KQ 3 Revision Notes

The Collapse of International Peace by

1939

What are the key questions to ask about the causes of the Second World War?

 Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939?
 Could the British policy of Appeasement be justified?
 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of the war?
 What were the long-term consequences for international relations of weaknesses
in the Paris Peace Treaties?
 What were the consequences of the failure of the League of Nations in the 1930s?
 How important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact in causing the war?

What were Hitler’s main foreign policy plans?

 Abolish the Treaty of Versailles - a constant reminder of German humiliation that

had been signed by the ‘November Criminals’.
 Expand German territory - regain territory lost in 1919; unite with Austria; re-
absorb German-speaking minorities in other countries, e.g., Czechoslovakia. i.e.,
create a ‘Greater Germany.’
 Lebensraum - carve out an empire in eastern Europe in order to provide extra
‘living space’ for the expanding German population.
 Defeat communism - Hitler hated communism and believed that the Bolsheviks
had helped defeat Germany in the First World War and wanted to take over
Germany.
 Keep pushing his luck to see how much he could get away with.
What measures did Hitler take to achieve German re-armament?

 Re-armament began in secret at first, then continued more openly.

 1934 League of Nations disarmament conference collapsed.
 1935 Hitler staged a massive rally, celebrating the German armed forces.
 1935 Anglo-German naval agreement - Germany builds up naval strength to 35%
of RN. This Agreement allowed Germany 45% of Britain’s submarines
 1936 Conscription re-introduced, breaking the Versailles Treaty.
 Thousands of unemployed workers drafted into the army
 Armaments spending increases from 7.4% in 1935 to 23% in 1939.
 30 warships in 1932 increased to 95 warships in 1939.
 36 military aircraft in 1932 increased to 8,250 in 1939.
 100,000 soldiers in 1932 increased to 950,000 in 1939.

Why was Hitler allowed to get away with re-armament?

 Re-armament began in secret.

 Many other countries were using re-armament to help tackle unemployment.
 The collapse of the League of Nations disarmament conference in 1934 suggested
that other countries weren’t serious about disarmament - so why should Germany
be?
 Britain had some sympathy with Germany when it claimed that the disarmament
clauses of the Versailles Treaty had been too harsh.
 A militarily strong Germany would be a buffer against the Communist threat from
the USSR.

What were the main developments in Hitler’s expansionist foreign policy?

 1935 Saar Plebiscite - 90% voted to return to German rule, having been run by the
League of Nations since 1919. Entirely legal, and a boost to Hitler’s prestige. The
rich coal-mining area came back under German control and was a tremendous
propaganda success for Hitler
 1936 Remilitarisation of the Rhineland - a gamble that paid off. France had just
signed a treaty with the USSR to protect each other against Germany; and Hitler
used this to argue that Germany was under threat and should be allowed to place
troops on her own frontier – in reality Austria’s soldiers, weapons and its rich
deposits of gold, iron ore and salt would be added to Germany’s increasingly
strong army and industry; many in Britain felt Germany was only going into ‘its
own back yard’; the French would not act without British support; the League
issued a condemnation, but no more (its attention was distracted by Abyssinia at
the time). Another boost to Hitler’s prestige.
 1938 The Anschluss with Austria - Hitler stated in Mein Kampf that he wanted to
create a Greater Germany and to overthrow the Treaty of Versailles. Anschluss
had been forbidden by the Treaty and so a union would help him achieve both
these aims. Austria’s soldiers, weapons and its rich deposits of gold, iron ore and
salt would be added to Germany’s increasingly strong army and industry to make
it more powerful easier to do now that Hitler and Mussolini were allies (Mussolini
had prevented it in 1934); Chamberlain felt that it should be allowed and that
Versailles had been wrong to forbid it; In 1934 Hitler used the Austrian Nazi Party
 to put pressure on the Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss. In 1934 the Austrian Nazi
Party murdered Dollfuss during an attempted takeover. In 1938 Hitler encouraged
the Nazis to stir up trouble for the Austrian government. They staged
demonstrations calling for union with Germany and caused riots. Hitler told the
Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg that only Anschluss could solve the problems of
disorder in Austria. The new Austrian Chancellor, Seyss-Inquart, asked Germany
to send troops to restore law and order. German troops marched in in March to
guarantee a trouble-free plebiscite on the issue, and under the eye of the Nazi
troops 99.75% of Germans and Austrians voted for it.
 1938 The Sudetenland - Part of Czechoslovakia was the Sudetenland where
3,500,000 German-speaking people lived. One of Hitler’s aims was to unite
German-speaking people. Konrad Henlein, leader of the Nazis in the Sudetenland,
stirred up trouble and demanded to be part of Germany; Hitler said that Germans
in the Sudetenland were being mistreated by the Czechs, and that he was prepared
to fight Czechoslovakia for the Sudetenland. International tension rose and war
seemed likely; but after several meetings, the leaders of Germany, Britain, France
and Italy agreed at Munich to transfer the Sudetenland to Germany; Chamberlain
said this policy of Appeasement would mean ‘peace for our time’.
 Munich Agreement - It was an Agreement signed by Hitler, Mussolini,
Chamberlain and Daladier on 29th September, 1938. The Sudetenland was to be
handed over to Germany immediately. This had been agreed at Bad Godesberg a
week before. Poland was given Teschen and Hungary received South Slovakia.
Britain, Germany, Italy and France guaranteed the rest of Czechoslovakia. It
included the Skoda works which produced armaments. It took away most of the
Czech defences. It made it easier to take the rest of Czechoslovakia.
 1939 Invasion of the rest of Czechoslovakia - March 1939, with Czechoslovakia
in chaos, German troops took over the rest of the country, with no resistance from
the Czechs. Britain and France did nothing, except warn Hitler that if he invaded
Poland they would declare war on Germany. It was clear that Appeasement was
over.
 1939 Invasion of Poland - by the Nazi-Soviet Pact Hitler and Stalin decided to
divide Poland between them, and German troops invaded on 1 September 1939.
Britain and France declared war on 2 September.

Why did Britain and France fail to resist the Anschluss?

 Britain and France had suffered heavily in the First world War and wanted to
avoid war at all costs. This did not seem to be a strong enough reason to take
military action.
 Britain and France were not ready for war. They were unsure they would defeat
Hitler if it came to war.
 Although Britain did not want to take action, the French were more interested as
they had suffered more from German aggression. The two powers could not agree
and France would not take action without Britain.
 There were those who thought the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh on Germany
and that there should be the Anschluss.
 Mussolini had stepped in and stopped the Anschluss in 1934, but Britain and
France could not rely on this intervention in 1938 when Hitler and Mussolini had
such a strong friendship
Why, by 1936, was Italy a threat to world peace?

 In Italy economic problems encouraged Mussolini to try to build an overseas

empire to distract people’s attention away from the difficulties the government
faced. In 1935 he invaded Abyssinia and refused to obey the League of Nations by
withdrawing.
 Italy was a leading member of the League. Mussolini challenged the authority of
the League. Italy was, unlike Japan, on the League’s doorstep and even had a
border with France. The lack of decisive action by the League over Mussolini
meant he became more confident.
 In 1936, Mussolini supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War. He sent arms and
troops to fight the Spanish government. With the arrival of Hitler’s troops and
weapons in Spain, the three dictators increased tension in European affairs.
 In 1936, Mussolini and Hitler cemented their friendship with the signing of the
Rome-Berlin Axis. This was to bear fruit in the future over Munich and the War.

Why, by 1937, was Japan a threat to world peace?

 Japan had been a permanent member of the League of Nations when it was set up,
but her actions in the 1930s constantly undermined the League and her aggression
threatened world peace. In 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria, which was completely
against the League’s aim to prevent aggression.
 Japan took over provinces in north China between 1933 and 1936. Japan refused
to obey the League of Nations and left. Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact.

Why was Hitler involved in the Spanish Civil War?

 Hitler believed in the Nationalist views expressed by Franco. Hitler wanted to

give support to Franco to save Spain from ‘communist barbarism’.
 Hitler hoped to gain raw materials for his armaments industry, such as iron,
copper, mercury and pyrites.
 Hitler wanted to try out all his military forces and test blitzkrieg tactics. He used
carpet bombing for the first time.
 Hitler hoped to divert British and French attention from Central and Eastern
Europe when planning his eastern expansion.

How did Germany get involved in Spanish Civil War?

 Hitler supported the Nationalists from late July, 1936. He sent transport planes so
Franco could move his troops and equipment from Morocco to Spain. At the end
of 1936, Hitler set up the Condor Legion, which was to assist Franco in Spain. It
consisted of personnel and equipment from the army, air force and navy. Hitler’s
troops tried out new tactics such as carpet bombing as in Guernica and blitzkrieg
tactics as at the offensive on Bilbao. The Condor Legion was constantly getting
Franco’s troops out of trouble. Hitler sent 2 pocket battleships, a cruiser, torpedo
boats and U-boats. Hitler sent a considerable amount of food, fuel and weapons.
Aid had added up to £43 million by May 1939.
What happened in Guernica in April 1937?

 Guernica was bombed. Germany used the Luftwaffe/Condor Legion. Over 1500
civilians were killed. The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of Franco.
The Germans used blitzkrieg tactics. The town was devastated with waves of
bombing. Planes bombed and strafed targets in Guernica. The Germans used
thermite as an incendiary to create a firestorm in the centre of the town. The attack
took place in daylight. The attack was a test for the German air force.

How significant was German involvement in the Spanish Civil War 1936-39?

 It was an opportunity for Hitler to fight against Communism, by sending German

assistance to General Franco’s right-wing rebels in their resistance against the
Communists who were supporting the Republican government.
 It gave Hitler the opportunity to try out his new armed forces in combat conditions
- German aircraft made devastating raids on Spanish cities, including Guernica.
 It gave Hitler something in common with Mussolini, also heavily involved in the
war.

What was the significance of the Anti-Comintern Pact 1936-37?

 Hitler and Mussolini realised they had much in common with the military
dictatorship in Japan. 1936 Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact
 1937 Italy signed the Pact, which became known as the Axis Alliance.
 The aim of the Pact was to limit the influence of Communism around the world,
and was aimed especially at the USSR.

Why did Britain and France follow a policy of Appeasement in the 1930s?

 Communism - Some admired Hitler for standing up to Communism - they were

more worried about the threat of Stalin to world peace than the threat of Hitler. A
strong Germany could be a buffer against Communism.
 The British Empire - It was not certain that the British Empire and
Commonwealth (e.g. Canada, Australia) would all support Britain in a war against
Germany.
 The Great War - Britain and France were desperate to avoid another war like the
First World War - at almost any cost.
 The USA - American leaders were determined not to be dragged into another war,
so Britain and France were reluctant to fight Germany without the support of the
USA.
 Versailles - many felt the Versailles Treaty had been unfair on Germany, and
assumed that once this was put right Germany would want to be a peaceful nation
again.
 Economic problems - Britain and France were still suffering from the Great
Depression, with large debts and unemployment, and many felt that this should
have a higher priority than tackling Hitler.

Why were Britain and France prepared to sign the Munich Agreement?
 Britain and France wanted to avoid war at all costs. Both countries had suffered
badly during the First World War and they did not want a repeat. They were,
therefore, willing to sacrifice part of an ally to avoid conflict.
 Many Conservatives thought that the communist threat from Russia was a greater
danger than Hitler. It was worth giving away part of an ally so that Hitler’s
Germany would be a buffer against communist expansion westwards.
 British military chiefs told Chamberlain that Britain was not strong enough to
fight against Hitler and their assessment was that France was weak and divided.
Chamberlain realised he needed time to speed up British rearmament.

What criticisms can be made of the policy of Appeasement?

 It encouraged Hitler to be aggressive - each gamble he got away with encouraged

him to take further risks.
 It put too much faith in Hitler’s promises - in the mistaken belief that Hitler was
trustworthy and honourable.
 It allowed Germany to become too strong - it was becoming militarily more
powerful than Britain and France.
 Britain misjudged Hitler’s ruthlessness because he broke agreements and he was
willing to use force. If Britain had worked with France, Hitler could have been
checked over the Rhineland and then, fighting with the French and Czechs,
avoided the occupation of the Sudetenland and the rest of Czechoslovakia.
 Appeasement was not justifiable. At Munich Hitler was granted the Sudetenland
in Czechoslovakia and he promised that this was the end of his demands on
Czechoslovakia. It was not justifiable to give away part of a country to keep the
peace, especially as a few months later Hitler took over all of Czechoslovakia.
 If war had broken out in October 1938, Britain and France would have had the
support of the 36 divisions of the Czech army fighting behind their well prepared
defences. The Soviet Union would probably have remained neutral.
 It alarmed the USSR - by sending a message that Britain and France would not
stand in the way of Hitler’s plans to expand eastwards; thus contributing to the
Nazi-Soviet Pact.

In what ways can Appeasement be regarded as a justifiable policy?

 Supporters of Chamberlain said it was the only option available. During the 1st
World War, Chamberlain was Director General of National Service and had seen
the horrors of war. Nearly every family had lost a member in the war. He wanted
to avoid going to war again at all costs
 Standing up to Hitler would have meant war with Germany - but evidence
available to Chamberlain showed that Britain was not ready for this.
 The British armed forces were badly equipped and had fallen behind the Germans.
 It was important to delay war because Britain was not ready to fight Germany and
it gave Britain time to re-arm. Britain needed time to convince the Empire that
they should support another war. This would be difficult after the horrors of the
First World War.
 Public opinion was in favour of Appeasement.
 By the 1930s many people thought that the Treaty of Versailles had been too
harsh on Germany and that it was only fair that Germany should have the means
 to defend herself. Therefore Hitler’s actions in rearming, reintroducing
conscription and building up an air force went unchallenged.

Why did Hitler and Stalin sign the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939?

 The USSR had joined the League of Nations in 1934, hoping it would guarantee
security against Germany, but the Abyssinian Crisis demonstrated the
powerlessness of the League.
 Stalin signed an agreement with France in 1935, but he felt the French were not
sincere.
 Stalin saw that Britain and France had not resisted German re-armament, and
some welcomed a stronger Germany as a force to fight communism
 The Munich Agreement increased Stalin’s fears - he was not consulted, and
thought it demonstrated Britain and France’s powerlessness to stop Hitler, or
maybe even that they wanted Hitler to take over eastern Europe and Russia.
 The British-French guarantee – ‘On 31 March 1939, a British-French guarantee to
support Poland, if it were attacked, was given Britain, France and Russia entered
negotiations in 1939, but Chamberlain would not commit Britain to an alliance.
Britain sent a minor official with no authority to agree terms in a slow boat to
Russia. Stalin was snubbed.
 France and Britain guaranteed to help Poland if it was invaded - Stalin interpreted
this as support for one of the USSR’s enemies.
 Stalin also had designs on large areas of Poland and wanted to take over the Baltic
states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), which he knew he could not do if he had to
fight Germany.
 Stalin probably did not believe that Hitler would stick to the pact forever, but
knew it would give him time to build up Soviet forces against the German attack
when it eventually came.

Why was the Nazi-Soviet Pact important?

 It was important to Stalin because he believed the USSR would have to fight
against Germany as Hitler had expressed his hatred of communism. The Pact gave
him time to build up his military strength.
 The Pact was the final cause of war as Hitler could now invade Poland without
interference from Stalin. Britain and France would declare war on Germany as
they had guaranteed Poland’s independence.
 Although Hitler hated communism, he was determined to avoid war on two fronts
(Britain and France had guaranteed Poland’s security) and, therefore, was willing
to make an agreement with Stalin.
 Britain and France reacted to the signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact by signing a
formal alliance with Poland, 25 August 1939.

Why did Britain go to war over Poland?

 The Nazi-Soviet Pact cleared the way for Hitler to invade Poland. On 1 Sept 1939,
the Germans invaded from the west. Britain and France demanded withdrawal.
Hitler thought Britain and France would do nothing. Ultimatums were issued by
 Britain and France and ignored by Germany. Hitler was surprised when Britain
and France kept their pledges to Poland and war was declared on 3 Sept
 Britain had no choice but to go to war over Poland. Britain had guaranteed they
would preserve the independence of Poland and so when German armies invaded
Poland and Hitler then gave no reply to the British ultimatum, Britain was obliged
to intervene and support Poland.

What caused the outbreak of war in 1939?

 Hitler left the League, began re-arming, re-occupied the Rhineland and united
with Austria. This showed his determination to increase his power in Europe and
avenge the Treaty of Versailles, which meant war.
 Hitler went too far with his aggressive foreign policy. He could not justify the
occupation of Czechoslovakia or Poland. Britain had guaranteed to preserve the
independence of Poland. Hitler had pushed them to war.
 The British felt that Germany had been harshly treated at Versailles and began to
make concessions. Desperate to avoid war, Britain and France responded to
Hitler’s demands with a policy of appeasement. Britain and France followed a
policy of appeasement in the mistaken belief that eventually Hitler would be
satisfied. They did not realise until too late that he would never be satisfied
 The League of Nations’ main weapon was sanctions. It was unwilling to impose
meaningful ones against powerful countries such as Italy. The failure of the
League to act against Japan and Italy led to its demise and Hitler noted this.
Britain and France stopped working through the League.
 Increased militarism definitely contributed to the likelihood of war. Hitler’s
excuse for reintroducing conscription in Germany was that Britain had just
announced air force increases and France had extended conscription from12 to 18
months. France’s justification was that Germany was rearming. Worries about
increased numbers of weapons and troops increased tension and made each
country more likely to expand its own armed forces in response. This made war
more likely.
 The Nazi-Soviet Pact was a cause of war. The Pact gave Hitler the confidence to
attack Poland because he no longer had to worry about a war on two fronts. As
Britain and France had done nothing about his invasion of Czechoslovakia in
1939, Hitler believed they would not keep to their promise to defend Poland. He
invaded Poland and Britain and France declared war.’

Was Hitler a planner or an opportunist in his foreign policy?

 As early as 1924, Hitler had laid out in his book Mein Kampf what he would do if
the Nazis ever achieved power. He would abolish the Treaty of Versailles, expand
German territory and defeat communism.
 Hitler explained that he expected to get back land lost at Versailles, unite with
Austria and create lebensraum for Germans.
 In March 1936, Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland. The League’s attention was on
the Abyssinian affair, while the French were involved in a general election. Hitler
took his opportunity.
 Hitler sensed that Britain thought the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh and was
willing to be lenient. He took the opportunity to sign a naval agreement with
Britain allowing him 35% of the size of Britain’s navy. This clearly broke the
Treaty’s terms.