MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

MODULE TWO

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

CORE IDEA

Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules.

Learning Outcome:

1. Discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics.

2. Explain the nature of mathematics as a language
3. Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.
4. Acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.
 
Time Allotment: Four (4) lecture hours

Lesson Characteristics and Conventions in the

2.1 Mathematical Language

Specific Objective

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Understand what mathematical language is.

2. Name different characteristics of mathematics.
3. Compare and differentiate natural language into a
mathematical language and expressions into sentences.
4. Familiarize and name common symbols use in mathematical
expressions and sentences.
5. Translate a sentence into a mathematical symbol.

Introduction:

Have you read about one of the story in the bible known as “The Tower of Babel?”
This story is about constructing a tower in able to reach its top to heaven; the Kingdom of God.

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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

At first, the construction of a tower is smoothly being done since all of the workers have only
one and only one language. But God disrupted the work of the people by making their language
different from each other. There were a language barrier and the people were confused what the
other people are talking about resulting the tower was never finished and the people were spread
in all over and different places of the earth.

Based on the story, what was the most important thing that people should have in
order to accomplish a certain task? Yes, a “language”. Language is one of the most important
thing among the people because it has an important role in communication. But the question is,
what is language? Why is it so important? In this module, we will be discussing about
mathematical relative on what you have learned in your English subject.

Discussion:

For sure you may be asked what the real meaning of a language is. Perhaps you could say
that language is the one we use in able to communicate with each other or this is one of your
lessons in English or in your Filipino subject. According to Cambridge English Dictionary, a
language is a system of communication consisting of sounds, words and grammar, or the system
of communication used by people in a particular country or type of work.

Did you know that mathematics is a language in itself? Since it is a language also,
mathematics is very essential in communicating important ideas. But most mathematical
language is in a form of symbols. When we say that “Five added by three is eight”, we could
translate this in symbol as “5 + 3 = 8.” Here, the first statement is in a form of group of words
while the translation is in a form of symbol which has the same meaning and if your will be
reading this, for sure all of you have a common understanding with this. But let us take a look at
this mathematical symbols:
()=
∀ >0,∃ >0 →| − |< ,| ( )− |< ,

Did you understand what these symbols are? This mathematical sentence is a complex idea;
yet, it is contained and tamed into a concise statement. It may sound or look Greek to some
because without any knowledge of the language in which the ideas are expressed, the privilege
to understand and appreciate its grandeur can never be attained. Mathematics, being a language
in itself, may appear complex and difficult to understand simply because it uses a different
kind of alphabet and grammar structure. It uses a kind of language that has been historically
proven effective in communicating and transmitting mathematical realities. The language of
mathematics, like any other languages, can be learned; once learned, it allows us to see
fascinating things and provides us an advantage to comprehend and exploit the beauty of
beneath and beyond. Hence, in able to understand better different topics in mathematics, it is

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very important that you must learn first on how to read and understand different symbols in
mathematics which used in mathematical language.

A. Characteristics of Mathematical Language

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of thoughts that
mathematicians like to express.

It is:

1. precise (able to make very fine distinction)

2. concise (able to say things briefly); and
3. powerful (able to express complex thoughts with relative cases).

B. Vocabulary vs. Sentences

Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rules for combining
these words into complete thoughts (the sentences). Mathematics is no exception. As a first step
in discussing the mathematical language, we will make a very broad classification between the
‘nouns’ of mathematics (used to name mathematical objects of interest) and the ‘sentences’ of
mathematics (which state complete mathematical thoughts)’

You must study the Mathematics Vocabulary!

• Student must learn on how to use correctly the language of Mathematics, when and
where to use and figuring out the incorrect uses.
• Students must show the relationship or connections the mathematics language with the
natural language.
• Students must look backward or study the history of Mathematics in order to understand
more deeply why Mathematics is important in their daily lives.

Importance of Mathematical Language

• Major contributor to overall comprehension

• Vital for the development of Mathematics proficiency
• Enables both the teacher and the students to communicate mathematical knowledge with
precision

C. Comparison of Natural Language into Mathematical Language

The table below is an illustration on the comparison of a natural language

(expression or sentence) to a mathematical language.

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English Mathematics
Expressions
Name given to an Noun such as person, 2
object of interest. place and things and
pronouns 3–2

Example: 3x
a) Ernesto
b) Batangas City 3x + 2
c) Book
d) He ax + by + c
Sentence
It has a complete Group of words that
thought express a statement, 3+2=5
question or command.
a+b=c
Example:
a) Ernesto is a boy. ax + by + c = 0
b) He lives in Batangas City.
c) Allan loves to read book.
d) Run! (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
e) Do you love me?

D. Expressions versus Sentences

Ideas regarding sentences:

Ideas regarding sentences are explored. Just as English sentences have verbs, so do
mathematical sentences. In the mathematical sentence;

3+4=7

the verb is =. If you read the sentence as ‘three plus four is equal to seven, then it’s easy to hear
the verb. Indeed, the equal sign = is one of the most popular mathematical verb.

Example:

1. The capital of Philippines is Manila.

2. Rizal park is in Cebu.
3. 5+3=8
4. 5+3=9

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Connectives

A question commonly encountered, when presenting the sentence example 1 + 2 = 3 is

that;
If = is the verb, then what is + ?

The answer is the symbol + is what we called a connective which is used to connect
objects of a given type to get a ‘compound’ object of the same type. Here, the numbers 1 and 2
are connected to give the new number 1 + 2.

In English, this is the connector “and”. Cat is a noun, dog is a noun, cat and dog is a
‘compound’ noun.

Mathematical Sentence

Mathematical sentence is the analogue of an English sentence; it is a correct arrangement

of mathematical symbols that states a complete thought. It makes sense to as about the TRUTH
of a sentence: Is it true? Is it false? Is it sometimes true/sometimes false?

Example:

1. The capital of Philippines is Manila.

2. Rizal park is in Cebu.
3. 5+3=8
4. 5+3=9

Truth of Sentences

Sentences can be true or false. The notion of “truth” (i.e., the property of being true or
false) is a fundamental importance in the mathematical language; this will become apparent as
you read the book.

Conventions in Languages

Languages have conventions. In English, for example, it is conventional to capitalize

name (like Israel and Manila). This convention makes it easy for a reader to distinguish between
a common noun (carol means Christmas song) and proper noun (Carol i.e. name of a person).
Mathematics also has its convention, which help readers distinguish between different types of
mathematical expression.

Expression

An expression is the mathematical analogue of an English noun; it is a correct

arrangement of mathematical symbols used to represent a mathematical object of interest.

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An expression does NOT state a complete thought; in particular, it does not make sense
to ask if an expression is true or false.

E. Conventions in mathematics, some commonly used symbols, its meaning and an

example

a) Sets and Logic

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

F. Translating words into symbol

• Practical problems seldom, if ever, come in equation form. The job of the problem solver
is to translate the problem from phrases and statements into mathematical expressions
and equations, and then to solve the equations.

• As problem solvers, our job is made simpler if we are able to translate verbal phrases to
mathematical expressions and if we follow step in solving applied problems. To help us
translate from words to symbols, we can use the Mathematics Dictionary.

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Examples:
Let x be a number. Translate each phrase or sentence into a mathematical expression or
equation.

1.Twelve more than a number.

Ans.: 12+x

2.Eight minus a number.

Ans.: 8−x

3.An unknown quantity less fourteen.

Ans.: x−14

4.Six times a number is fifty-four.

Ans.: 6x=54

5. Two ninths of a number is eleven.

Ans.: (2/9)x=11

6. Three more than seven times a number is nine more than five times the

number. Ans.: 3+7x=9+5x

7. Twice a number less eight is equal to one more than three times the

number. Ans.: 2x−8=3x+1 or 2x−8=1+3x

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Lesson
2.2 Four Basic Concepts

Specific Objective

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Define what a set and its basic terminologies.
2. Differentiate two ways in describing sets.
3. Perform basic operations on set.
4. Define what a relation and a function is.
5. Translate relation and function into a diagram.
6. Name and apply the different properties of a relation
and function.
7. Identify the domain and range in a relation
and function.
8. Evaluate a function.
9. Define and perform a binary operation.

Introduction

In this module, it will be discussed the four basic concepts in mathematics such as
sets and its basic operation, the functions, relations and the binary operations.

Discussion:

I. SETS AND SUBSETS

A. The Language of Sets

Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term was introduced

in 1879 by Georg Cantor. For most mathematical purposes we can think of a set
intuitively, as Cantor did, simply as a collection of elements.

So, by definition:

A set is a collection of well-defined objects.

Illustration:

A set of counting numbers from 1 to 10.

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A set of an English alphabet from a to e.

A set of even numbers
A set of an integers

Note: A set is denoted with braces or curly brackets { } and label or name the set
by a capital letter such as A, B, C,…etc.

a. A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5.

A={1,2,3,4,5}

b. A set of English alphabet from a to

d. B = { a, b, c, d }

c. A set of all even positive integers.

C={2,4,6,8,…}

d. A set of an integers.
D = { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

Now, if S is a set, the notation x S means that x is an element of S. The notation x

S means that x is not an element of S.

So, what is an element of a set?

Element of a set
Each member of the set is called an element and the notation
means that an item belongs to a set.

Illustration:

Say A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
1 A;3 A;5 A
Is 6 is an element of set A? Since in a given set A above, we could not see six as
an element of set A, thus we could say that;

6 is not an element of set A or

6 A

Note: Each element is a set should be separated by comma.

Terminologies of Sets

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1. Unit Set

Unit set is a set that contains only one element.

Illustration:
A = { 1 }; B = { c }; C = { banana }

2. Empty set or Null set;

Empty or null set is a set that has no element.

Illustration:
A={ }
A set of seven yellow carabaos

3. Finite set

A finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is countable.

Illustration:
A={1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = { a, b, c, d }

4. Infinite set

An infinite set is a set that elements in a given set has no end or not
countable.
Illustration:

A set of counting numbers

A={…-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,…}

5. Cardinal Number; n

Cardinal number are numbers that used to measure the number of

elements in a given set. It is just similar in counting the total number of element in a set.

Illustration:
A={2,4,6,8} n=4
B = { a, c, e } n=3

6. Equal set

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Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only if they
have equal number of cardinality and the element/s are identical. There is a 1 -1
correspondence.

Illustration:
A={1,2,3,4,5} B={3,5,2,4,1} 7.
Equivalent set

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent if and only if

they have the exact number of element. There is a 1 – 1 correspondence.

Illustration:
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = { a, b, c, d, e }

8. Universal set

The universal set U is the set of all elements under discussion.

Illustration:

A set of an English alphabet

U = {a, b, c, d, …, z}

9. Joint Sets

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets if and only if they
have common element/s.

A={1,2,3}B={2,4,6}

Here, sets A and B are joint set since they have common
element such as 2.

10. Disjoint Sets

Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if and only

if they are mutually exclusive or if they don’t have common element/s.

A={1,2,3}B={4,6,8}

B. Two ways of Describing a Set

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1. Roster or Tabular Method

It is done by listing or tabulating the elements of the set.

2. Rule or Set-builder Method

It is done by stating or describing the common characteristics of the

elements of the set. We use the notation A = { x / x … }

Illustration:

a. A={1,2,3,4,5}
A = {x | x is a counting number from 1 to 5}
A = { x | x N, x < 6}

b. B = { a, b, c, d, …, z }
B = {x | x English alphabet}
B = { x | x is an English alphabet}

C. Subsets

A subset, A B, means that every element of A is also an element

of B.

If x A, then x B.
In particular, every set is a subset of itself, A A.

A subset is called a proper subset, A is a proper

subset of B, if A B and there is at least one element of B that is not in A:

If x A, then x B and there is an element b such that b

B and b A.

NOTE1: The empty set. or {} has no elements and is a subset of every set
for every set A, A A.

The number of subsets of a given set is given by 2n , where n is

the number of elements of the given set.

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Illustration:
How many subsets are there in a set

A = {1, 2, 3 }? List down all the subsets of set A. Number of subsets = 2n = 23 =

8 subsets

With one element

{1} ; {2} ; {3}

With two elements

{1,2} ; {1,3}; {2,3}

With three elements

{1,2,3}

With no elements
{}

D. Ordered Pair

Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair
consisting of a and b together with the specification that “a” is the first element of the
pair and “b” is the second element. Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff a = c
and b = d. Symbolically;

(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d

Illustration:

a) If (a, b) = (3, 2), what would be the value of a and b.

Here, by definition that two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff a = c
and b = d.
Hence, a = 3 and b = 2.

b) Find x and y if (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2).

Solution:

Since (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2), so

4x + 3 = 3x + 5
Solving for x, we got x = 2 and obviously y = – 2.

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E. OPERATION ON SETS

Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to produce another set.

Here are the basic operations on sets.

1. Union of Sets

The union of sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set defined as:

A B={x|x A or x B}

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then

A B={1,2,3,4,5}.

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then

A B={1,2,3,4,5}.

Note that elements are not repeated in a set.

2. Intersection of Sets

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set defined as :

A B={x|x A and x B}

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}

then A B = {1, 2} .

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}

then A B =

3. Difference of Sets

The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A - B , is the set

defined as

A-B={x|x A and x B}

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Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5}

then A - B = {3} .

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} ,

then A - B = {1, 2, 3} .

Example : 3 If A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {a, c, e } ,

then A - B = {b, d } .

Note that in general A - B B-A

4. Compliment of Set

For a set A, the difference U - A , where U is the universe, is called

the complement of A and it is denoted by Ac . Thus Ac is the set of
everything that is not in A.

Example: Let U = { a, e, i, o, u } and A = { a, e }

then Ac = { i, o u }

5. Cartesian Product

Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A x B

and read as “A cross B”, is the set of all ordered pair (a,b) where a is in A and b
is in B. Symbolically:
A x B = {(a, b) | a A and b B}

Note that A x B is not equal to B x A.

Illustration:

If A = { 1, 2} and B = {a, b}, what is A x B?

A x B = {(1,a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}. How many elements in a A x B?

Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then

A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} .

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Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,

B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)} .

Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among

sets, groups of objects that share something in common. Usually, Venn diagrams are used to
depict set intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter U). This type of diagram is used in
scientific and engineering presentations, in theoretical mathematics, in computer
applications, and in statistics.

Venn Diagram on Sets Operation

A. Union of Sets B. Intersection of Sets

C. Difference of Sets D. Complement

II. FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS

A. THE LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Sometimes, we asked ourselves that, “What is my relationship with other people,

with the environment and most of all, with the God?”

How strong is your relationship with your parents, brother, sister, friends and even
your teacher? Are we related by blood? Are we related through sharing a common ideas
and ideology? Also, we talked about relationship between student and teacher, a manager
and the subordinates or even people who share common religion, ethnic or culture.

How are we going to relate the word relation in Mathematics? The objects of
mathematics may be related in various ways. A set “A” may be said to be related to a set
“B” if A is a subset of B, or if A is not a subset of B, or if A and B have at least one
element in common. A number x may be said to be related to a number y if x < y, or if x
is a factor of y, or if x2 + y2 = 1.

To be able to understand better what a relation is all about more specifically if we

talked about relation in mathematics, let us have a simple illustration.

Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {2, 3, 4} and let us say that an element x in A is related to
an element y in B if and only if, x is less than y and let us use the notation x R y as
translated mathematical term for the sentence “x is related to y. Then, it follows that:

1 R 2 since 1 < 2
1 R 3 since 1 < 3
1 R 4 since 1 < 4
2 R 3 since 2 < 3
2 R 4 since 2 < 4
3 R 4 since 3 < 4.

Now, can we say that 1 R 1? Is 3 R 2?

Recall the Cartesian product. What are the elements of A x B? It is clearly stated A x
B = { (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4)}. Here, the elements of some
ordered pairs in A x B are related, whereas the element of other ordered pairs are not.

What are the elements (ordered pair) in A x B, based on the given conditions, that
are related? Perhaps your answer would be:

{ (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,4)}

Observe that knowing which ordered pairs lie in this set is equivalent to knowing
which elements are related to which. The relation can be therefore be thought of the
totality of ordered pairs whose elements are related by the given condition. The formal
mathematical definition of relation, based on this idea, was introduced by the American
mathematicians and logician C.S. Peirce in the nineteenth century.
What is a relation?

1. A relation from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y)
such that to each element x of the set X there corresponds at least one element
of the set Y.

2. Let A and B sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B. Given an

ordered pair (x, y) in A x B, x is related to y by R, written x R y, if and only if,
(x, y) is in R. The set A is called the domain of R and the set B is called its co-
domain.
Notation:

The notation for a relation R may be written symbolically as follows:

x R y meaning (x, y) R.

The notation x R y means that x is not related to y by R;

x R y meaning (x, y) R.
Example:

1. Given a set of an ordered pairs:

{(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

The domain are x = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

The co-domain are y = {-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0}

2. Let A = {1,2} and B = {1,2,3} and define a relation R from A to B as follows:

Given any (x,y) A x B,
(x,y) R means that −2 is an integer;

a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A x B and which are in R.

b. Is 1 R 3? Is 2 R 3? Is 2 R 2?
c. What are the domain and the co-domain of R?
Solution:

a. A x B = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2),(2,3). To determine explicitly the

composition of R, examine each ordered pair in A x B to see whether its element
satisfy the defining condition for R.
(1,1) R because 1−21 = 02 = 0, which is an integer.
(1,2) R because 1−22 = −21, which is not an integer.
(1,3) R because 1−23 = 0−22 = −1, which is an integer.
(2,1) R because 2−21 = 12, which is not an integer.

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(2,2) R because 2−22 = 02 = 0, which is an integer.
(2,3) R because 2−23 = −21, which is not an integer.

Thus, R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

b. Yes! 1 R 3 because (1,3) R

No! 2 R 3 because (2,3) R.
Yes! 2 R 2 because (2,2) R.

c. The domain of R is {1,2} and the co-domain is {1,2,3}

C. ARROW DIAGRAM OF A RELATION

Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. The arrow diagram for R is

obtained as follows:

1. Represent the elements of A as a points in one region and the elements of B as

points in another region.
2. For each x in A and y in B, draw an arrow from x to y, and only if, x is related
to y by R. Symbolically:

Draw an arrow from x to y

If and only if, x R y
If and only if, (x, y) R.
Example:
1. Given a relation {(1, 2),(0, 1),(3, 4),(2, 1),(0, −2)}. Illustrate the given relation
into an arrow diagram.

0 -2
1 1

2 2

3 4

2. What is the domain and co-domain of an example 1?

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The domain are as follows: {0, 1, 2, 3}

The co-domain are as follows: {-2, 1, 2, 4}

3. Let A = {1,2,3} and b = {1,3,5} and define relations S and T from A to B as

follows:
For all (x, y) A x B, (x,y) S means that x < y, i.e., S is a “less than”
relation.

T = {(2,1), (2,5)}
Draw arrow diagrams for S and T.

Solution:

A x B = {(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5)}. It is given
by x < y so S = {(1,3), (1,5), (2,3), (2,5), (3,5)}

1 1

2 3

3 5

1 1

2 3

3 5

D. PROPERTIES OF A RELATION

When a relation R is defined from a set A into the same set A, the three properties
are very useful such as reflexive, symmetric and the transitive.

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A. Reflexive

A relation R on A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is related to itself. In

notation, a R a for all a A.

Examples of reflexive relations include:

_ "is equal to" (equality)

_ "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
_ "is less than or equal to" and "is greater than or equal to" (inequality)
_ "divides" (divisibility).

An example of a non-reflexive relation is the relation "is the father of" on a set of
people since no person is the father of themself.
When looking at an arrow diagram, a relation is reflexive if every element of A has an
arrow pointing to itself. For example, the relation in a given figure below is a reflexive relation.

B. Symmetric

A relation R on A is symmetric if given a R b then b R a.

For example, "is married to" is a symmetric relation, while, "is less than" is not.
The relation "is the sister of" is not symmetric on a set that contains a brother and sister
but would be symmetric on a set of females. The arrow diagram of a symmetric relation
has the property that whenever there is a directed arrow from a to b, there is also a
directed arrow from b to a.

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C. Transitive

A relation R on A is transitive if given a R b and b R c then a R c.

Examples of reflexive relations include:

_ "is equal to" (equality)

_ "is a subset of" (set inclusion)
_ "is less than or equal to" and "is greater than or equal to" (inequality)
_ "divides" (divisibility).

On the other hand, "is the mother of" is not a transitive relation, because if Maria is the
mother of Josefa, and Josefa is the mother of Juana, then Maria is not the mother of Juana.

The arrow diagram of a transitive relation has the property that whenever there are
directed arrows from a to b and from b to c then there is also a directed arrow from a to c:

A relation that is refexive, symmetric, and transitive is called an

equivalence relation on A.

Examples of equivalence relations include:

_ The equality ("=") relation between real numbers or sets.

_ The relation "is similar to" on the set of all triangles.
_ The relation "has the same birthday as" on the set of all human beings.

On the other hand, the relation " " is not an equivalence relation on the set of all
subsets of a set A since this relation is not symmetric.

E. WHAT IS A FUNCTION?

A function is a relation in which every input is paired with exactly one output.

A function from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y) in
which no two distinct ordered pairs have the same first component. Similar to a relation,

66
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

the values of x is called the domain of the function and the set of all resulting value of y
is called the range or co-domain of the function.

A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with domain and co-domain

B that satisfies the following two properties:

1. For every element x in A, there is an element y in B such that (x,y) F.

2. For all elements x in A and y and z in B,
If (x,y) F and (x,z) F, then y = z

These two properties; (1) and (2) can be stated less formally as follows:

1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F.

2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.

• Is a function a relation? Focus on the x-coordinates, when given a relation.

• If the set of ordered pairs have different x-coordinates, it is a function.
• If the set of ordered pairs have same x-coordinates, it is NOT a function but it
could be said a relation.

Note:
a) Y-coordinates have no bearing in determining functions
b) Function is a relation but relation could not be said as function.

Example 1: Determine if the following is a function or not a function.

1. {(0, -5), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

2. {(-1, -7), (1, 0), (2, -3), (0, -8), (0, 5), (-2, -1)}

3. 2x + 3y – 1 = 0

4. x2 + y2 = 1

5. y2 = x + 1

Example 2. Which of the following mapping represent a function?

1.
3 1

0 2 67

1 3
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
 2.

1 1

2 2
3 3

Function Notations:

The symbol f(x) means function of x and it is read as “f of x.” Thus, the
equation y = 2x + 1 could be written in a form of f(x) = 2x + 1 meaning y = f(x). It can be
stated that y is a function of x.

Let us say we have a function in a form of f(x) = 3x – 1. If we replace x =

1, this could be written as f(1) = 3(1) – 1. The notation f(1) only means that we substitute
the value of x = 1 resulting the function value. Thus

f(x) = 3x – 1; let x = 1
f(1) = 3(1) – 1 = 3 – 1 = 2.

Another illustration is given a function g(x) = x2 – 3 and let x = -2,

then g(-2) = (-2)2 – 3 = 1
Operations on Functions

The following are definitions on the operations on functions.

a. The sum or difference of f and g, denoted by f ± g is the function defined by

(f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x).

b. The product of f and g, denoted by f · g is the function defined by (f·g)(x) = f(x)·g(x).

c. The quotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the function defined by f(x)/g(x), where
g(x) is not equal to zero.

d. The composite function of f and g denoted by f ο g is the function defined by (f ο

g)(x) = f(g(x)). Similarly, the composite function of g by f, denoted by g ο f, is the
function defined by ( g ο f)(x) = g(f(x)).

Examples:

1. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (f+g)(x)?

Solution:
 (f+g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
= (2x + 1) + (3x + 2)
= 2x + 3x + 1 + 2
= 5x + 3

2. What is (f • g)(x) if f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2?

Solution:

(f • g)(x) = f(x) • g(x)

= (2x + 1)(3x + 2)
= 6x2 + 7x + 2
3. What is ( ) ( ) if f(x) = 2a + 6b and g(x) = a + 3b? Solution:
()()= ( ) ( )= + + = (+ )+ =

4. If f(x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = 3x + 2, what is (g f)(x)?

Solution:

(g f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(2x + 1) = 3(2x + 1) + 2 = 6x + 3 + 2 = 6x + 5

= {( , )| = + ; , ∈ , < }

III. BINARY OPERATIO

A binary operation on a set G, then, is simply a method (or formula) by which the
members of an ordered pair from G combine to yield a new member of G. This condition
is called closure. The most familiar binary operations are ordinary addition,
subtraction, and multiplication of integers. Division of integers is not a binary
operation on the integers because an integer divided by an integer need not be an
integer.

In mathematics, a binary operation on a set is a

calculation that combines two elements of the set (called
operands) to produce another element of the set.

Definition of Binary Operations

Let G be a non-empty set. An operation * on G is said to be a binary operation on

G if for every pair of elements, a, b is in G that is a,b G; the product a * b G.

Note: For each (a,b) G, we assign an element a * b of G.

Illustrative examples:

Tell whether the following is a binary operation or not.

 1) G Z define a * b = a + b (usual addition on Z)

Solution:

Let a Z and b Z. If we add a and b, then the sum a + b Z. Hence a * b = a + b is a

binary operation.

2) G Z define a * b = ab (usual multiplication on Z)

Solution:

Let a, b Z. Then the product of a and b, that is ab Z. Hence a * b = ab is a

binary operation.

+
3) G R defined by a * b = a + 17b

Solution:

Let a, b R+. If we take the sum of a + 17b R+. Hence it is a binary operation.

4) G Z+, defined * by a * b = a – b for all set a, b Z+.

Solution:

If a > b = a – b > 0 Z+

If a < b = a – b < 0 Z+

Therefore, * is NOT a binary operation

5) G R defined by a * b = ab

To be able to determine if the above statement is a binary operation or not,

we need to have a counter example.

If a = 0 and b = 0, then ab does not exist, hence it is not an element of R

If a = -4 and b = ½, then ab would be an element of a complex number C, so ab

R.

6) G Z \{-1} , defined * by a * b = a + b + ab for all set a, b Z.

Solution

Let a, b Z except -1, then a > -1

and b > -1 and a < -1 and b < -1. If a * b
 = a + b + ab, it follows that a * b = a + b + ab Z since in both case such as a
and b > -1 and a and b < -1, the result would be Z, hence * is a binary operation.

CLOSED
Definition: A set is “closed” under operation if the operation assigns to every
ordered pair of elements from the set an element of the set.

Illustrative examples:

1) Is S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is closed under usual addition?

Solution:
By giving a counter example, S = { ±1, ±3, ±5, ±7, …} is NOT closed under
usual addition. Why? Let us say we are going to a 1 and 3. The sum of 1 and 3 is 4
where 4 is not an element of S. Hence, it is not closed.

2) Let + and • be usual binary operations of addition and multiplication of Z

and let H = {n2 | n Z+}. Is H closed under addition? Under multiplication?
Solution:

a. To be able to determine if H is closed under addition, we need to have a

counter-example. Let us take two elements in Z, say 1 and 4. If we are going to
add this two numbers, the result would be 5 and obviously, 5 n2 or 5 is not a
perfect square. Hence, H is not closed under addition.
b. Let r H and s H. Using H x H (r, s) = r • s. Since r H and s H, that means there
must be an integers n and m Z+ such that r = n2 and s = m2. So;

(r, s) = r • s = n2 • m2 = (nm)2
and n, m Z+. It follows that nm Z+, then (nm)2 H. Hence, H is closed under
multiplication.
Example. Consider the binary operation ∗ on R given by
x ∗ y = x + y − 3. (x ∗ y) ∗ z = (x + y − 3) ∗ z = (x + y − 3) + z − 3 = x + y + z − 6, x ∗ (y ∗ z) = x ∗ (y + z − 3) = x + (y + z − 3) − 3 = x + y + z − 6.

Therefore, ∗ is associative. Since x ∗ y = x + y − 3 = y + x − 3 = y ∗ x, ∗ is commutative.

Example. Consider the binary operation * on R given by a*b = ab/2. Show

that a*b = b*c.

Solution:

Let a*b = ab/2. We need to show that a*b = b*a. In b*a = ba/2. But
by commutative properties under multiplication, that is ab = ba, then it follows
that b*a = ab/2. Hence a*b = b*a
Definition:
Let be a binary operation of a set S. Then;

(a) is associative if for all a, b, c S, (a b) c = a (b c)

(b) is commutative if for all a, b S, a b = b a

(c) An element e S is called a left identity element if for all a S, we have e a =

a

(d) An element e S is called a right identity element if for all a S, we have a e

=a

(e) An element e S is called an identity element if for all a S, we have a e = a

and e a = a.

(f) Let e be an identity element is S and a S, then b is called an inverse of the

element “a” if a b = e and b a = e.

Note that a b = b a = e or a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e

If a S, then the inverse of “a” is denoted by a-1. Here -1 is not an

exponent of a.

Example: Let S = Z+ as define on S by a b = a + b – ab. Show the associativity

and the commutativity of S in a binary operation. Find also its identity and inverse if
any.

(a) Associativity

Let a, b, c Z+. Then; (a b) c = a (b c)

For (a b) c

(a b) c = (a + b – ab) c

= (a + b – ab) + c - (a + b – ab)c
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

= a + b + c – ab – ac – bc + abc

For a (b c)

a (b c) = a (b + c – bc)

= a + (b + c – bc) – (a)(b + c – bc)

= a + b + c – bc – ab – ac + abc

Hence is associative on S Z+.

(b) Commutative

a b=b a
a + b – ab = b + a – ba
a + b – ab = a + b – ab

Hence is commutative on S Z+ .

(c) Identity

a*e=a e*a=a

a + e – ae = a e + a – ea = a

e – ae = a – a e – ea = a – a

e(1 – a) = 0 e(1 – a) = 0

e=0 e=0

hence, the identity exist except when a = 1.

(d) Inverse

a * a-1 = e a-1 * a = e

Example: Let S = Z+ as define on S by a b = a 2 + ab + b2. Is the operation

associative? Commutative? What is its identity? What is its inverse?

(a) Commutative

a b=b a
 a2 + ab + b2 = b2 + ba + a2

a2 + ab + b2 = a2 + ab + b2
Hence, the operation is commutative.

(b) Associative

(a b) c=a (b c)

(a2 + ab + b2 ) c = a (b2 + bc + c2 )

(a2 + ab + b2 )2 + (a2 + ab + b2 )(c) + c2 a2 + (a)( b2 + bc + c2 ) + (b2 + bc + c2 )2

Hence, the operation is not associative.

Cayley Tables

A (binary) operation on a finite set can be represented by a table. This is a square

grid with one row and one column for each element in the set. The grid is filled in so that
the element in the row belonging to x and the column belonging to y is x*y.

A binary operation on a finite set (a set with a limited number of elements) is

often displayed in a table that demonstrates how the operation is performed.

Example: The table below is a table for a binary operation on the set {a, b, c, d}

a b C d
a a b C d
b b c D a
c c d A b
d d a B c

a. Is the commutative?
b. Is the associative?
c. What is its identity?
 Lesson Logic and Formality
2.3

Specific Objective

At the end of this lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Define what logic is.

2. Tell whether the statement is formal or non-formal.
3. Show the relationship between grammar in English and logic in
Mathematics.

Introduction

What comes first in your mind when we speak about logic? Do you have any idea what
logic is all about? Could we say that if a person thinks correctly, then he has logic? Perhaps until
now, there are some people arguing whether a logic is an art or it is a science. Now, whether it is
an art or a science, studying logic could be very important not only in the field of mathematics
but in other sciences such as natural science and social science. On this module, we will studying
the fundamental concept of logic but basically logic as mathematical language.

Discussion

I. What is logic?

In this particular module, we are going to talk about logic as a mathematical

language but a deeper discussion logic as a science as well as its application will be tackled
in module 6. It is very essential to understand better what logic is as a language.

But first, let us have a definition in logic. In your social science courses, logic
could define as the study of the principles of correct reasoning and it is not a psychology of
reasoning. Based on the definition which is logic is the study of the principle of correct
reasoning, one of the principles in logic that is very much important to study is on how to
determine the validity of ones argument. Studying mathematics is also studying theorems.
The proof of the theorem uses the principle of arguments in logic. So, in this case, we could
say actually that the language of mathematics is logic.
In short, mathematical statement is also a grammar. In English, when we construct
a sentence or sentences, we always check if it is grammatically correct but in Mathematics,
we check mathematical statement or sentence in a logical structure. Wherever you go, we
have a common language in mathematics. In order not to conflict with in an English word,
we use appropriate symbols in mathematics so that there will no ambiguity on how to
communicate as to the meaning of a mathematical expression or even in mathematical
sentences
II. Formality
As stated by Heylighen F. and Dewaele J-M in the “Formality of Language:
Definition and Measurement”, an expression is completely formal when it is context-
independent and precise (i.e. non-fuzzy), that is, it represents a clear distinction which is
invariant under changes of context. In mathematics, we are always dealing in a formal way.
Suppose that somebody asked you that the result of adding 5 to 3 is 8 or let us say
that if a variable x is an even number then the square of this variable x would be also an
even number, you would agree that both mathematical sentences or statements are true and
there is no reason for you to doubt. Those two examples statements are precise and it is also
an independent. These are the two characteristics in mathematics that the statement must
have to say the mathematical sentence is in a formal manner. Speaking of statement,
statement is the main component of logic in mathematics.
When we say mathematical logic, it is a statements about mathematical objects
that are taken seriously as mathematical objects in their own right. More generally, in
mathematical logic we formalize, that is, we formulate in a precise mathematical way its
definition, theorem, lemma, conjecture, corollary, propositions and the methods of proof
which will be discussed in our next lesson. These are the major part of formality in
mathematics.
a) Definition

One of the major parts of formality in mathematics is the definition itself.

When we say definition, it is a formal statement of the meaning of a word or group of words
and it could stand alone.

Example of this is a definition of a right triangle. What is the exact or

formal definition of this? A right triangle consists of two legs and a hypotenuse. The two
legs meet at a 90° angle and the hypotenuse is the longest side of the right triangle and is the
side opposite the right angle. Here, you will see the exactness and the precision of the
definition of a right triangle.

Now suppose we are going to define “carabao”. Can you give a definition
for this? Maybe, some of you will define a carabao is a black and strong animal helps the
farmer in plowing the rice field. But, have you noticed that this is not a formal definition?
How about the cow and the horse? These are also an animal that could also help the farmers
in plowing the field. How about the machine tractor? Are we not consider this machine that
could possibly help our farmers in plowing the rice field? So, we cannot say that is a formal
definition since it cannot stand alone.

b) Theorem
Another statement that could we consider as a formal statement is the
theorem. You will encounter this word in all books of mathematics especially if it is pure
mathematics. In your algebra subject during your high school days, have you studied
different laws and principles in mathematics? These are just really theorems that proven true
and justified using the concept of mathematical logic and all you need to do is to apply those
laws and principles, isn’t it? But what does theorem means? A theorem is a statement that
can be demonstrated to be true by accepted mathematical operations and arguments. In
 general, a theorem is an embodiment of some general principle that makes it part of a larger
theory. The process of showing a theorem to be correct is called a proof.
An example of a theorem that we all know is the Pythagorean Theorem.
This is a very well-known theorem in mathematics. The theorem stated that the square of the
hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. If the
hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle, or the long side) is called c and the other two
sides are a and b, then this theorem with the formula a2 + b2 = c2. You will notice that the
theorem is precise in a form of if-then statement. The if-then statement is one of the
statements in logic.
So, a statement could not be considered theorem unless it was proven true
using mathematical logic.
c) Proof
To be able to say that a theorem is true, it should be undergo on the process of
proving. But what do we mean by proof or a mathematical proof. Proof is a rigorous
mathematical argument which unequivocally demonstrates the truth of a given proposition.
The different methods on proof are as follows:
1. Deductive
2. Inductive
3. Direct Proof
4. Indirect Proof
5. Proof by Counterexample
6. Proof by Contradiction
All of these methods of proof are written together with the correct mathematical
logic and precise. Discussion and illustrative examples on these different methods of proof
will be tackled in module 3.
d) Proposition
When we say proposition, it is a declarative statement that is true or false but not
both. This statement is another major part of formality since all types of proposition are
precise and concise. Different propositions that can be also said as logical connectives are
as follows:
1. Negation

How does the statement translate into its negation. Say, given any
statement P, another statement called the negation of P can be formed by writing “It is false
that …” before P, or if possible, by inserting in P the word “not”.

For example, the given statement is “Roderick attends Mathematics

class”. Translating this into its negation, the new statement would be “Roderick will not attend
Mathematics class” or it could be “It is false that Roderick attends Mathematics class”.
2. Conjunction
Another logical connective is what we called conjunction. If two
statements are combined by the word “and”, then the proposition is called conjunction. In other
words, any two statements can be combined by the word “and” to form a composite statement
which is called the conjunction of the original statements.
An example for this is, let us say the first statement is “Ernesto is
handsome” and the second statement is “Ernesto is rich”. The new statement after connecting
this two statements by the word “and”, this would become “Ernesto is handsome and Ernesto is
rich market”.

4. Disjunction
5.
Disjunction is another form of proposition. Any two statements can
be combined by the word “or” to form a new statement which is called the disjunction of the
original two statements.

Let us have an example for this kind of proposition. Say, the first
statement is “Life is beautiful” while the second statement is “Life is challenging. Now,
combining these two statements by the word “or” the new combined statement is “Life is
beautiful or life is challenging.”

4. Conditional
The fourth type of proposition is that what we called conditional.
To be able to easily identify that the proposition is in a form of conditional statement, you will
notice of the word “If-then”. Most of mathematical definition is in a form of this statement. So,
in other words, it is state that a true statement cannot imply a false statement. In this
proposition, the first statement would be a premise and the second statement is the conclusion.
Let us have an example for this. Say the premise is “If x is
positive, then its square is also positive.” We can show the proposition is true with the use of
one of the methods of proving.

5. Biconditional
The last type of proposition is the biconditional. Its uses a
connector for two statements “if an only if”. If your statement is in this form, then your statement
is called biconditional.
Here is one of the examples of a biconditional statement. Let us say our first statement is “I will
attend mass.” The second statement is “Tomorrow is Sunday.” So, the new statement using
biconditional statement would be “I will attend mass if and only if tomorrow is Sunday.”
Now, supposedly our statement goes like this. “Let’s go!” Can we
considered this as a precise formal statement? Perhaps you will be saying no since you may be
asking; Who will be my companion?; What time are we going to go?; Where will we go?. This
statement is not precise hence it is not formal.
All of these statements can be transformed into symbols. More details and
specific lesson about this will be tackled in module 6.
 e) Corollary

What is corollary? When we say corollary in mathematics, it is also a

proposition that follows with little or no proof required from one already proven. An example of
this is it is a theorem in geometry that the angles opposite two congruent sides of a triangle are also
congruent. A corollary to that statement is that an equilateral triangle is also equiangular.

f) Lemma
Another formal statement is a lemma and it can also be considered as a
theorem. The only difference of a lemma into a theorem is that lemma is a short theorem used in
proving a larger theorem. As we all know that a theorem is a precise statement since it was
proved to be true with the use of mathematical logic. So, it is precise. If lemma is a shorter
version of a larger theorem and theorem is a precise statement, we could say that a lemma is also
a precise statement.
Let us have a concrete presentation for a lemma. Let us say the theorem
stated that “Let f be a function whose derivative exists in every point, then f is a continuous
function.” Then another theorem about Pythagorean and this theorem is about right triangles that
can be summarized in an equation x2 + y2 = z2. The consequence on the previous theorem is
stated in a corollary which is “There is no right triangle whose sides measure 3cm, 4cm and 6cm.
Now, we can more simplify our given theorem in a form of “Given two line segments whose
lengths are a and b respectively, there is a real number r such that b = ra”.
g) Conjecture
A proposition which is consistent with known data, but has neither been
verified nor shown to be false. It is synonymous or identical with hypothesis also known as
educated guess. We can only disproved the truthfulness of a conjecture when after using a
counterexample we found at least one that says the statement is false. Let us say we have 75
different balls in a bingo urn labelled as 1 – 75. What will be our conjecture? We could say that
“All number in an urn is a counting number from 1 to 75.