amount of

dissolved ions but does not tell us about the nature of ions. TDS in groundwater

can also be due to anthropogenic sources such as sewage, urban runoff and

industrial waste (Joseph, 2001; SwarnaLatha, 2018). High level of TDS indicates

high concentration of dissolved ions, which render water non-potable, corrosive

13
and gives it a salty or brackish taste. In natural waters, dissolved solids consists

mainly of inorganic salts such as carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, sulphates,

phosphates, and nitrates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron and a

small amount of organic matter and dissolved gases.

TDS is used as an indicator to determine the general chemical quality of water

using Gorrel's (1958) classification of groundwater. 0 - 103 mg/L Fresh water, 103

– 104 mg/L Brackish water, 104 - 105 mg/L Saline water and above 105 mg/L as

Brine and for the purposes of drinking Wilcox (1955) classified groundwater on

the basis of concentration of TDS as: up to 500 mg/L; desirable for drinking, 500-

1000 mg/L; permissible for drinking, up to 3000 mg/L; useful for irrigation and >

3000 mg/L; unfit for drinking and irrigation.

2.2.8 Nitrates (NO3 - )

Nitrate is the end product of oxidation of nitrogen in the environment. Although it

is an effective plant nutrient, it is moderately toxic. The main sources of nitrate are

due to either natural or anthropogenic activities - rainfall and dry fall out, soil

nitrogen, nitrate deposit, sewage, septic tank and animal waste, manure or

compost, green manure and plant residues, atmospheric nitrogen fixation, fertilizer

nitrogen from irrigated overflow water outlets and industrial effluent (Ternamche,

1991). Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L has been known to cause a potentially fatal

blood disorder in infants under six months of age called methemoglobinemia or

14
"blue-baby" syndrome in which there is a reduction in the oxygen carrying

capacity of blood or leads to formation of nitrosamines which is carcinogenic when

it reaches the stomach or liver (Comly, 1987; Johnson et al., 1987). There may be a

correlation between ingesting nitrate in drinking water and hypertension, increased

infant mortality, central nervous system birth defects, certain cancers (including

stomach cancer and non-Hodgkin‟s lymphoma), (Spalding and Exner, 1993)

subclinical neurosystem damage, reproductive or development effects and

congenital malformations (Weigman and Kroehler, 1990; Fedkiw, 1991). Other

effects associated with elevated concentrations of itrates in drinking water includes

respiratory infection, alteration of thyroid metabolism, and cancers induced by

conversion of NO3 - nitrogen to N-nitroso compounds in the body (Follett and

Follett, 2001).

2.2.9 Sulphates (SO4 2- )

Sulphate is one of the least toxic anions. Soil and rock formations may naturally

contain sulphates. As water moves through these, sulphates are picked up and

dissolve in the groundwater, during infiltration of rainfall and groundwater

recharge. The sulphate content in groundwater generally occurs as soluble salts of

calcium, magnesium and sodium and changes significantly during infiltration time

during rainfall and groundwater recharge, which mostly takes place from stagnant

water pools and surface runoff water collected in low-lying areas. The guideline
15
value for sulphates recommended by the USEPA (2012), NEMA (2006) and WHO

(2014) is 250 mg/L. However, catharsis, dehydration and gastrointestinal irritation

have been observed at high concentration (Ellenhorn and Barceloux, 1988).

Groundwater containing magnesium sulphates at levels above 600 mg/L acts as a

purgative in humans. Sulphates may also contribute to the corrosion of distribution

systems. Taste impairment varies with the nature of the associated cation; taste

thresholds have been found to range from 250 mg/L for sodium sulphate to 1000

mg/L for calcium sulphate.

2.3 Heavy metals

The term heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively

high density and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Heavy metals are

natural components of the Earth's crust. They cannot be degraded or destroyed. To

a small extent they enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace

elements, some heavy metals like copper and zinc are essential to maintain the

metabolism of the human body. However, at higher concentrations they can lead to

poisoning.

2.3.1 Zinc

Zinc is an essential trace mineral that we get through the foods. Next to iron, zinc

is the most common trace mineral in the body and is found in every cell. Zinc is an

essential food element needed by the body in small amounts. The daily
16
requirement for adult men is 15 –20 mg/day (WHO, 2008). At least forty different

enzyme systems in the body require the mineral zinc as a cofactor. Zinc also

prevents toxicity arising from the presence of cadmium in the body. This also

depletes the level of zinc as cadmium also uses up zinc if present in the body in

high amounts. Zinc requirements tend to increase if the diet is high in cadmium.

The effects of zinc deficiency may be severe, ranging from impaired

neuropsychological functions, growth retardation and stunting, impaired

reproduction, immune disorders, dermatitis, impaired wound healing, lethargy, loss

of appetite and loss of hair (FAO, 1998). Zinc deficiency in agricultural soils is

also a major worldwide problem, affecting both crop yield and quality. Severe soil

zinc deficiency can cause complete crop failure whilst losses of up to 30 percent

can occur in yield of cereal grains in crops such as wheat, rice and maize as a result

of even mild deficiencies. Research has showed that marginal deficiencies of zinc

seem to affect many more low income pregnant women and pregnant teenagers

than it does other people and the outcome of a pregnancy in these groups of people

can be improved by supplementing with 25 to 30 mg of zinc daily (Osendarp,

2001). Radionuclides can also be found in groundwater, the primary sources being

erosion and decay of natural deposits containing radioactive minerals (Job, 2009).

17
2.3.2 Arsenic

Arsenic occurs in large quantities in the earth's crust and in trace quantities in

rocks, soil, water and air. Industrial effluents also contribute arsenic to water in

some areas. Arsenic is used commercially in alloying agents and wood

preservatives. Inorganic arsenic can occur in the environment in several forms but

in natural waters, and thus in drinking-water, it is mostly found as trivalent arsenite

(As(III)) or pentavalent arsenate (As(V)). Organic arsenic species, abundant in

seafood, are very much less harmful to health, and are readily eliminated by the

body. Severe poisoning can arise from the ingestion of as little as 100 mg arsenic

dioxide; chronic effects may result from the accumulation of arsenic compounds in

the body at low intake levels. The serious arsenic contamination of groundwater in

Bangladesh has come out recently as the biggest natural calamity in the world with

75 million people at risk and 24 million potentially exposed to arsenic

contamination (Talukder et al., 1998).

2.3.3 Mercury

Mercury is found in a variety of products, such as fluorescent and other lights,

batteries, electrical switches and relays, barometers, and thermometers, much of

which ends up in municipal landfills. Like all metals, mercury dissolves easily in

the acidic leachate and slowly seeps out of the landfill into the soil and

groundwater. Available data show that mercury in groundwater can exceed

18
drinking water standards from older, unlined landfills, but is less likely to leach

into groundwater from landfills that are lined and use leachate collection systems.

However, even liners and leachate collection systems are not fool proof. Several

researchers have documented that liners eventually leak (Line and Miklas, 1989;

Bonaparte and Gross, 1990). Mercury is toxic by ingestion, inhalation and skin

absorption with acute and chronic exposure effects including central nervous

system and kidney damage. Acute exposure includes nausea, blurred vision,

painful breathing, excessive salivation and pneumonitis, while chronic or longer-

term exposure includes memory disturbance, hypertension, vision problems,

hallucinations, tremors and personality changes. Because mercury can cross the

blood-brain barrier, and because it can affect brain development, its effects are of

special concern to pregnant or lactating women and young children. Many of these

advisories are directed towards pregnant or lactating women and young children,

or are stricter for these populations, due to concerns over developmental

disabilities in infants from mercury exposure (LeBeau, 2008).

2.3.4 Nickel

Nickel is one of the most mobile of the heavy metals in the aquatic environment.

Nickel combined with other elements occurs naturally in the earth's crust. It is

found in all soil, and is also emitted from volcanoes. The most common harmful

health effect of nickel in humans is an allergic reaction. While food has been
19
mentioned as the major source of exposure to nickel, one may also be exposed to

nickel by breathing air, drinking water, or smoking tobacco containing nickel or

skin contact with substances containing nickel such as jewellery, stainless steel and

coins contain nickel. More nickel is absorbed from the lungs into the body when

the nickel particles can dissolve easily in water. The most serious harmful health

effects uptake of too large quantities of nickel are chronic bronchitis, reduced lung

function, and cancer of the lung and nasal sinus (Stephenson, 1998). The

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has listed nickel compounds

within group 1 as carcinogenic and nickel within group 2B (agents which are

possibly carcinogenic to humans). The US Environment Protection Agency

(USEPA, 1986) has determined that nickel sulphide is carcinogenic.

2.3.5 Lead

Lead is occurring naturally in the groundwater because of ancient geologic

processes that occurred hundreds of millions of years ago. When copper pipes

replaced lead pipes, lead solder and flux were often used to join the pipes which is

a major cause of lead contamination in drinking water today. Due to its widespread

use, lead is commonly found in the air, food, soil and water. The most common

cause is corrosion, a reaction between the water and the lead pipes or solder.

Dissolved oxygen, low pH (acidity) and low mineral content in water are common

causes of corrosion. All kinds of water, however, may have high levels of lead.
20
Shortterm exposure to high levels of lead can cause vomiting, diarrhea,

convulsions, coma or even death. Early symptoms of lead poisoning in adults are

commonly nonspecific and include depression, loss of appetite, intermittent

abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhoea, constipation, and muscle pain (Merrill et al.,

2007). Other early signs in adults include malaise, fatigue, decreased libido, and

problems with sleep. Exposure to low levels of lead over an extended period of

time can have severe effects. High concentration of lead can cause damage to

human brain, kidneys, nervous system, and cause hemolysis. Lead poisoning can

also cause anemia and hemoglobin in the urine (Canada, 2008). Even with short-

term exposure, pregnant women and young children absorb lead more rapidly since

they are growing. Lead is also known to be carcinogenic (Foster et al., 2002)

2.3.6 Copper

DFday. Drinking water normally contributes approximately 150 micrograms per

day. Copper is often found near mines, industrial settings, landfills and waste

disposals. When copper ends up in soil it strongly attaches to organic matter and

minerals and it hardly ever enters groundwater. Corrosion of household plumbing

systems and erosion of natural deposits water from copper pipes, as well as from

additives designed to control algal growth, are some of the sources of copper.

21
2.3.7 Cadmium

Cadmium is highly toxic and has been implicated in some cases of poisoning

through food. Cadmium may enter water as a result of industrial discharges or the

deterioration of galvanized pipes. Acute exposure to cadmium fumes may cause flu

like symptoms including chills, fever, and muscle ache sometimes referred to as

"the cadmium blues." Symptoms may resolve after a week if there is no respiratory

damage. More severe exposures can cause tracheo-bronchitis, pneumonitis, and

pulmonary edema. Ingestion of any significant amount of cadmium causes

immediate poisoning and damage to the liver and the kidneys. Cadmium also

causes anaemia and hepatic disorder (Elkins and Pagnotto, 1980)

2.4 Sources of Groundwater Pollution

Anthropogenic and natural sources have been found to contaminate groundwater

(USEPA, 1993; Hallberg, 1989; Powell et al., 1990). Natural sources of

groundwater pollution are saltwater intrusion associated with over abstraction of

aquifers or natural leaching from naturally occurring deposits. Groundwater

pollution is typically categorized as either point or nonpoint sources of pollution.

Point sources of pollutants are generally localized and originate from discrete

sources (industries, on site sanitation systems, leaking gasoline storage tanks, solid

waste disposal sites) (Al Radif, 1999; Mato, 2002; Halwani, 2018; Kresic, 2018;

Loague and Corwin, 1998; Tolba and Saab, 2018). Non-point sources are more
22
difficult to determine and is caused by pollutants discharged over a wide land area

and not from discrete points (agricultural runoff, pesticides and fertilizer

applications, storm water from heavily populated areas, and road salt application

for deicing during winter) (Al Radif, 1999; Mato, 2002; Halwani, 2018; Kresic,

2018; Loague and Corwin, 1998; Tolba and Saab, 2018). Non - point pollution is

hard to control because the perpetrators cannot be traced (Almasri and

Kaluarachchi, 2014; Almasri and Kaluarachchi, 2005; Milovanovic, 2017;

Trowsdale and Lerner, 2017).

2.5 Water Quality Index (WQI)

Water Quality Index (WQI) is defined as „a rating that reveals the composite

influence of a number of water quality parameters on the overall water quality‟ for

human consumption (Shankar and Sanjeev, 2018). WQI is a parameter that assigns

weight to the sampling points based on the concentrations of the physico-chemical

parameters and biological constituents of the water (Yidana et al., 2010). The

utility of a WQI relies on the aggregation of information about water quality

parameters at different times and in different places and translating this

information into a single score that represents the time period and the spatial unit

under consideration (Terrado et al., 2010). The WQI is a risk communication tool

used to describe the status of water by translating a large amount of non-

commensurate data into a single value (Ott, 1978) as this single number expresses
23
overall water quality at certain location, based on several water quality parameters

(Yogendra and Puttaiah, 2018). The WQI is one of the most effective tools to

communicate information on overall quality status of groundwater to concerned

user catchments, policy makers (Tiwari et al., 1985; Subba Rao, 1997) and key

stakeholders in the water sector (Khan 2011) on the quality and possible uses of

groundwater (Bordalo, 2001). Thus, WQI is an important parameter central to

decision making and planning for the assessment and management of groundwater

(Ramakrishnaiah et al., 2009) at different spatio-temporal scales (Lumb et al.,

2011). The objective of a WQI is to turn complex water quality data into

information that is understandable and useable by the public (BASIN, 2005).

House and Newsome (1989) stated that the Water Quality Index (WQI) allows

„good‟ and „bad‟ water quality to be quantified by reducing a large quantity of

data on a range of physicochemical and biological variables to be a single number

in a simple, objective and reproducible manner (Liou-sm et al., 2014) for managers

and decision makers on the quality and possible uses of sample of groundwater

body (Bordalo, 2001).

The quality of groundwater generally is defined in terms of its physical, chemical

and biological parameters (Mouna et al., 2011) and measured as WQI to assess

whether water is potable or not. Water Quality Index (WQI) is an important

parameter for ascertaining groundwater quality and its suitability for drinking
24
purposes. The WQI concept is based on the comparison of the water quality

parameter with respective regulatory standards (Khan et al., 2023) and provides a

single number that express overall water quality at certain location based on

several water quality parameters (Yogendra and Puttaiah, 2018).

25