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CHAPTER 35

HYDRONIC HEAT-DISTRIBUTING UNITS

AND RADIATORS
Description .................................................................................................................................... 35.1
Ratings of Heat-Distributing Units ............................................................................................... 35.2
Design ........................................................................................................................................... 35.3
Applications................................................................................................................................... 35.5

R ADIATORS, convectors, and baseboard and finned-tube units

are heat-distributing devices used in low-temperature and
steam water-heating systems. They supply heat through a combina-
large amount of secondary surface and contains two or more tubes
with headers at both ends. The heating element is surrounded by an
enclosure with an air inlet opening below and an air outlet opening
tion of radiation and convection and maintain the desired air tem- above the heating element.
perature and/or mean radiant temperature in a space without fans. Convectors are made in a variety of depths, sizes, and lengths and
Figures 1 and 2 show sections of typical heat-distributing units. In in enclosure or cabinet types. The heating elements are available in
low-temperature systems, radiant panels are also used. Units are fabricated ferrous and nonferrous metals. The air enters the enclo-
inherently self-adjusting in the sense that heat output is based on sure below the heating element, is heated in passing through the ele-
Licensed for single user. © 2008 ASHRAE, Inc.

temperature differentials; cold spaces receive more heat and warmer ment, and leaves the enclosure through the outlet grille located above
spaces receive less heat. the heating element. Factory-assembled units comprising a heating
element and an enclosure have been widely used. These may be free-
DESCRIPTION standing, wall-hung, or recessed and may have outlet grilles or lou-
vers and arched inlets or inlet grilles or louvers, as desired.
Radiators
The term radiator, though generally confined to sectional cast- Baseboard Units
iron column, large-tube, or small-tube units, also includes flat-panel Baseboard (or baseboard radiation) units are designed for instal-
types and fabricated steel sectional types. Small-tube radiators, with lation along the bottom of walls in place of the conventional base-
a length of only 1.75 in. per section, occupy less space than column board. They may be made of cast iron, with a substantial portion of
and large-tube units and are particularly suited to installation in the front face directly exposed to the room, or with a finned-tube ele-
recesses (see Table 1). Column, wall-type, and large-tube radiators ment in a sheet metal enclosure. They use gravity-circulated room air.
are no longer manufactured, although many of these units are still in Baseboard heat-distributing units are divided into three types:
use. Refer to Tables 2, 3, and 4 in Chapter 28 of the 1988 ASHRAE radiant, radiant convector, and finned tube. The radiant unit, which
Handbook—Equipment, Byrley (1978), or Hydronics Institute (1989) is made of aluminum, has no openings for air to pass over the wall
for principal dimensions and average ratings of these units. side of the unit. Most of this unit’s heat output is by radiation.
The following are the most common types of radiators: The radiant-convector baseboard is made of cast iron or steel.
The units have air openings at the top and bottom to permit circula-
Sectional radiators are fabricated from welded sheet metal sec-
tion of room air over the wall side of the unit, which has extended
tions (generally 2, 3, or 4 tubes wide), and resemble freestanding
surface to provide increased heat output. A large portion of the heat
cast-iron radiators.
emitted is transferred by convection.
Panel radiators consist of fabricated flat panels (generally 1, 2,
The finned-tube baseboard has a finned-tube heating element
or 3 deep), with or without an exposed extended fin surface attached
concealed by a long, low sheet metal enclosure or cover. A major
to the rear for increased output. These radiators are most common in
portion of the heat is transferred to the room by convection. The out-
Europe.
put varies over a wide range, depending on the physical dimensions
Tubular steel radiators consist of supply and return headers
and the materials used. A unit with a high relative output per unit
with interconnecting parallel steel tubes in a wide variety of lengths
length compared to overall heat loss (which would result in a con-
and heights. They may be specially shaped to coincide with the
centration of the heating element over a relatively small area) should
building structure. Some are used to heat bathroom towel racks.
be avoided. Optimum comfort for room occupants is obtained when
Specialty radiators are fabricated of welded steel or extruded
units are installed along as much of the exposed wall as possible.
aluminum and are designed for installation in ceiling grids or floor-
mounting. An array of unconventional shapes is available. Finned-Tube Units
Pipe Coils Finned-tube (or fin-tube) units are fabricated from metallic tub-
ing, with metallic fins bonded to the tube. They operate with grav-
Pipe coils have largely been replaced by finned tubes. See Table
ity-circulated room air. Finned-tube elements are available in
5 in Chapter 28 of the 1988 ASHRAE Handbook—Equipment for the
several tube sizes, in either steel or copper (1 to 2 in. nominal steel
heat emission of such pipe coils.
or 3/4 to 1 1/4 in. nominal copper) with various fin sizes, spacings,
Convectors and materials. The resistance to the flow of steam or water is the
same as that through standard distribution piping of equal size and
A convector is a heat-distributing unit that operates with gravity- type.
circulated air (natural convection). It has a heating element with a
Finned-tube elements installed in occupied spaces generally have
covers or enclosures in a variety of designs. When human contact is
The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 6.1, Hydronic and Steam unlikely, they are sometimes installed bare or provided with an
Equipment and Systems. expanded metal grille for minimum protection.

35.1
Copyright © 2008, ASHRAE
 35.2 2008 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment

Fig. 1 Terminal Units

Fig. 1 Terminal Units

Licensed for single user. © 2008 ASHRAE, Inc.

Fig. 2 Typical Radiators

Fig. 2 Typical Radiators

A cover has a portion of the front skirt made of solid material. The heat output ratings of heat-distributing units are expressed in
The cover can be mounted with clearance between the wall and the Btu/h, MBh (1000 Btu/h), or in square feet equivalent direct radia-
cover, and without completely enclosing the rear of the finned-tube tion (EDR). By definition, 240 Btu/h = 1 ft2 EDR with 1 psig steam.
element. A cover may have a top, front, or inclined outlet. An
enclosure is a shield of solid material that completely encloses both RATINGS OF HEAT-DISTRIBUTING UNITS
the front and rear of the finned-tube element. An enclosure may
have an integral back or may be installed tightly against the wall so For convectors, baseboard units, and finned-tube units, an allow-
that the wall forms the back, and it may have a top, front, or ance for heating effect may be added to the test capacity (the heat
inclined outlet. extracted from the steam or water under standard test conditions).
This heating effect reflects the ability of the unit to direct its heat
output to the occupied zone of a room. The application of a heating
Heat Emission effect factor implies that some units use less steam or hot water than
These heat-distributing units emit heat by a combination of radi- others to produce an equal comfort effect in a room.
ation to the surfaces and occupants in the space and convection to
the air in the space. Radiators
Chapter 3 of the 2005 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals cov- Current methods for rating radiators were established by the U.S.
ers the heat transfer processes and the factors that influence them. National Bureau of Standards publication, Simplified Practices
Those units with a large portion of their heated surface exposed to Recommendation R174-65, Cast-Iron Radiators, which has been
the space (i.e., radiator and cast-iron baseboard) emit more heat by withdrawn (see Table 1).
radiation than do units with completely or partially concealed heat-
ing surfaces (i.e., convector, finned-tube, and finned-tube base- Convectors
board). Also, finned-tube elements constructed of steel emit a The generally accepted method of testing and rating ferrous and
larger portion of heat by radiation than do finned-tube elements nonferrous convectors in the United States was given in Commer-
constructed of nonferrous materials. cial Standard CS 140-47, Testing and Rating Convectors (Dept. of
 Hydronic Heat-Distributing Units and Radiators 35.3

Table 1 Small-Tube Cast-Iron Radiators

Section Dimensions
Catalog Rating A B C D
Number of
per Section,a Height, Width, in. Spacing, Leg Height,
Tubes per
Section ft2 Btu/h in.b Min. Max. in.c in.b
3 1.6 384 25 3.25 3.50 1.75 2.50
1.6 384 19 4.44 4.81 1.75 2.50
4 1.8 432 22 4.44 4.81 1.75 2.50
2.0 480 25 4.44 4.81 1.75 2.50
2.1 504 22 5.63 6.31 1.75 2.50
5
2.4 576 25 5.63 6.31 1.75 2.50
2.3 552 19 6.81 8 1.75 2.50
6 3.0 720 25 6.81 8 1.75 2.50
3.7 888 32 6.81 8 1.75 2.50
a These ratings are based on steam at 215°F and air at 70°F. They apply only to installed b Overall height and leg height, as produced by some manufacturers, are 1 in. greater
radiators exposed in a normal manner, not to radiators installed behind enclosures, behind than shown in Columns A and D. Radiators may be furnished without legs. Where
grilles, or under shelves. For Btu/h ratings at other temperatures, multiply table values by greater than standard leg heights are required, leg height shall be 4.5 in.
factors found in Table 2. c Length equals number of sections multiplied by 1.75 in.
Licensed for single user. © 2008 ASHRAE, Inc.

Commerce 1947), but it has been withdrawn. This standard con- Other Heat-Distributing Units
tained details covering construction and instrumentation of the test Unique radiators and radiators from other countries generally are
booth or room and procedures for determining steam and water tested and rated for heat emission in accordance with prevailing-
ratings. standards. These other testing and rating methods have basically the
Under the provisions of Commercial Standard CS 140-47, the same procedures as the Hydronics Institute standards, which are
rating of a top outlet convector was established at a value not in used in the United States. See Chapter 6 for information on the
excess of the test capacity. For convectors with other types of enclo- design and sizing of radiant panels.
sures or cabinets, a percentage that varies up to a maximum of 15%
(depending on the height and type of enclosure or cabinet) was Corrections for Nonstandard Conditions
added for heating effect (Brabbee 1926; Willard et al. 1929). The The heating capacity of a radiator, convector, baseboard, finned-
addition made for heating effect must be shown in the manufac- tube heat-distributing unit, or radiant panel is a power function of
turer’s literature. the temperature difference between the air in the room and the heat-
The testing and rating procedure set forth by Commercial ing medium in the unit, shown as
Standard CS 140-47 does not apply to finned-tube or baseboard
radiation. q = c(ts – ta ) n (1)
Baseboard Units where
The generally accepted method of testing and rating base- q = heating capacity, Btu/h
boards in the United States is covered in the Testing and Rating c = constant determined by test
Standard for Baseboard Radiation (Hydronics Institute 1990a). ts = average temperature of heating medium, °F. For hot water, the
arithmetic average of the entering and leaving water
This standard contains details covering construction and instru-
temperatures is used.
mentation of the test booth or room, procedures for determining
ta = room air temperature, °F. Air temperature 60 in. above the floor
steam and hot-water ratings, and licensing provisions for obtain- is generally used for radiators, whereas entering air temperature
ing approval of these ratings. Baseboard ratings include an allow- is used for convectors, baseboard units, and finned-tube units.
ance for heating effect of 15% in addition to the test capacity. The n = exponent that equals 1.3 for cast-iron radiators, 1.4 for baseboard
addition made for heating effect must be shown in the manufac- radiation, 1.5 for convectors, 1.0 for ceiling heating and floor
turer’s literature. cooling panels, and 1.1 for floor heating and ceiling cooling
panels. For finned-tube units, n varies with air and heating
Finned-Tube Units medium temperatures. Correction factors to convert heating
capacities at standard rating conditions to heating capacities at
The generally accepted method of testing and rating finned- other conditions are given in Table 2.
tube units in the United States is covered in the Testing and Rating
Standard for Finned-Tube (Commercial ) Radiation (Hydronics Equation (1) may also be used to calculate heating capacity at non-
Institute 1990b). This standard contains details covering construc- standard conditions.
tion and instrumentation of the test booth or room, procedures for
determining steam and water ratings, and licensing provisions for DESIGN
obtaining approval of these ratings.
The rating of a finned-tube unit in an enclosure that has a top out- Effect of Water Velocity
let is established at a value not in excess of the test capacity. For Designing for high temperature drops through the system (drops
finned-tube units with other types of enclosures or covers, a percent- of as much as 60 to 80°F in low-temperature systems and as much as
age is added for heating effect that varies up to a maximum of 15%, 200°F in high-temperature systems) can result in low water veloci-
depending on the height and type of enclosure or cover. The addition ties in the finned-tube or baseboard element. Application of very
made for heating effect must be shown in the manufacturer’s litera- short runs designed for conventional temperature drops (i.e., 20°F)
ture (Pierce 1963). can also result in low velocities.
 35.4 2008 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment

Table 2 Correction Factors c for Various Types of Heating Units

Steam or Cast-Iron Radiator Convector Finned-Tube Baseboard
Water Room Temp., °F Inlet Air Temp., °F Inlet Air Temp., °F Inlet Air Temp., °F
Steam Pressure Temp.,
(Approx.) °F 80 75 70 65 60 75 70 65 60 55 75 70 65 60 55 75 70 65 60 55
100 0.10 0.12 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.08 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.18
110 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.21 0.25
120 0.20 0.23 0.26 0.29 0.33 0.18 0.21 0.25 0.28 0.31
130 0.26 0.29 0.33 0.36 0.40 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.34 0.38
140 0.33 0.36 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.31 0.34 0.38 0.42 0.45
in. Hg Vac. psia
22.4 3.7 150 0.39 0.42 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.35 0.39 0.43 0.46 0.50 0.40 0.42 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.38 0.42 0.45 0.49 0.53
20.3 4.7 160 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.43 0.47 0.51 0.54 0.58 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.57 0.61 0.45 0.49 0.53 0.57 0.61
17.7 6.0 170 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.69 0.51 0.54 0.58 0.63 0.67 0.53 0.57 0.61 0.65 0.69 0.53 0.57 0.61 0.65 0.69
14.6 7.5 180 0.62 0.66 0.69 0.74 0.78 0.58 0.63 0.67 0.71 0.76 0.61 0.65 0.69 0.73 0.78 0.61 0.65 0.69 0.72 0.78
10.9 9.3 190 0.69 0.74 0.78 0.83 0.87 0.67 0.71 0.76 0.81 0.85 0.69 0.73 0.78 0.81 0.86 0.69 0.73 0.78 0.82 0.86
6.5 11.5 200 0.78 0.83 0.87 0.91 0.95 0.76 0.81 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.77 0.81 0.86 0.90 0.95 0.81 0.86 0.92 0.95 1.00
psig psia
1 15.6 215 0.91 0.95 1.00 1.04 1.09 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.10 0.91 0.94 1.00 1.06 1.11 0.91 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.09
6 21 230 1.04 1.09 1.14 1.18 1.23 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.26 1.03 1.08 1.14 1.19 1.24 1.04 1.09 1.14 1.19 1.25
15 30 250 1.23 1.28 1.32 1.37 1.43 1.27 1.32 1.37 1.43 1.47 1.20 1.26 1.31 1.37 1.43 1.22 1.27 1.32 1.37 1.43
27 42 270 1.43 1.47 1.52 1.56 1.61 1.47 1.54 1.59 1.67 1.72 1.38 1.44 1.50 1.56 1.62 1.43 1.47 1.52 1.59 1.64
Licensed for single user. © 2008 ASHRAE, Inc.

52 67 300 1.72 1.75 1.82 1.89 1.92 1.85 1.89 1.96 2.04 2.08 1.67 1.73 1.79 1.86 1.92 1.75 1.82 1.89 1.92 1.96
Note: Use these correction factors to determine output ratings for radiators, convectors, vectors and finned-tube or baseboard units represents the same room comfort condi-
and finned-tube and baseboard units at operating conditions other than standard. Stan- tions as 70°F room air temperature for a radiator. Standard conditions for radiant pan-
dard conditions in the United States for a radiator are 215°F heating medium tempera- els are 122°F heating medium temperature and 68°F for room air temperature; c
ture and 70°F room temperature (at the center of the space and at the 5 ft level). depends on panel construction.
Standard conditions for convectors and finned-tube and baseboard units are 215°F To determine the output of a heating unit under conditions other than standard, mul-
heating medium temperature and 65°F inlet air temperature at 29.92 in. Hg atmo- tiply the standard heating capacity by the appropriate factor for the actual operating
spheric pressure. Water flow is 3 fps for finned-tube units. Inlet air at 65°F for con- heating medium and room or inlet air temperatures.

Fig. 3 Water Velocity Correction Factor for Baseboard and Fig. 4 Effect of Air Density on Radiator Output
Finned-Tube Radiators

Fig. 3 Water Velocity Correction Factor for Baseboard and

Fig. 4 Effect of Air Density on Radiator Output
Finned-Tube Radiators

Figure 3 shows the effect of water velocity on the heat output of 0.1 fps. Such a low velocity should be avoided because the output is
typical sizes of finned-tube elements. The figure is based on work difficult to predict accurately when designing a system. In addition,
done by Harris (1957) and Pierce (1963) and tests at the Hydronics the curve is so steep in this region that small changes in actual flow
Institute. The velocity correction factor Fv is have a significant effect on output. Not only does the heat transfer
rate change, but the temperature drop and, therefore, the average
Fv = (V/3.0)0.04 (2) water temperature change (assuming a constant inlet temperature).
The designer should check water velocity throughout the system
where V = water velocity, fps. and select finned-tube or baseboard elements on the basis of veloc-
Heat output varies little over the range from 0.5 to 3 fps, where ity as well as average temperature. Manufacturers of finned-tube
Fv ranges from 0.93 to 1.00. The factor drops rapidly below 0.5 fps and baseboard elements offer a variety of tube sizes, ranging from
because the flow changes from turbulent to laminar at around 0.5 in. copper tubes for small baseboard elements to 2 in. for large
 Hydronic Heat-Distributing Units and Radiators 35.5

finned-tube units, to aid in maintenance of turbulent flow conditions For a radiator or cast-iron baseboard, the finish coat of paint
over a wide range of flow. affects the heat output. Oil paints of any color give about the same
results as unpainted black or rusty surfaces, but an aluminum or a
Effect of Altitude bronze paint reduces the heat emitted by radiation. The net effect
The effect of altitude on heat output varies depending on the may reduce the total heat output of the radiator by 10% or more
material used and the portion of the unit’s output that is radiant (Allen 1920; Rubert 1937; Severns 1927).
rather than convective. The reduced air density affects the convec-
tive portion. Figure 4 shows the reduction in heat output with air APPLICATIONS
density (Sward and Decker 1965). The approximate correction fac-
tor FA for determining the reduced output of typical units is Radiators
Radiators can be used with steam or hot water. They are installed
FA = ( p/po) n (3) in areas of greatest heat loss: under windows, along cold walls, or at
doorways. They can be installed freestanding, semirecessed, or with
where decorative enclosures or shields, although the enclosures or shields
p = local station atmospheric pressure affect the output (Willard et al. 1929).
po = standard atmospheric pressure Unique and imported radiators are generally not suitable for
n = 0.9 for copper baseboard or finned tube steam applications, although they have been used extensively in
= 0.5 for steel finned-tube or cast-iron baseboard low-temperature water systems with valves and connecting piping
= 0.2 for radiant baseboard and radiant panels left exposed. Various combinations of supply and return locations
The value of p/po at various altitudes may be calculated as follows: are possible, which may alter the heat output. Although long lengths
may be ordered for linear applications, lengths may not be reduced
–5
– 3.73 ×10 h or increased by field modification. The small cross-sectional areas
p ⁄ po = e (4) often inherent in unique radiators require careful evaluation of flow
requirements, water temperature drop, and pressure drops.
Licensed for single user. © 2008 ASHRAE, Inc.

where h = altitude, ft. The following are typical values of p/po:

Altitude h, ft p/po
Convectors
Convectors can be used with steam or hot water. Like radiators,
2000 0.93
they should be installed in areas of greatest heat loss. They are par-
4000 0.86 ticularly applicable where wall space is limited, such as in entry-
5000 0.83 ways and kitchens.
6000 0.80
Baseboard Radiation
Sward and Harris (1970) showed that some components of heat loss Baseboard units are used almost exclusively with hot water.
are affected in the same manner. When used with one-pipe steam systems, tube sizes of 1.25 in. NPS
must be used to allow drainage of condensate counterflow to the
Effect of Mass steam flow.
Mass of the terminal unit (typically cast-iron versus copper- The basic advantage of the baseboard unit is that its normal
aluminum finned element) affects the heat-up and cool-down rates placement is along the cold walls and under areas where the great-
of the equipment. It is important that high- and low-mass radiation est heat loss occurs. Other advantages are that it (1) is inconspic-
not be mixed in the same zone. High-mass systems have historically uous, (2) offers minimal interference with furniture placement, and
been favored for best comfort and economy, but tests by Harris (3) distributes the heat near the floor. This last characteristic reduces
(1970) have shown no measurable difference. The thermostat or the floor-to-ceiling temperature gradient to about 2 to 4°F and tends
control can compensate by changing the cycle rate of the burner. to produce uniform temperature throughout the room. It also makes
The effect of mass is further reduced by constantly circulating mod- baseboard heat-distributing units adaptable to homes without base-
ulated temperature water to the unit. The only time that mass can ments, where cold floors are common (Kratz and Harris 1945).
have a significant effect is in response to a massive shift in load. In Heat loss calculations for baseboard heating are the same as
that situation, the low-mass unit will respond faster. those used for other types of heat-distributing units. The Hydronics
Institute (1989) describes a procedure for designing baseboard heat-
Performance at Low Water Temperatures ing systems.
Table 2 summarizes the performance of baseboard and finned-
tube units with an average water temperature down to 100°F. Solar- Finned-Tube Radiation
heated water, industrial waste heat in a low- to medium-temperature The finned-tube unit can be used with either steam or hot water.
district heating system, heat pump system cooling water, and It is advantageous for heat distribution along the entire outside wall,
ground-source heat pumps are typical applications in this range. To thereby preventing downdrafts along the walls in buildings such as
compensate for heating capacity loss, either heat-distributing equip- schools, churches, hospitals, offices, airports, and factories. It may
ment should be oversized, or additional heat-distributing units be the principal source of heat in a building or a supplementary
should be installed. Capital and operating costs should be mini- heater to combat downdrafts along the exposed walls in conjunction
mized (Kilkis 1998). with a central conditioned air system. Its placement under or next to
windows or glass panels helps to prevent fogging or condensation
Effect of Enclosure and Paint on the glass.
An enclosure placed around a direct radiator restricts the air- Normal placement of a finned tube is along the walls where the
flow and diminishes the proportion of output resulting from radi- heat loss is greatest. If necessary, the units can be installed in two or
ation. However, enclosures of proper design may improve the heat three tiers along the wall. Hot-water installations requiring two or
distribution within the room compared to the heat distribution three tiers may run a serpentine water flow if the energy loss is not
obtained with an unenclosed radiator (Allcut 1933; Willard et al. excessive. A header connection with parallel flow may be used, but
1929). the design must not (1) permit water to short circuit along the path
 35.6 2008 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment

of least resistance, (2) reduce capacity because of low water velocity Kilkis, B.I. 1998. Equipment oversizing issues with hydronic heating sys-
in each tier, or (3) cause one or more tiers to become air-bound. tems. ASHRAE Journal 40(1):25-31.
Many enclosures have been developed to meet building design Kratz, A.P. and W.S. Harris. 1945. A study of radiant baseboard heating in
the IBR research home. Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin 358.
requirements. The wide variety of finned-tube elements (tube size University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
and material, fin size, spacing, fin material, and multiple tier instal- National Bureau of Standards (currently NIST). 1965. Cast-iron radiators.
lation), along with the various heights and designs of enclosures, Simplified Practices Recommendation R 174-65. Withdrawn. Available
give great flexibility of selection for finned-tube units that meet the from Hydronics Institute, Berkeley Heights, NJ.
needs of load, space, and appearance. Pierce, J.S. 1963. Application of fin tube radiation to modern hot water sys-
In areas where zone control rather than individual room control can tems. ASHRAE Journal 5(2):72.
be applied, all finned-tube units in the zone should be in series. In such Rubert, E.A. 1937. Heat emission from radiators. Engineering Experiment
Station Bulletin 24. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
a series loop installation, however, temperature drop must be consid-
Severns, W.H. 1927. Comparative tests of radiator finishes. ASHVE Trans-
ered in selecting the element for each separate room in the loop. actions 33:41.
Sward, G.R. and A.S. Decker. 1965. Symposium on high altitude effects on
Radiant Panels performance of equipment. ASHRAE.
Hydronic radiant heating panels are controlled-temperature sur- Sward, G.R. and W.S. Harris. 1970. Effect of air density on the heat trans-
faces on the floor, walls, or ceiling; a heated fluid circulates through mission coefficients of air films and building materials. ASHRAE Trans-
a circuit embedded in or attached to the panel. More than 50% of the actions 76:227-239.
Willard, A.C., A.P. Kratz, M.K. Fahnestock, and S. Konzo. 1929. Investigation
total heating capacity is transmitted by radiant heat transfer. Usu- of heating rooms with direct steam radiators equipped with enclosures and
ally, 120°F mean fluid temperature delivers enough heat to indoor shields. ASHVE Transactions 35:77 or Engineering Experiment Station
surfaces. With such low temperature ratings, hydronic radiant pan- Bulletin 192. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
els are suitable for low-temperature heating. See Chapter 6 for more
information. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Byrley, R.R. 1978. Hydronic rating handbook. Color Art Inc., St. Louis.
Licensed for single user. © 2008 ASHRAE, Inc.

REFERENCES Hydronics Institute. 1989. Installation guide for residential hydronic heat-
Allcut, E.A. 1933. Heat output of concealed radiators. School of Engineer- ing systems. IBR 200, 1st ed. Hydronics Institute, Berkeley Heights, NJ.
ing Research Bulletin 140. University of Toronto, Canada. Hydronics Institute. 1990a. Testing and rating standard for baseboard radi-
Allen, J.R. 1920. Heat losses from direct radiation. ASHVE Transactions ation, 11th ed. Hydronics Institute, Berkeley Heights, NJ.
26:11. Hydronics Institute. 1990b. Testing and rating standard for finned-tube (com-
mercial) radiation, 5th ed. Hydronics Institute, Berkeley Heights, NJ.
Brabbee, C.W. 1926. The heating effect of radiators. ASHVE Transactions Kratz, A.P. 1931. Humidification for residences. Engineering Experiment
32:11. Station Bulletin 230:20, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
Department of Commerce. 1947. Commercial standard for testing and rating Laschober, R.R. and G.R. Sward. 1967. Correlation of the heat output of
convectors. Standard CS 140-47. Withdrawn. Washington, D.C. unenclosed single- and multiple-tier finned-tube units. ASHRAE Trans-
Harris, W.H. 1957. Factor affecting baseboard rating test results. Engineer- actions 73(I):V.3.1-15.
ing Experiment Station Bulletin 444. University of Illinois, Urbana- Willard, A.C, A.P. Kratz, M.K. Fahnestock, and S. Konzo. 1931. Investiga-
Champaign. tion of various factors affecting the heating of rooms with direct steam
Harris, W.H. 1970. Operating characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous radiators. Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin 223. University of
baseboard. IBR #8. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.

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