SYNTAX 1

English Positional
2.2.1.3.4 Adverbs Classes
2.2.1.3.4.1 The two adverb inflectional suffixes in English are:
CD The adverb comparative morpheme { -ert}:fast-er, hard-er, etc.
C£l The adverb superlative morpheme { -est d: fast-est, hard-est, etc.
inflectional
morphemes but also by the adverb-forming derivational suffix {- lyd 4
added to adjectives: just ~justly, beautiful~ beautifully, etc.

2.2.2 English positional classes

According to Stageberg [1965: 196-219], the four positional classes
in English are the nominal, the verbal, the adjectival and the adverbial.

"Any word, whatever its form-class (noun, verb,

2.2.2.1
comparable, pronoun, uninflected word) will be tabbed a nominal if it
occupies one of the seven noun positions" [Stageberg, 1965: 196] listed below:
1. The position of the subject.
- Upstairs IS the safest hiding place.

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"In the word-stock of English there are many uninflected words often employed
in the adverbial positions:
1. Uninflected words used both as adverbials and prepositions: above, about,
after, around, before, behind, below, down, in, inside, on, out, outside, since, to,
under, up.
2. "-ward" series, with optional -s: afterward, backward, downward, forward,
homeward, inward, northward, outward, upward, windward.
3. "Here" series: here, herein, hereby, heretofore, hereafter.
4. "There" series: there, therein, thereby, theretofore, thereafter.
5. "-where" series: anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere.
6. "-ways" series: crossways, sideways; also, anyway.
7. "-time" series: meantime, sometime, anytime, sometimes.
8. Miscellaneous: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, seldom, still,
yet, already, meanwhile, also, too, never, not,forth, thus, sidelong, headlong, maybe,
perhaps, instead, indeed, henceforth, piecemeal, nevertheless, downstairs, indoors,
outdoors, offhand, overseas, unawares, besides, furthermore, always." [Stageberg,
1965:215]

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 - For Glenda to steal the diamondWOULD BE a shame.
2. The position of the direct object:
I HATE tellinq lies.
I WANT to think critically.

3. The position of the indirect object:

She GAVE whomever she met different offers.
She GAVE nobody a hand shake.

4. The position of the retained object.

We WERE GIVEN the thinnest.
5. The position of the subject(ive) complement.
This book IS hers.
My favorite pastime IS swimminq.

6. The position of the object(ive) complement.

You'VE MADE me what I am.
They NAMED the little dog Neky.

7. The position of the complement of a preposition:

He IS interested in nothinq.
The elevator has been used for many years without beinq repaired

2.2.2.2 " Verbals are those forms that occupy the verb
positions ... They come after the opening noun or noun phrase ... There are
four verbals in
She must have beer. loafing last week
and two in
I shoula leave the house in ten minutes.
Also, any verb form taking a subject or a complement (OV, SC,
or Adj) or modified by an adverbial is a verbal, regardless of its position.
1. Becoming angry, she broke the dish.
2. Beinq a minister, Prentice spoke softly.
3. After having eaten the turnips, Prentice tried to look satisfied.
4. The light having gone out, we lighted candles.

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 5. Givinqto the poor is a Christian virtue." [Stageberg, 1965: 201]
2.2.2.3 "Adjectivals, like nominals, occupy certain
characteristic sentence positions." [Stageberg, 1965: 206]
1. The position between the determiner and the noun:
That iovfw/co//eqe/lauqhinq/recommendedfreshman is bright.
2. The position right after the noun:
The fellow wavinq drives a convertible.
3. The position right after an intensive verb: He always remains quiet.
4. The position right after the direct object of a complex transitive
verb: The management considered him competent.

"In other positions let us say that any adjective or adjective

substitute is an adjectival, unless it is in a nominal or adverbial slot".
[Stageberg, 1965: 210]
Angry and upset, the applicant slammed the door.

Adverbials are the word groups as well as the sinqle

2.2.2.4
words that occupy the adverb positions and perform the adverb
functions. Common adverbial positions are:

2.2.2.4.1 Initial position: The adverbial is in the first position in

the clause with or without juncture, occurring before the subject or other
obligatory elements of the clause:
(1)a. Rea//v, you SHOULD KNOW better.
b. Now it IS time to go.
c. With a sharp ax you CANDO wonder.
d. Bv usinq a little red here, you CAN BALANCE your colors.
e. Unless vou FOLLOl-V the printed directions,
the set WILL NOT FIT properly together.

2.2.2.4.2 Medial position: This includes all positions between

obligatory initial and final clausal elements. Several more specific
positions can be distinguished:

CD Between the subject and the beginning of the verb phrase:

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(2)a. She actuallv EXPECTS to marry him.
b. Mary in her own wqy WAS a darling.
c. The environment secretary vesterdav MOVED
to mitigate the effects of the inland revenue revaluation.

aJ After THE MODAL/FIRST AUXILIARY VERB and before THE LEXICAL VERB:
(2)d. He WOULD seldom MAKE effort.
e. You MAY in th1s wavBE of great assistance.
f. Carrie HAD often DREAMED about coming back.
g. The utilization of computers IS not of course LIMITED to business.

G:l After THE LEXICAL VERB but preceding other obligatory elements of
the clause.
(2)h. It IS still three weeks away.
i. It IS no longer a casino.
j. He IS alwavs/at anv event happy.
k. He IS certaini!Jwithout doubt an expert.
1. She IS c/everlvwith her clients.

2.2.2.4.3 Final position: Sentence-finally, the adverbial can be

placed:
CD After THE LEXICAL VERB, especially after AN INTRANSITIVE ONE.
(2)m. He LIVES independently/in the fast lane.
n. He DIED last night.
o. He DROVE recklessly/with abandon.

aJ After all obligatory elements, i.e. the indirect object, the direct object,
the subjective complement, or the objective complement, of THE LEXICAL
VERB (though it may not be the last element if there are other final
adverbials in the same clause):
(3)a. Tom wAS a doctor for manv vears.
b. Tom WILL PLAY football tomorrow.
c. Tom SENT a telegraph to his wife yesterday morninq.
d. Tom PUT his watch where he can find it in the dark.
e. Tom BELIEVED the man crazy after questioning him.

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EXERCISE 8: In the blank identify the italicized word(s) by nominal, verbal,
IJeCt·1vaI or adver b.Ia.I c omp1ete th etable.
ad.
1. Last Monday was a holiday. nominal
2. The Monday washing is on the line. adjectival
git hôm th 2 ang phi trên sào
3. Mrs. Reed always washes Mondays. adverbial
4. Won't you come in? adverbial

5. The outs were angry with the ins. nominal

6. They stomped upstairs. adverbial

7. They slept in the upstairs room. nominal

8. One can see the airport from upstairs. nominal

9. Jack was wrestling with his math. verbal

10. The wrestling roommates were exhausted. adjectival

11. Jennifer found wrestling exciting.

12. They came in wrestling. adverbial

13. The student movie is presented weekly. adverbial

14. The student movie is a weekly occurrence adjectival

15. His way is the best. nominal subject

16. He had it his way. adverbial

17. The mechanic ran the engine full speed. adverbial

18. By this means he burned down the carbon. adverbial

19. He raised the hood because the engine was hot. adverbial

20. They found the cabin just what they wanted. nominal completmeant

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