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12 ABSTRACT
13 The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of construction and demolition
14 (C&D) waste wood for production of particleboard. The raw material was obtained from a
15 waste recycling company and it was divided into four types of materials: MDF (medium
16 density fiberboard), MDP (medium density particleboard), plywood and timber. After
17 reduction of these wood product residues to particles, particleboards were produced, in the
18 UFPR Laboratory, with urea-formaldehyde resin and a target density of 0.75 g / cm³ and
19 their physical and mechanical properties were determined. Particleboards made from
20 industrial Pinus spp. particles were also produced as control samples. C&D wood waste
21 showed potential for use as raw material for particleboard. The properties of particleboard
22 made of recycled timber, MDP, plywood and the mixture of the four sources of material
23 indicated that particleboard industries could use these waste resources for production of the
26 wood residue.
27
1
Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, 322 Percival Hall, Po Box 6125,
26506, Morgantown, WV, USA; E-mail: rafael.r.azambuja@gmail.com.*Corresponding author
2
Departamento de Ciências Vegetais, Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Mossoró, RN, Brasil;
3
Departamento de Engenharia e Tecnologia Florestal, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brasil.
28 INTRODUCTION
29
30 Municipal solid waste (MSW) is the waste generated not only from domestic,
31 commercial activities and the general population, but also produced by the construction
32 and demolition sector. The MSW per capita has been increased worldwide and became a
33 major environmental threat (KARAK et al. 2012). The MSW generated in Brazil in 2015
34 was approximately 80 million tons, 10.2% higher when compared to the previous year, and
35 the Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste represented a considerable part (56.3%) of
36 this total (ABRELPE 2016). C&D waste can be defined as the waste from building debris,
37 rubble, earth, concrete, steel, timber, site clearance materials, construction erection,
41 and disposal (YUAN & SHEN 2011). The current Brazilian legislation delegates, since
43 minimize the C&D waste, and at the same time propose waste reuse or recycling actions.
44 The legislation also classifies timber and wood products as a C&D waste component that
45 has its reuse limited if the material is contaminated by environmentally harmful materials,
46 such as dyes, mold release agents or chemical preservative treatments (CONAMA 2002).
48 associated with regional construction techniques and material types. The range of wood
49 products in the United States C&D waste was estimated to be 6-7% (COCHRAN &
50 TOWNSEND 2010), while in Brazil, the amount of wood can be even higher, 10-16%
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52 Recycling of C&D waste is already common practice in most EU countries.
53 Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands and Estonia recycle over 80% of C&D waste
54 generation, while Austria, Belgium, France, Lithuania and the UK reaches 60-70% (Saez et
55 al, 2011). The United States adopted a system of incentives for reducing material that is
56 destined for landfills, examples are the cities of Portland (OR) and Austin (TX) which are
57 recycling 75% and 90% of their C&D waste, respectively (Laquatra & Pierce 2014). In
58 Brazil, the scenario is worse, if all recycling companies were operating at full capacity,
59 even then the estimate would be that only 4.5% of C&D waste could be recycled
61 A researched option for the use of wood waste in C&D is the production of
62 particleboards from this residue. Yang et al. (2007) produced phenol formaldehyde
63 particleboards with mixtures of Quercus spp. and Shorea spp. from C&D wastes from
65 manufactured particleboard. Although the species that the author used are not commonly
66 used in western construction, such as pine and eucalyptus, this indicates potential for the
67 use of the material into particleboards. Reutilization of wood to produce particleboards was
68 the topic of Weber (2011), the author used wood particles disposed from a mill line
69 production to be recycled into new panels. The utilization of wood from C&D was
70 approached by Hossain & Poon (2018), between the scenarios presented by the authors, the
72 greenhouse gases.
73 Thus, timber and wood products from Brazilian C&D waste have a potential value
74 still unexploited by industries. The use of recycled material also attends to growing
75 demand for environmentally friendly products. But also considering that the lignocellulosic
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77 choice of woody material is fundamental for the final product (Melo et al. 2015).
78 Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the mechanical and physical feasibility of
79 using timber and wood products from C&D waste as raw material to produce
80 particleboard.
81
83
84 Particleboards were produced with C&D waste timber and wood products collected
85 in the metropolitan region of Curitiba, Brazil. The material was segregated into four
86 classes according to its origin: MDF, MDP, plywood and timber. The collected waste was
88 automatic sieving. The particles retained between 8 and 14 mesh sieves were dried to an
90 Length, thickness and width of 100 random particles from each source were
93 Moslemi (1974), adapting the density of the material for the apparent bulk density) were
94 determined. The bulk density was obtained on an adaptation using the basis of the
95 procedures described in the Brazilian Standard NBR 6922 (1983), whose volume was
96 determined in a 2 liters’ test tube and mass obtained using a digital scale.
97 Six types of particleboards were produced: one for each class of C&D waste, one
98 mix at the ratio of 25% of each residue, and one control sample manufactured with Pinus
100 applied at 8% based on oven dry weight. One percent ammonium sulfate was added in the
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101 resin as a hardener and 1% paraffin wax emulsion was applied to reduce the particles
102 hygroscopicity. The target density was 0.75 g/cm³ and three panels were made for each
103 treatment. The dimensions of particleboard were 50x50x1.5 cm. Press temperature was 160
105 Physical and mechanical properties were evaluated based on European and
106 Brazilian standards: apparent density (EN 323); water absorption and thickness swelling
107 after 2 and 24 hours of immersion (EN 317); moisture content (EN 322), module of
108 elasticity in bending and bending strength (EN 310); transverse tensile strength
109 perpendicular to the plane (EN 319); face and edge screw withdrawn resistance (NBR
110 14810).
111 Data for physical and mechanical properties were fitted in a completely randomized
112 design and evaluated by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) using the density value as the
113 covariate using Statgraphics Centurion XV.II software. Then the treatment means were
115
118 Particle sizes used as raw material are presented in Table 1. However, it was not
119 feasible to determine MDF particles’ dimension due to their wood fiber composition
120 origin. During the hammer mill process, a great amount of the MDF particles were
121 defibred to a degree that became impossible to measure their dimensions. Thus, the only
122 information collected from this material was its bulk density.
123
124
125
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126 Table 1. Dimensional elements and bulk density of particles.
L W T V SA BD
Material SR FR
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm³) (cm²/g) (g/cm³)
8,235a 16,70a 5,21cd 341,14a 0,1835d
Pinus 7,529 1,728 0,583
(78,7) (66,6) (68,5) (56,2) (2,87)
- 0,1139e
MDF - - - - - -
(3,50)
9,040a 11,52d 5,01d 174,78c 0,2759a
MDP 7,744 1,418 0,769
(75,0) (60,0) (46,3) (37,0) (1,54)
9,164a 12,58cd 6,47bc 214,81bc 0,2384c
Plywood 7,212 1,616 0,752
(63,2) (70,9) (58,6) (43,1) (0,86)
7,816a 14,75bc 7,10a 220,56b 0,2495b
Timber 8,203 1,392 0,661
(69,8) (52,7) (57,9) (36,2) (4,64)
127 L: length; W: width; T: thickness; V: volume; SR: slenderness ratio; FR: flatness ratio; SA:
128 superficial area; BD: bulk density; Values in brackets indicate the coefficient of variation
129 (%); Means values followed by the same letter within the same column do not differ
130 statistically in probability level of 95% by Tukey test.
131
132 Slenderness ratio (SR) from control samples (Pinus spp) was statistically higher
133 than the other material, meanwhile samples produced with recycled MDP and plywood
134 showed lower average values. Both MDP and plywood samples had adhesive in their
135 original composition. The presence of this residue adhesive on the particle surface could be
136 responsible for the production of higher thickness particles that resulted in lower SR
137 values. The residue adhesive also influenced the flatness ratio (FR) result, but in a different
138 way. FR values from recycled timber were higher than the values found for particles
139 produced with other C&D waste material or the control sample. Recycled timber, without
140 adhesive, presented with lower width values than the samples originated from already
142 There were significant differences among all surface area (SA) and bulk density
143 (BD) values of the samples. Particles of Pinus spp used at a traditional particleboard
5
144 industry showed a statistically higher SA value than particles produced from C&D waste,
145 as a consequence of a lower BD of the sample. Higher BD of recycled MDP and plywood
146 can be explained by the presence of adhesive and other chemical additives used in the
147 manufacturing of the original product. The higher BD of recycled timber when compared
148 with Pinus timber can be explained not only by the presence of contaminants, but also by
149 its composition with different species of hardwoods and softwoods. However, recycled
150 MDF particles were the material with the lowest BD value. According to Vale et al. (2011)
151 materials with bulk density values close to 0.1 g/cm³ can be considered as light. Even with
152 the methodology applied to determine the SA, it was not possible to measure the SA of
153 MDF particles, it was assumed that this kind of material has high surface area as a result of
156 The physical properties of the panels evaluated were water absorption and swelling
157 in thickness and measured in periods of 2 and 24 hours in submersion. The results of these
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
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169
170 Table 2: Physical properties of the particleboards.
D WA 2h WA 24h TS 2h TS 24h
Raw material
(g/cm³) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1. Pinus 0,71b 24,46c 70,47a 7,49b 23,16ab
(5,40) (7,36) (11,70) (25,79) (24,01)
2. MDF 0,71b 30,76b 73,62a 7,36bc 21,27ab
(5,25) (32,76) (39,37) (18,87) (19,45)
3. MDP 0,69ab 17,32d 44,41b 5,77cd 15,16c
(5,62) (18,87) (32,76) (19,45) (39,37)
4. Plywood 0,67a 37,68a 79,40a 9,42a 26,71a
(3,20) (15,83) (8,61) (34,19) (13,77)
5.Timber 0,71b 20,11d 48,92b 5,04d 15,35c
(4,67) (10,76) (8,80) (24,81) (10,34)
6. Mix 0,75c 17,40d 52,94b 5,46d 16,12c
(5,17) (13,52) (8,82) (18,40) (11,17)
171 D: density; WA 2h and WA 24h: water absorption after 2 and 24 hours; TS 2h and TS 24h:
172 thickness swelling after 2 and 24 hours; Values in brackets indicate the coefficient of
173 variation (%); Means values followed by the same letter within the same column do not
174 differ statistically in probability level of 95% by Tukey test. Values adjusted by ANCOVA
175 to the mean density of the specimens, 0.707 g/cm³.
176
177 The particleboards final density ranged from 0.67 g/cm³ to 0.75 g/cm³, with
178 statistically significant difference (Table 2). Only when the mixture of all C&D waste was
179 used as raw material, did the final particleboard reach the target density (0.75 g/cm³). The
180 lower density from the other treatments can be attributed to springback after the boards
182 Water absorption (WA) average values after 2 and 24 hours of immersion for
183 particleboards made of recycled MDP, timber and the mixture of different C&D waste were
184 lower than the control particleboard and treatments made of recycled MDF and plywood.
185 Thickness swelling (TS) values after 24 hours were also statistically lower for the same
186 group of particleboards with lower WA. After 2 hours of immersion, TS values of the
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187 particleboards, with the exception of the ones produced with recycled plywood, met the 8%
188 minimum requirement of the European standard (EN 317, 2003). Although after 24 hours of
189 immersion, none of the treatments met the minimum requirement of 15% (Figure 1).
190
191
192 Figure 1: Physical properties of the particleboards.
193
194 Despite the fact that the TS values didn't achieve the standard requirement,
195 particleboards from recycled MDP, timber and waste mixture were lower than results
196 reported for particleboards made of recycled material. Lykidis and Grigoriou (2008) tested
197 particleboards made of recovered wood particles and reported TS values after 24h
198 immersion ranged from 37.03 to 59.11%. Nourbakhsh and Ashori (2010) produced
199 particleboard with a mixture of poplar (Populus deltoides) wood and 50 or 75% of waste
200 newspaper and reported TS values between 20.5 and 25.9% depending on the press
201 temperature. Weber and Iwakiri (2015) reported TS values of 16.65 and 32.26% for
204 The results of the bending test, internal bond (IB) and face and edge screw
8
206 Table 4: Results of the mechanical tests.
Raw Material Static Bending IB (MPa) FSW (N) ESW (N)
MOE (MPa) MOR (MPa)
1378a 8,00b 0,91a 1183a 1139a
1. Pinus
(15,77) (20,83) (10,21) (13,16) (11,69)
497d 4,59d 0,18d 466e 341e
2. MDF
(35,07) (34,41) (15,06) (24,50) (21,40)
1013c 6,49c 0,75b 794c 606d
3. MDP
(23,74) (26,08) (16,21) (16,60) (17,48)
1299a 7,12bc 0,36c 735d 571d
4. Plywood
(15,99) (14,42) (14,99) (11,22) (14,87)
1392a 9,69a 0,96a 940b 865b
5. Timber
(16,95) (21,11) (12,33) (14,07) (16,00)
1144b 7,19bc 0,76b 808c 758c
6. Mix
(18,91) (31,54) (15,90) (20,19) (14,80)
207 MOE: Modulus of Elasticity in bending; MOR: Modulus of Rupture in bending; IB:
208 Internal Bond; FSW: Face screw withdrawal; ESW: Edge screw withdrawal; Values in
209 brackets indicate the coefficient of variation (%); Mean values followed by the same letter
210 within the same column do not differ statistically in probability level of 95% by Tukey test.
211 Values adjusted by ANCOVA to the mean density of the specimens according to the tests:
212 0,680 g/cm³ for MOE and MOR; 0,705 g/cm³ for IB; 0,675 g/cm³ for SWS and 0,636
213 g/cm³ for SWT.
214
215 Particleboards produced with recycled plywood and timber had MOE average
216 values statistically similar to the control sample and higher than the other treatments. For
217 MOR property, the use of recycled timber resulted in an average value statistically higher
218 than the one for particleboards made with industrial Pinus particles. This result could be
219 associated with the slenderness ratio of the recycled timber particles, once higher
220 slenderness ratio usually is associated with better bending results (Moslemi 1974, Maloney
221 1993).
222
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223
224 Figure 2: Results of the mechanical tests of the particleboards.
225 Where: Treatments are: 1, Pinus; 2, MDF; 3, MDP; 4, Plywood; 5, Timber; 6, Mixture
226
227 Weber (2011) produced panels with industrial wood waste processing MOR values
228 and MOE 6.47 MPa and 1185 MPa for MDP waste; 6.88 MPa and 1429 MPa for plywood
229 waste; and 9.76 MPa and 1129 MPa for waste MDF, respectively. The values obtained in
230 this study were 6.49 MPa and 1013 MPa for MDP; 7.12 MPa and 1299 MPa for plywood;
231 and 4.59 MPa and 497 MPa for MDF, are close to the values obtained by Weber (2011),
233 None of the evaluated treatments met the standard requirement from EN 312
234 (2003), of 1600 MPa for MOE and 13 MPa for MOR. It is noteworthy that this study used
235 construction and demolition wood waste, which can be considered materials in the end of
236 their life cycle. Also, the previous uses of these products can cause contaminations that can
237 cause negative influences in the particles production and the glue bond of the panel.
10
238 Considering the control as the particle used in industry to produce MDP panels, it
239 can be admitted as the minimal industry quality. The difference between standard and the
241 industry. That way it can be said that the treatments that were equal or higher than the
242 control possesses potential for production on an industrial scale. The treatments that
243 overcome control values were 4 and 5, plywood waste and timber waste, respectively.
244 An alternative to increase the bending resistance (MOE and MOR) of the particles
245 used in this research is to change the methods of particle production. This change in
246 process should aim to produce thinner particles. Vital et al. (1992) and Alves (2013), state
247 that the particles decreasing of thickness results in a better distribution of tension inside the
248 panel, this is because there is reduction of voids and consequently better resistance to
250 The average values of internal bond varied from 0.18 MPa (MDF waste) to 0.96
251 MPa (timber waste). The particles of timber waste produced panels with IB statistically
252 equal to the Pinus control panels. Except for panels produced with residue of MDF, all the
253 other panels achieve the EN 312 (2003) requirements of 0.35 MPa. Candan & Akbulut
254 (2015) using nanoreinforcement in particleboards, produced panels with internal bonding
255 bellow 0.4MPa, lower results than the ones found in MDP, timber and the mixture of
256 residues. Also, the low superficial area, resulting in more available resin, as observed for
257 particles from MDP residues, did not influence the increase in the IB of the panels, as
259 The average values of face screw withdrawal (FSW) ranged from 466 N (MDF)
260 and 1,183 N (Pinus). All the treatments produced from the residues had average values of
261 FSW statistically lower than the control panels of Pinus. No treatment, including the
262 control panels, met the minimum requirement of 1200 N as established by ABNT NBR
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263 14810-3: 2006. Regarding edge screw withdrawal (ESW), average strength values ranged
264 from 341 N (MDF) to 1,139 N (Pinus). All panels produced with residues were statistically
265 lower in ESW than the Pinus control panels. No treatment, including the control panels,
266 met the minimum requirement of 1,200 N as established by ABNT NBR 14810-3: 2006.
267 Regarding edge screw withdrawal (ESW), average values ranged from 341 N
268 (MDF) to 1,139 N (Pinus). All panels produced with residues and mixtures showed
269 statistically lower mean than the Pinus control panels. Only panels produced with residues
270 of timber and the control presented average ESW values above the minimum requirement
271 of 800 N as established by ABNT NBR 14810-3: 2006. It should be noted that the
272 variations in the values of the bulk density of the materials analyzed did not directly
273 influence the results of screw withdrawal. Moslemi (1974) and Maloney (1993) argue that
274 panels produced with higher specific gravity or from materials with lower bulk density
275 have higher compression ratios that result in panels with greater resistance to screw
277 There is the possibility of using the residues from this research as the inner layer of
278 MDP panels as fillers, as they reach satisfactory values of perpendicular traction, an
279 important property for the material of the inner layer. This assertion is corroborated by the
280 fact that the rupture of this test occurs in the inner layer of the test specimen, so the
281 recorded load reflects the resistance of this region. The treatments that obtained minimum
282 standard requirements and therefore qualify for this purpose were the treatments MDP (3),
284
285 CONCLUSIONS
286 The wood present in construction and demolition wastes has potential for use in the
12
288 The panels produced with timber residues presented the best results among the residues,
289 satisfactory when compared to the Pinus control panels. This is an important result in view
290 of the higher volume of this type of material in the total of construction and demolition
292 The treatments of MDP, plywood, timber and the mixture in equal parts of residues, can be
293 used as MDP panels inner layer filler, because they have satisfactory internal bond results.
294 From these results, it is recommended to carry out studies considering other process
295 variables, in order to improve mechanical properties such as MOE and MOR in static
296 bending.
297
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