PHYSICS EXAM REVIEW

Unit 1 – Forces and Motion

Displacement and Position Vectors

 A scalar quantity is any physical quantity that can be completely described by a single numeral and the
correct unit of measurement.
 Scalar – distance, mass, speed, and volume.
 Vector quantity – direction
 A vector quantity is any quantity that is completely described by a numeral, a unit, and a direction.
 Vector – displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
 Position ( ) is the location of an object relative to a reference point. It is a vector quantity since a
direction must be specified
 unit in meters and vector quantity with arrow placed on top
EXAMPLE: The shortest distance from your home to your friend’s house is 7 km. The position of your friend’s
house is = 7 km [E] of your home. Note that to describe a position you must state a magnitude (7 km), a
direction ([E]), and a reference point (home).

 Displacement is the change in position of an object. In meters and the SI unit is

 It is a vector quantity that represents the length of a straight line segment directed from the initial
position to the final position.
 Change in position –
 Vector quantity represented by a line segment. It represents its magnitude and direction. Arrow –
direction.
 The tail is the origin and the tip the terminal point. Reference points must be included (compass).
 If vectors are directly along the same straight line then they are said to be collinear.
 Same direction (parallel) or opposite direction (anti-parallel). They can be added algebraically
 If the vector is negative, then it indicates that its true direction is opposite to the specified direction.
 - 7 km [W] is actually 7 km [E]
 Vectors located along the different straight lines are called non-collinear vectors.
 Vectors that have different directions can be added using a graphical strategy called the tail-to-tip.

1.2 – Velocity and Uniform Motion

 Velocity is a vector quanitity that describes both how fast an object is moving and the direction.
 Velocity ( ) is defined as the displacement (change in position) of an object per unit time.
 If an object moving in a straight line covers equal displacements in equal times then it has constant
velocity/uniform motion.
 The average velocity ( av) of an object is calculated by dividing displacement, by the elapsed time

 av = Δ /Δt
 For average velocity to be same as constant velocity it has to cover the same displacement in the same
time.

Instantaneous velocity
 Instantaneous velocity is the velocity an object has at a specific instant of time ( )
  If an object is in uniform motion, then its instantaneous velocity is equal to its constant velocity
 Ferris wheel – if the rider at the top has an instantaneous velocity of 4 m/s [E], the rider at the bottom
has an instantaneous velocity of 4 m/s [E]

1.3 – Position – Time Graphs

 A graph depicts the relationship between two or more variables
 Graph of equation y = mx + b is a straight line with constant slope and a y-intercept

Position – Time Graphs for constant velocity

 Any object is moving at constant velocity if it covers equal displacements in equal intervals of time.
 The position-time graphs for an object moving at constant velocity is a straight line with constant slope.
 Slope = rise/run = position 2 – position 1/ time 2 – time 1
 The slope of the position-time graph for an object moving at constant velocity gives the value of the
constant velocity.
 A positive constant slope on a position-time graph represents a constant positive velocity
 A horizontal line on a position-time graph has 0 slope and represents zero velocity.
 A straight line with a negative slope on a position-time graph represents a negative constant velocity
 The average velocity between any two points on a position-time graph is equal to the slope of the line
joining the 2 points

1.4 – Acceleration
Units of Acceleration
 When the speed or direction of an object changes, the object is accelerating.
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity that is derived from velocity.
 Acceleration ( ) = change in velocity/elapsed time.
 Unit is m/s/s or m/s2 – km/h  m/s – divide by 3.6….m/s  km/h – multiply by 3.6
 If the velocity of an object changes from 10m/s to 20m/s in two seconds then the average acceleration is
5 m/s2

Constant Acceleration
 An object has constant acceleration if its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time.

Average Acceleration
 Average acceleration is used to describe acceleration when the velocity changes in a non-uniform way.
 The change in velocity during an interval and dividing it by the time taken for the change.
 = Δ / Δt
The average acceleration for a time interval is the same as the constant acceleration an object would need if it
were to change velocity by an equal amount in an equal interval of time. If 50 m/s2 is
then 5 m/s2 = Δ / Δt

Instantaneous Acceleration
 It can be seen that the average acceleration of the motorcycle during each second, beginning with the
first, is 4.0 m/s2[E], 3.8 m/s2[E], 2.0 m/s2[E],, and 1.0 m/s2[E],.
 Acceleration at a specific instant of time is called instantaneous acceleration.
 Speedometer - instantaneous speed…..Accelerometer - instantaneous acceleration

1.5 – Velocity – Time Graphs

Velocity – Time Graphs for constant velocity
  An object that travels at a constant speed in a straight line has a constant velocity.
 The position time graph for a constant velocity (uniform motion) is a straight line/ constant slope.
 The velocity time graph for constant velocity is a horizontal straight line.

Velocity – Time Graphs for constant acceleration

 A position time graph for constant positive acceleration has the shape of a parabola.
 During constant acceleration, the average velocity for an interval is equal to the instantaneous velocity at
half-time in the interval. For eg. The average velocity of the hawk for the time interval from 4s to 6s is
equal to its instantaneous velocity at 5s.
 The velocity time graph for constant non-zero acceleration is a straight line with some slope
 av = change in velocity/ change in time
 Constant acceleration is the slope of the straight line on a velocity time graph.
 If slope of velocity time graph is constant, acceleration is constant.
 Displacement is equal to are beneath velocity-time graph.
 Negative acceleration is sometimes called deceleration (slowing down)

Chapter 2- Acceleration and force of gravity

Fundamental forces
 Gravity is the weakest of 4 fundamental forces. It is a force of attraction between objects that have mass.
Sun exerts a force of attraction on earth – this force keeps earth in orbit around the sun.
 2 types of nuclear force – strong nuclear force binds atomic nuclei together. The weak nuclear force is
responsible for the fact that some nuclei are radioactive.
 Electromagnetic force – the electrical force between two charged particles at rest and the magnetic force
produced when charged particles move.
 Electro magnetic and the weak nuclear forces are forms of 1 force, recently called the electroweak force.

Force is a vector
 Force is defines as a push or pull on an n object. A force applied to an object would sometimes the
change the shape and/or motion of the object.
 Size – 10N, direction – forward, backward, up, down, north south, etc
 1N = 1kg.m/s2
 Measured using a spring scale…a force such as a weight applied to a electric spring, causes it to stretch
 As it stretches, the elastic force exerted by the spring increases
 The applied force is balanced and the spring scale stops stretching and the applied force can be read.
 The relationship between the stretch of an elastic spring and the restoring force is called Hooke’s Law

Free-body diagrams
 The normal force is the force acting on an object perpendicular to the surface on which it is resting
 Force of friction acts opposite to the direction the object is moving or is tending to move
 The total force is called net force/ unbalanced/ resultant force

2.2 – Mass and the Force of Gravity

Mass
 Mass is defines as the amount of material in an object
 SI unit = kg

Force of Gravity and Weight

 Force of gravity is defines as the force of attraction between any two masses in the universe
  Weight is the term used to describe the force of gravity that a celestial body, such as earth, exerts on an
mass
 Force of gravity between an object and a planet depends on the mass of the planet, mass of object, and
the distance between the two
 The further an object is from the centre of the earth, the less it weights (about 0.5% change)

Newton’s law of universal gravitation

 Newton showed that the force of gravity between two masses in the universe is directly proportional to
the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between their centers. This
is called Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
 F = Gm1m2/d2
 G = universal gravitational constant = 6.67 X 10-11 Nm2/kg2

2.3 - Gravitational field intensity

 The ratio of force of gravity to mass at a specific location is called gravitational field intensity
 = F /m
 = 9.8 N/kg, down
 Gravitational field intensity varies with latitude and altitude. Latitude is the angular distance north or
south of the equator. Altitude is the elevation of an object above sea level.
 gravitational field intensity increases as we move away from the equator
 Greater the distance form the exact centre of earth, the smaller the becomes.
 Local variations in gravitational field intensity are due to the irregularities in the land and density of the
rocks and gases beneath the surface
 Gravimeters detect small variations in
 Dense minerals, gold and silver, increase the . Oil and natural gas decrease .
 At higher altitudes, the air is less dense and distance runners have difficulty getting enough oxygen
 At twice the distance from the centre of the earth, decreases to one-quarter the value at the surface.
 The greater the mass, the greater the becomes. Greater the radius of the planet, smaller the at
planet’s surface.

2.4 – Acceleration due to gravity

 Without friction, all objects near the surface of the earth at the same location fall with same acceleration
due to gravity (they all have constant acceleration)
 Without air resistance, acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
 Gravitational field intensity at this location is 9.8 N/kg
 These two quantities are equivalent. Everything affecting gravitational field intensity also affects a
freely falling object
 If we know the mass of an object and either the acceleration due to gravity or Gravitational field
intensity, we can find force
 = 2 - 1/Δt

Chapter 3 – Newton’s laws of motion

 The branch of mechanics that describes the motion of an object without considering the cause is called
kinematics. Ex: Displacement, velocity, acceleration
 Why objects move as they do – dynamics
Theories of motion
 Objects that moved horizontally were in forced motion because a force was needed to move the objects
 Without friction, an object moving horizontally at constant speed should continue at the same speed
forever

Kinds of friction
 Friction is the kind of force that opposes motion whenever one surface moves or tends to move with
reference to another
 Sliding friction is the force that makes it difficult to slide one surface past another. This enables us to
turn corners.
 Rolling friction is the force that opposes the rolling motion of one surface over another. Ex: a train
wheel moving on a steel rail
 Fluid friction is the force that resists the motion of an object through a fluid. Boats encounter fluid
friction when they move through water
 Force is needed to counteract friction and start an object moving
 When applied force increases, force of friction opposing the motion must also increase
 Maximum value of force of friction just before the object starts to move is known as limiting static
friction
 A force is also needed to keep an object moving at a constant speed
 Constant speed in straight line has balanced forces acting on it
 Force of friction that opposes motion of objects once they are moving is called kinetic friction
 Ex: a ribbed tire increases the sideways friction and helps steer the car whereas a turf tread tire provides
more traction

Normal force
 For sliding friction, both limiting static friction and kinetic friction are directly proportional to the size
of the force pushing the surfaces together
 When the force of gravity doubles, the normal force doubles and the force of friction between the
surfaces doubles. The normal force is smaller than the force of gravity when the block is resting on a
sloping surface.

Coefficients of friction
 Force of kinetic friction is directly proportional to the normal force
 If force of gravity doubles, the normal force doubles and the force of kinetic friction doubles
 For any two surfaces, the ratio of the size of force of kinetic friction to the size of normal force is
constant. This constant is called coefficient of kinetic friction.
 k = Ff/ Fn
 The coefficient of static friction is the magnitude of the maximum force needed to start an object
moving
 s = Ff/ Fn

3.2 – Newton’s first law of motion

Inertia
 Stationary objects tend to stay at rest and moving objects tend to keep moving
 Inertia is defined as that property of an object that resists changes in its state of rest or motion
 Inertia is a resistance to a change in motion, whereas friction is a resistance to motion
 You experience inertia when riding in a car. If the car accelerates forward, you feel as if your body is
pushed back. Your body resists the increase in speed. If the car stops suddenly, your body continues to
move forward. Seat belts resist the tendency of your body to keep moving. When a car turns a corner,
 the car seat and door exert an inward force to counteract the tendency of your body to keep moving in
straight line.

Newton’s First Law (Galileo’s principal of inertia)

 Newton’s first law of motion states, every object will continue in a state of rest or with constant speed in
a straight line unless acted upon by an external unbalanced or net force

3.1 – Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Acceleration and Net Force for constant mass
 If an unbalanced net force acts on an object, the object accelerates in the direction of the net force
 The greater the net force on the hockey puck, the larger the acceleration. If the puck was initially
moving to the left, it will decelerate, stop, and then accelerate to the right.
 Acceleration is directly proportional to the net force, provided the mass is constant.

Acceleration and Mass for constant force

 Greater the mass of an object, the smaller its acceleration for a constant force
 Acceleration is inversely proportional to mass for constant force

Newton’s Second Law

 When a net force acts on an object, the object accelerates in the direction of the net force. The
acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the mass
 Proportional net/m

 net = ma

3.4 – Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Newton’s Third Law

 Forces always occur in pairs – action force and reaction force

 LAW – whenever one object exerts a force on an second object, the second object exerts a force that is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first object
 “for every action force there is an equal reaction force”

Unit 2 – Work, Power, and Energy

4.1 – Work
Conditions for Mechanical Work

 3 conditions – force must be exerted on and object, object must be displaced by force, and at least part of
the force must be in the same direction as the displacement.
 Work W(scalar) is the product of magnitudes of the applied force and displacement of object in the
direction of force
 W = Fcosd -  is the angle between the force and displacement. If the applied force is in the same
direction as the displacement, then the angle is 0…SI unit – (N.m)
 1 J = 1 N.m
 Can be positive or negative – when a pitcher throws a baseball force and displacement are in the same
direction and work done on ball is positive….for a catcher, the force exerted on the ball is opposite to
displacement of ball, so it is negative
 The area beneath force-displacement graph gives work done… W = ½ Fd
4.2 – Kinds and Forms of Energy
Energy and Its Characteristics
 Energy is the ability to do work. It is transferred from one object to another when work is done. It comes
in many forms that are interchangeable. It can be stored and used at a later time. It is always conserved
in a closed system, but total energy including heat stays same.
 All energy forms eventually become waste heat, so u cannot use it!
 Rest mass energy is the total energy that an object has because of its mass – E = mc 2
 Mass can be converted to energy and energy to mass
 In a nuclear-fission power plant, rest mass energy is being converted to thermal energy.

4.3 – Gravitational Potential Energy

Changes in Gravitational Energy
 Gravitational Energy is a form of potential energy. This energy is the result of position….W or Eg =
mgh

Relative Gravitational Energy

 The change in gravitational energy depends on the vertical height and object is raised above a reference
point
 True 0 for energy on earth is at the centre of the earth

4.4 – Kinetic Energy

 It is the energy of a moving object. Two factors affect it – mass and speed
 When there is no friction, all work is kinetic energy Ek = ½ mv2

Law of Conservation of Energy

 Friction limits efficiency of energy conversions to less than 100%
 Energy that disappears as a result of friction becomes thermal energy in near by molecules
 Thermal energy of these molecules is kinetic, elastic, and gravitational energy that disappears
 LAW – energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can be changed from one form to another, but total
amount in universe remains constant

Chapter 5 – Machines, power and energy

Machines and Efficiency
 Machine is a device that enables us to do work more easily than possible
 2 kinds – inclined plane and lever
 Machines change forces – hydroelectric generator changes the force of falling water into an electric
force
 Machines increase size of force – car jack amplifies a muscular force to enable us to lift a car
 Inclined plane – is a simple machine that allows us to increase height
 Actual Mechanical Advantage (AMA) of the inclined plane is the ratio magnitude of force required to
lift the load vertically (load force) to magnitude of force required to move object up the inclined plane
(applied force)
 AMA = load force/ applied force = Fg/Fa = mg/ Fa
 Efficiency of a machine measures the useful work done by the machine compared with the energy put
into the machine
 Levers – used to increase force, vary speed or to change direction
 Lever consists of rigid bar that can rotate about a fixed point called a fulcrum
 First class lever – fulcrum is between load and applied force
 Second class lever – load between fulcrum and applied force
 Third class lever – force between fulcrum and load
  Torque – tuning effect of force on a lever
 Law of lever – clockwise torque = counterclockwise torque
 τ = Fl, l= lever arm…..SI unit = N.m
 A pulley is modified lever. It consists of a grooved wheel that is free to turn in a frame called block
 A combination of several pulleys is called tackle
 Ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) of a pulley system is the mechanical advantage of system neglecting
friction
 AMA of the pulley system is always less than IMA
 Power is the rate at which work is done and the rate at which energy is used.
 2 factor- amount of work done/ energy consumed and time taken
 Power = work/elapsed time = energy/ elapsed time……P = W/t = E/t…..1 J/s
 1 W = 1 J/s
 P = Fvav
 Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat needed to change the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance through unit change in temp.
 Substances with small specific heat capacity warm rapidly because they absorb less heat energy for
given temp. change
 Cool rapidly as they have less heat to give up
 Q = mTc……c= heat capacity….J/kgoC
 The heat transferred is directly proportional to mass, temp. change, and specific heat capacity of
substance

Principle of heat exchange

 A transfer of heat occurs when the subs is at diff temps are mixed.
 Principle of heat exchange law – whenever 2 substances at different temperatures are mixed, the amount
of heat lost by the hotter substance in cooling is equal to the amount of heat gained by the colder
substance in warming
 Thermal energy is conserved when 2 subs at diff temps mix
 The heat exchanged when subs are mixed is called method of mixtures (calculations)
 The heat lost or gained by each component of the mixture must be considered, any heat transferred
between mixture and surrounding must be minimized (containers for this purpose, calorimeters)

Specific Latent heat

 Definite amount of heat is required to change state of subs
 Heat that causes change in state is called latent heat as no change in temp occurs
 Quantity of heat required to change the state of unit mass of subs is called specific latent heat
 L = Q/m…..Q = heat energy….m = mass….L = SLH…..J/kg

Specific Latent heat of fusion – Specific Latent heat of fusion, lf is the amount of heat required to melt 1kg of
subs without changing its temp

Specific Latent heat of vaporization – Specific Latent heat of vaporization, lv is the amount of heat required to
vaporize 1kg of subs without changing its temp

Unit 3 – Waves and Sound

Chapter 6 – Vibrations and Waves
6.1 – Characteristics of Vibrations
 Patterns that repeat themselves are called periodic motion.
 Repeated pattern is called a cycle or a vibration
 A vibration is called transverse if the motion of the vibrating object is perpendicular to its length
  In longitudinal vibrations, motion of the object is parallel to length
 A swing undergoes transverse vibrations….bungee jumper – longitudinal…
 Amplitude is the maximum distance of the vibrating object from its rest position or equilibrium position
 Time required complete one cycle is called period (T)
 T = t/N….t = time interval….N = no. of cycles…
 Frequency indicates the no. of cycles that occur in unit time
 f = N/t….Hz – Hertz unit…..1Hz = 1/s
 f = 1/T…….T = 1/f……..f X T = 1
 When objects are allowed to vibrate freely they do so at a specific frequency called the natural
frequency determined by physically property of the object….EX: frequency of playground swing
depends only on its length
 Phase – two vibrating object can have identical amplitudes and frequencies and yet be different because
they are never at the same point in their cycles at the same time
 In phase – if they always are either at rest or moving in same direction same time
 Opposite phase – moving opposite direction same time
 Out of phase – conditions between these two extremes

6.3 – Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

 Wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through a medium by means of a series of vibrations
 Earthquakes occur when earth’s crust under intense local stress, snaps. The elastic rock then propagates
the waves outwards from the epicenter
Transverse waves
 Transverse wave is one in which the medium vibrates at right angles to the direction of travel of wave
 Distance between adjacent points which are vibrating in phase with each other is wavelength 
 Region above the rest position are called crest…below called trough
Longitudinal waves
 Longitudinal waves – particles of medium vibrate back and forth parallel to the direction in which the
wave is travelling
 Compression (C) – region created when longitudinal waves vibrating parallel to the direction of travel
move closer than normal
 Rarefaction (R) - region created when longitudinal waves vibrating parallel to the direction of travel
move farther than normal
 Primary waves (P) and secondary waves (S)….P= longitudinal….S = transverse (travel slow)
6.4 – Speed of wave
 Universal wave equation – v = f

Doppler Effect
 Distance between adjacent crests equals the wavelength, you can see that the wavelength in front of the
moving source is shorter than the wavelength behind the moving source
 Waves in front of the moving source have a higher frequency and shorter wavelength than if source
were at rest. Waves behind moving source have lower frequency and longer wavelength
 Determine speed of object ………moving car acts as a source of reflective waves, comparing frequency
of original wave with reflected wave can determine speed of car

6.5 – Wave Behavior

 When two or more transverse waves pass through each other it is called interference
 Addition of displacements of waves is superposition
 Principle of superposition – whenever 2 or more waves pass through each other the resultant
displacement at each point is sum of all individual displacements
Constructive Interference
 Constructive interference occurs if both waves push the medium in same direction
 Crest meeting crest – super crest…..trough meeting trough – super trough
 Destructive interference – Effect resulting form 2 or more waves pushing the medium in opposite
directions (when compression overlaps rarefaction)
 Tuning forks vibrate towards each other and squeeze air between to form compression at the same time
air expands to free in the space left behind by the tines creating rarefaction
 Nodal points are the silent points in the tuning forks
 Constructive inter. Forms lines called antinodal lines radiating outward from the midpoint between
speakers

Formation of nodal points

 When a crest and a trough of equal magnitude interfere, the point that remains at rest throughout
interference is nodal point/ node
 Opposite pulses of the same amplitude completely overlap and disappear

Diffraction of waves
 After the waves clear the opening, it tends to spread out – diffraction
 Waves experience large amounts of diffraction when they pass through an opening which is smaller than
the wavelength
 Very little diffraction occurs when the waves pass through an opening which is larger than their
wavelength
 Diffraction can occur when passing by an edge or around an object
 There is change in direction during diffraction, no change in wavelength or freq.
 Sunset – as light waves encounter small particles suspended in air, longer wavelengths of red/ orange
allow these waves to diffract around the particles and keep going. Shorter wavelength corresponding to
blue tend to reflect off particles
 Longer wavelengths diffract more than short ones (we tend to hear lower base notes better than higher
treble notes if music has had to bend around a corner or out through window

Refraction of waves
 Wave will change its speed when it enters a new medium…..its freq. remains same
 Change in speed results change in wavelength…..wave slows down as it enters new medium…..crests
bunch up together to form short wavelength
 If wave does not strike second medium head on, one part of wave will slow down sooner than the rest.
This causes wave to change direction – refraction

Chapter 7 – Production, Transmission and Reception of Sound

7.1 – Producing Sound
Characteristics of Sound
 Pitch of a note is determined by freq. of wave (voices begin to climb a scale)
 Higher pitch notes – crests and troughs are closer together
 Higher the freq. higher the pitch
 Interval between 2 musical notes that have frequency In ratio of 2:1 is octave
 512 Hz is 1 octave above 256 Hz
 Rising in pitch of 1 octave produces a doubling of the freq.
 As music becomes louder amplitude increases
 Existent of higher freq. that are produced at the same time as the basic or fundamental freq. –
overtones….they change quality of note
 Pure note has no overtones and takes the basic wave shape
  Rich note contains several overtones and fundamental freq. so produces more complex wave pattern
 Quality of note determined by presence of overtones and fundamental freq.

Noise
 Result of an irregular mixture of freq.
 How much actual shape of recorded wave differs from shape formed by original source – distortion
 Synthesizer – reproduces sounds of different instruments

7.2 – Hearing Sound

 Sound – form of energy that can be detected by human hear
 Many animals sense freq. that humans cannot hear
 Audible region is sound spectrum for humans extending from 16Hz – 20 000Hz
 Infrasonic – freq. below 16Hz (animals/birds detect)
 Ultrasonic – higher than 20 000Hz

Intensity of Sound
 Amount of sound energy passing each second threw unit area….Si unit – 1J/s/m2 or 1W/m2
 1 Bell = 10 pW/m2………1 dB = 0.1 B
 10 dB = 1 B = 1 X 101 pW/m2
 Loudness is measure of response of ear to sound
 Parts and functions of the ear…

7.3 – The Speed of Sound

Temperature and Speed of Sound
 Sound travels through air by means of moving molecules
 A compression or rarefaction can spread through a gas….cannot be faster than normal molecular speeds
 v = 331m/s + 0.59m/s.C0 (T)
Echoes and Reverberations
 Echoes – reflections of sound waves
 Echoes cause notes to gradually fade away as they reflect back and forth from wall to wall in the process
called reverberation
 Echoes can severely interfere with quality of sound
 Long reverberation. time not good because if the sound waves from the performer reflect several times
before reaching listener the spoken words will become blurry and distorted
 One method of absorbing sound in theatre is selecting seat material that has the same sound absorption
qualities as an avg. member of audience
 Sonar – acronym for sound navigation and ranging
 Short pulse of sound emitted under water and time is measured until return of echo. Distance to the
object that reflected sound waves can be calculated by knowing speed of sound through water

7.4 – Interference and Diffraction

Interference and beats
 Variations in loudness are called beats
 One beat is full cycle of loudness variation from loud to soft to loud
 The beat freq. is difference in freq. between 2 sources
 Beat freq. = |f2 – f1|
 Not possible to have negative beat freq.

Chapter 8 – Physics of Music

8.1 – Standing waves
  Acoustics – study of sound
 Vibrations occur rapidly enough, a blurred pattern is seen – standing wave
 Each vibrating section is a loop
 Standing wave patter is produced by interference of 2 identical travelling waves moving in opp.
Directions in same medium same time.
 Waves sent down from vibrating end are reflected by fixed end and travel back through incoming
waves…..if freq. is just right, 1 loop forms
 Shorter wavelength – 2 loops formed
 Standing wave patterns are called harmonics
 Freq. are whole number multiples of first harmonics
 Rope can vibrate at or resonate with diff. freq. – resonant freq.
 Wave reverse phase (crest trough) when it reflects at fixed point and keeps the same phase when it
reflects at a free point

8.2 – Stringed instruments

Guitar strings
 Pitch of notes by guitar is determined by properties and conditions of strings
 Tuning heads alter tension in the strings
 Player plucks diff. strings or changes length of vibrating segment of a string
 Only part of string that vibrates is the length between the pressed fret and the saddle
 Main factors that determine freq. of vibrating string are length, tension, diameter, and density
 When a guitar string is plucked it usually vibrates in its fundamental mode with transverse standing
wave
 There is a node at the pressed fret and at saddle
 Length of vibrating segment is one complete loop or half wavelength of standing wave
 f1L1 = f2L2
 freq. of vibrating strings depends on speed of wave along the string

Acoustic Guitar
 Amplification of the sound from the vibrating strings is accomplished by sound box
 Guitar string is plucked; energy of vibration is transferred from string to saddle and bridge. Bridge in
turn transmits energy to sound box. Sound box consists of an enclosed air space, sides, back plate, and
top surface – sound board. Sound board has large vibrating surface than string, it translates its vibes
more effectively into compression and rarefactions of air to produce sound of higher intensity

Violin family – Energy from the vibrating string is transferred to the bridge and then to sound box, sound
radiates into air

8.3 – Acoustical resonance in air columns

 Resonance involves sound waves - acoustical resonance
 Shorter column length known as first resonant length…..next longest is second resonant length

8.4 – Air columns in action

 Wind instruments – player sets of vibes at one end which then propagate along the air column or bore as
longitudinal wave and reflect at other open end…. open end is flared outward to form bell
 Standing wave forms in the bore with anti nodes on the ends
 Fundamental mode – bore corresponds to half wavelength
 Lowest note produced - wavelength equal to twice the length of the bore
 If length of bore is increased, low pitch note is sounded and wavelength increase
 Additional lengths of tubing can be added simply by pressing down on valves – lowers the pitch
  Woodwind differ from brass – initial freq that triggers air column resonance is provided by player
blowing past a silver of wood called reed….reed vibrates
 Length of bore is changed by opening and closing holes along bore length
 Flute is unique in that player blows over a hole, air vibrates and the moving air stream interacts with air
in hole. Because air vibrates a flute is set to use an air reed

Unit 4 – Light and Geometric Optics

 Light is form of radiant energy that travels fast and can be reflected, transmitted and absorbed
 Originally, this form of radiant energy is only produced by natural sources such as sun, stars, fore and
lightening
 Interacts with diff materials that reflect, transmit and absorb
 Geometric optics – ability to control and manipulate light (deals with reflection and refraction)

9.1 – Some Characteristics of Light

 Luminous objects produce light (direct source)…EX: sun, candle, and light bulb
 Non-luminous objects reflect light from another (indirect source)
 Light carries energy outward in straight lines and great speeds I all directions
 Particle model – microscopic model particles radiating away from source…explains certain behaviors
such as propagation, reflect, and absorption. Difficulty in explaining light slowing down when traveling
from air to glass
 Wave model – explains particle model….light consists of transverse waves radiating away from
source…cannot explain photoelectric effect – emission of electrons from metallic surfaces,
 Quantum model – explains all of above (particles – photons and wave prop.)

Characteristics of Light
 Rectilinear propagation – light appears to travel in straight lines through uniform medium
 Reflection – light travels in diff. direction when it rebounds from shiny surface
 Refraction – travels from one material to another at angle other than 900
 3 theories for visual illusions – illusion may be due to our interpretation of what display represents,
illusion may be a product of misapplied scaling mechanism, illusion may be due to psychological coding
process
 Incident ray – ray of light approaching reflecting surface
 Reflected ray – ray of light leaving reflecting surface
 Point of incidence is the location where the incident ray strikes the reflecting surface
 Normal line – drawn perpendicular to surface at POI
 Angle of incidence - angle between incident ray and normal
 Angle of reflection - angle between reflected ray and normal

9.2 – Plane mirror reflection and images

2 laws of reflection
 If angle b/w mirror and incident ray is 90 deg reflected ray bounces back towards source….incident and
reflection angles are 0 ….both are equal
 Angle of ref = angle of incidence, the incident ray, normal, and reflected ray all lie on same plane
 When parallel rays are incident on smooth surface, rays reflect as parallel beam – specular/ regular
reflection
 Parallel beam incident on rough surface reflects light that is scattered – diffuse/ irregular reflection

Parallax
 Image of candle placed in front of mirror appears to be behind mirror – 0 parallax method….can be used
to locate image
  Parallax – apparent motion of object or image which is nearby with reference to second object which is
farther away caused by change in position of observer
 Virtual image – when light not really coming from image but appears to be
 Real image – opp. of virtual
 All image described by 4 characteristics: magnification, attitude, kind and position (SALT)
 Plane mirrors do not change size of image – driver’s side wing mirror

Chapter 10 – Refraction and total internal reflection

 An explosion in sum sent enormous ball of gas to earth hitting earth’s magnetic field generating
geomagnetic storm and display northern lights
 Light takes 8 min from sun to earth
 Electromagnetic spectrum are classified in terms of freq. and wavelength (radio waves, microwaves,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma)
 Speed of light in vacuum / air – 3.00 X 108 m/s

Index of refraction light

 Light slows down when travels from vacuum to another medium
 Travels slowly = more refractive medium (diamond more refractive than glass)
 Refractivity measured by comparing speed of monochromatic light (light of one color) in medium and in
vacuum
 n = c/v…..c = speed in vacuum…..v = speed in medium….n = refraction
 index of refraction….water = 1.33….vacuum = 1.0000…..air = 1.0003
 all colors of light travel with same speed in vacuum but opp. in mediums

10.2 – Snell’s law of refraction

 when a light ray is incident on the boundary b/w 2 materials of diff refractive indexes some light is
reflected and some of it enters new material
 refraction is bending of light as it passes at an oblique angle from one refractive index medium to
another
 reflection and refraction occur simultaneously at interface b/w 2 material
 amount reflected increases as incident angle increases

Laws of refraction
 light travels in waves and has wave fronts…wave front is line joining all points on light waves leaving
source at same time
 lines perpendicular to wave front represent direction of travel
 sin i/ sin R = c/ v……….is constant
 Ratio sin i/ sin R is a constant for a given color of light and material. The incident ray and refracted ray
are on opp. sides of the normal at POI; and all 3 lie on the same plane
 vacuum to higher index of refraction – light bends to normal
 sin m / sin v = 1 / nm
 Snell law is : sin 1 n1 = sin 2 n2

Critical angle and total internal reflection

 Diamonds formed from C – high temp. and deep pressure
 When light travels from more refractive medium to less, angle of refraction is bigger than incident. The
angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90 – critical angle
 At critical angle, refractive light graces along boundary b/w 2 mediums. If this light has angle greater
than critical, it is reflected back into the more refractive medium. Larger the index of refraction, smaller
critical angle
  Critical angle: sin c = n2 / n1
 Total reflection to occur: light must be travelling in more refractive medium, light should have angle
greater than critical

10.4 – Examples of Refraction and Total Internal Reflection

Apparent Depth
 An oar partly under water looks bent when viewed from above – this phenomenon can be explained by
the laws of refraction and the fact that the brain assumes that light travels in straight lines.
 d’ = d (n2/n1) n1 = object is located….n2 = observer is located (air)…. d’ = depth of fake object….d =
actual depth

10.5 – The Composition of White Light

Newton’s Prism Experiment
 spectrum consisted of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet…like the rainbow
 Newton wanted to know if the colors were added to white light by prism or if it separates them out
 White is made of all the colors in the spectrum and the prism just separates them – dispersion
 Recombining them to form white is called recomposition
 Recomposition can be achieved by using a second reversed prism, converging lens or mirror
 White light is refracted when it passes through a prism
 Red refracts least and violet the most…with other colors in between
 All colors of light travel at same speed in vacuum
 Higher the freq./shorter the wavelength…slower it travels in refractive medium

Rainbows
A rainbow is produced as a result of the dispersion of sunlight by tiny droplets of water in the atmosphere. The
line between the observer and the top of the arc of a primary rainbow makes an angle of about 42 0. When you
see the rainbow, the sunlight usually comes from behind you. The parallel rays of the sunlight is refracted and
dispersed at the surfaces of the droplets, and the rays are reflected from the back surfaces to produce the
different colored bands of a primary rainbow. White light enters near the top of each droplet. The red
component refracts the least and the violet the most. This why the red reaches the observer’s eyes from water
drops at a greater angle above horizon than violet. A secondary rainbow is formed by light that enters the
bottom of the droplets and undergoes two internal reflections before emerging

Chapter 11 – Lens and Technological Devices

11.1 – Curved Lenses: Refraction and Ray Diagrams
 Lateral displacement depends on angle of incidence, index of refraction of medium, and distance light
travels in the medium
 Light rays that pass through triangular prism are refracted toward normal entering and away leaving
 Angle between incident and emergent = angle of deviation. Large refractive index = larger deviation
 Converging lens – the curved sides cause light rays to converge to a common point (PA)
 Diverging lens – curved edges cause light rays to diverge away from PA
 Focal length – measured along the principal axis
 Principal axis – a line drawn at optical center and perpendicular to surface
 Both converging and diverging lens can be used to create parallel rays
 Focal points fall on focal plane…where the picture is focused
 Object distance in infinite
 virtual image on same side of lens as object, erect and diminished in size
 Diverging lens does not have these characs. When object is against lens

Chromatic aberration
  white light passes through a single lens, an image with colored fringe is observed – chromatic aberration
 it is diff. in refractive index of lens for diff. colors
 converging lens combined with diverging to produce achromatic lens
 achromatic lens can be designed to eliminate chromatic aberration for 2 colors and minimize others

Spherical aberration – principle focus is small circle rather than a point

11.2 – thin lens equation

 1 / do + 1 / d i = 1 / f
 m = hi / ho = - di / do
 focal length f is positive for converging lens and negative for diverging lens
 do is positive, di is positive for real and negative for virtual
 hi and ho are positive measure upward from principle axis and negative when measured downward
 magnification m is positive when image is erect and negative when inverted

11.3 – Optical Instruments

 Closer an object the larger the image produced on retina
 Object forms a larger angle θ at the eye
 Eye cannot focus on objects closer than near point (near point for normal human eye is 25cm)
 Converging lens enables eye to focus on objects closer than near point
 Image forms a larger angle with lens than object at same location without lens – magnifying glass/hand
magnifier…
 m = N/f +1……di = N

Compound Microscopes
 2 converging lenses are arranged to increase the linear magnification of close objects
 Lens nearest the object is object8ve lens with many components combined to produce short focal length
lens
 Object is placed slightly beyond principle focus
 Lens closest to eye – eyepiece
 Focal length of eyepiece is longer
 m = - N (L-fe) / fofe............N is nearpoint of eye, L = distance b/w lens....fe and fo = focal length of eyepiece
and objective
 total magnification of compound microscope is product of magnification of objective lens and eyepiece
 mt = mo X me

Galilean telescopes
 housed in a relatively short tube and produces magnified upright image
 length is equal to algebraic sum of focal lengths of objective lens and eyepiece
 short and light weight and same principle used in making opera glasses
 2 disadvantages: it has lower magnification than Keplerian telescope and diverges some of light away
from eye resulting in dimmer image (objective lens need to have larger cross-sectional area)

Terrestrial telescopes
 Used to view objects on earth (animals and structures) and designed to produce erect image
 Similar to keplerian telescope except for third converging lens called field lens located b/w objective
lens and eyepiece
 Field lens inverts first image produced by objective lens and ensures that the magnified final image
produced by the eyepiece has same attitude as objective
11.4 – Camera
 Depth of field determines how much of object is in focus
 Consists of light proof box with lens (Converging) at one end to form a real, inverted image on light
sensitive film or plate at other end
 Black and white film is coated with Ag Br
 Nearer objects.....focusing must be turned to move lens farther from film
 Amount of light reaching film is controlled by: shutter controls length of time light is let in, diaphragm
controls size of aperture (the hole light passes through)
 Light entering camera is proportional to time shutter is open
 High quality cameras – 1 / 1000 s to 1s
 Diameter of aperture is controlled by iris diaphragm
 Light passing through aperture is directly proportional to cross-sectional area
 More light spreads out less the intensity of light falling on film
 Intensity is affected by focal length of lens
 Longer focal length, the father the film is from lens and more the light spreads out

Unit 5 – Electricity and Magnetism

12.1 – Electric charge and electric current
 Thunder clouds charge due to friction b/w water droplets and ice crystals in clouds as air current move
around them
 Cloud becomes positively charged at the top and negatively charged at the bottom
 Lightening occurs when air rapidly conducts huge no. of electrons (constitutes electric current)

Nature of electric charge

 Lightening discharge is an electrical charge moving through air and charge concentrates at a point and
more readily escape from pointed objects
 Lightening is a discharge of static electricity
 Electric charge is given to pollen to improve pollinization...when sprayed on pollen stick more to
flowers and increases fertilization

The coulomb
 Current electricity is electric charge that moves from one place to another
 Electrons move in electric circuits
 Unit of charge...... coulomb is equivalent to charge of many e-
 1 C = charge on an object with excess or deficiency of 6.24 X 1018 e-
 Elementary charge (e) – magnitude of charge on an e- or proton
 e = 1.60 X 10-19 C
 Q – quantity of charge on an object in coulombs, N – no. of elementary charges
 Q = Ne
 You can decide charge by determining whether there is an excess or deficiency of e-

Coulomb’s Law
 Force of attraction or repulsion b/w 2 fixed charged objects depends on the size of charge and the
distance b/w the objects
 Law – The magnitude of electric force b/w any 2 charged objects is directly proportional to the product
of the charges on the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance b/w their centres
 Fe = kQ1Q2 / Δd2.....Fe – force of attraction or repulsion, Q1Q2 – point charges, d – distance b/w charges

Electric current
 No. of e- flowing past a given point in 1 s
  Symbol of electric current is I
 Q represents quantity of charge flowing past a given point
 Δ T - time take for charge to pass
 I = Q/ Δ T
 SI unit is ampere
 1C = 1A.s
 When an current of 1 A flows in a conductor for 1 s, 1C of charge passes any point along the conductor
 1A involves 6.2 X 1018 e- passing a given point

Current conventions
 E- flow convention, the electric current is shown leaving negative terminal at cell or battery (entering
positive terminal)
 Conventional current, electric current is assumed to leave positive terminal of cell or battery

Measuring electric current

 Instrument – ammeter and it should be connected at the point where the charge flows past
 Negative terminal of ammeter must be able to be traced back to negative terminal of source (vice versa)

12.2 – Electric potential difference

Electric potential difference
 Near earth, gravitational potential energy depends on distance from centre of earth
 Gravitational potential is the energy possessed by unit mass at new location
 Electric potential of an charge in an electric field depends on its distance from another charged object
 Electric potential difference is the change in electric potential when a charged is moved b/w 2 points in a
n electric field
 It is determined by measuring work done in moving a unit charge b/w 2 points
 E –energy used, W – work done in moving charge Q b/w 2 points
 V = E /Q or V = W / Q find units for potential diff. V – volt or J/C
 Voltmeter is used to measure potential diff. And should be connected parallel at the negative terminal

Conditions for Current Flow

 For an electric current to flow there must be a circuit, continuous pathway along which electric charge
can flow, and potential difference must exist
 Ground is assumed to have electric potential of 0 volts

Schematic Circuit Diagrams – Schematic Circuit Diagrams use symbols to show circuit components and their
connections

12.3 – Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws

Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 Electrical connections can be made in series or parallel
 Series connections, current can flow along one path only
 Ammeters are always connected in series
 Parallel connection current can flow along 2 or more pathways
 Voltmeters must always be connected in parallel
 LAW – at any junction in an electric circuit, the total current flowing into the junction is equal to the
total current flowing out of the junction

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

  Total potential diff Vt in a series circuit is equal to the sum of potential differences across the
components (Vt = V1 + V2 + V3+....)
 Cell increases energy of e- b/w its terminals. Thus there is an increase in potential diff across cells –
given positive sign
 Electric energy is used by each component in a circuit and there is decrease in potential diff across them
– give in negative sign
 Increase in energy given to e- must equal the total decrease in energy as e- pass through the circuit
 Increase in potential diff equals decrease in potential diff
 LAW – the algebraic sum of potential diff around any closed path or loop must equal 0

Series Parallel Combinations – most practical electric circuits use both series and parallel

Connecting cells in series and in parallel

 Like terminals of 2 batteries must be connected together (but there is danger)
 If the batteries are connected and they are fully charged, they can have greater potential diff than the
dead one, there is usually a spark when last cable is connected and first cable is removed
 Sparks can ignite H gas produced by chemical reactions within the battery
 People have been blinded by sulphuric acid from exploding batteries

Chapter 13 – Electrical Resistance, Power and Energy

13.1 – Resistance and ohm’s law
 Filament of an electric light bulb impedes the flow of electric current. The filament has a property called
resistance.
 Increasing resistance in an circuit, decreases current flow
 Conductance is a measure of how easily current can flow through a material. Conductance is inverse of
resistance
 LAW – potential diff across conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it
 Materials that obey ohm’s law is called ohmic.....that don’t – non ohmic
 Volt / amperes = ohm Ω

Resistors
 Resistors limit current in a circuit. Resistance of a resistor and its tolerance are usually indicated by a
series of coloured bands on the body of a resistor
 Tolerance is stated as a % and gives allowable variation in the value of resistance
 Potentiometer or variable resistor can be used to vary current in a electric circuit
 Longer resistant wire, larger the resistance, smaller the electric current and slower the motor turns
 Used to control volume in stereo and power circuit in dimmer switches
 A pathway with no resistance – short circuit. Since there is very little resistance in circuit, current will be
large
Factor affecting electrical resistance
 Resistors are usually made by wrapping a fine wire around an insulating core; or a mixture of C and
other materials and moulded into a cylindrical shape
 Resistance R of a cylindrical wire depends on 4 factor: length, cross-sectional area, resistivity and
temperature
 Length – longer wire has greater resistance. Resistance is proportional to length
 Cross-sectional area A of a cylindrical wire is A = πr2
 Thicker wire has greater radius and more cross sectional area. Resistance of wire decrease with large
cross-sectional area
 Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area
  Temperature – resistance of metal increases as its temperature increases – semiconductors such as C,
Ge, and Si. Temperature of semiconductor increases, resistance decreases, but never becomes 0
 Resistivity ρ of a material is the resistance a cylinder of material would have if it were 1m long, with
cross-sectional area of 1 m2
 Resistivity are specified for certain temps usually 20 degree Celsius
 A few metal and other materials lose all resistance at very low temps and become super conductors. A
super conducting wire can carry an electric current without losing any energy as heat

13.2 – Resistors in series and parallel

 Equivalent resistance – value of single resistors which provides the same resistance as a combination of
resistors
 In series circuit, current through each component is same
 Equivalent resistance of a parallel combination of resistors – relationship for potential diff, current
and resistance in parallel combinations... 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +....
 Total resistance of a parallel combination is always less than the smallest resistance in any pathway of
the combination Rt = Vt/It

13.3 – Electric power and energy

 Specified power of electric motors depends on the rate at which they use electric energy
 Power P is the energy E used per unit time: P = E/ Δt......unit ampere volt (watt W)
 E = QV
 P = IV
 P = V2/ R
 Unit for electrical energy is 1 X 106J
 Cost of 1KWh of electric energy is called the unit cost........total cost = energy used X unit cost

Chapter 14 – Magnetism
14.1 – Magnetic poles, Fields, and Forces
 Naturally occurring magnets made of magnetite (Fe3O4) are called lodestones
 Lodestones – on end always points towards Earth’s geographic north and the other end to south
(north/south seeking poles of magnet)
 Compass – a magnet that is allowed to rotate horizontally to point north and south
 LAW – Similar magnetic poles repel while opposite magnetic poles attract
 The magnetic field about a magnet is strongest at the poles
 The north pole and south of same bar magnet are equally strong
 If u cut a magnet in 2, each half has a north and south pole
 Cutting up produces an increased no. of smaller but weak magnets
 Always come in pairs – cannot have north without a corresponding south – researching on monopoles
Properties of the Magnetic Field
 Space around a magnet in which magnetic force can be detected is magnetic field
 Iron, nickel, cobalt – respond strongly to magnetic field
 Dysprosium and gadolinium – rare metals – ferromagnetic – elements which have magnetic properties
 Ferrimagnetic – compounds that have magnetic properties (Ex: Fe2O3 – rust)
 Domain Theory – groups of atoms of magnetic material are able to reorient themselves in such a manner
that the electron spins match which results in a magnetic field increase
Factors affecting magnetic field of coil
 Current in the coil – more current that flows = greater magnetic field Mag. Field Strength prop. I
 Number of loops in the coil – more loops = greater magnetic field Mag. Field Strength prop. N
 Type of core material – iron and nickel make strong magnetic field Mag. Field Strength prop. Ratio
of permeability change
  Cross-sectional area of the core – magnetic field strength prop. 1/cross-sec. area
Lines of Magnetic Force
 Lines of magnetic force – lines are closet together at the poles (where the magnetic field is strongest)
and tends to spread out farther away from poles.
 North pole of compass is directed away from the north pole of the bar magnet and toward its south pole
 Direction of a line of force is defined as direction in which the north pole of a compass points when
placed along that line.
 Line appears to loop out from the north pole and arc around the south pole outside the magnet
 The lines inside the magnet must travel from south pole to the north pole loops surround the magnet in 3
dimensions (in real life magnets ) – these lines are imaginary 
 Lines of force never cross…and if they did they would be acting in two different directions! O.O
 Lines of force can be used to predict how diff. magnetic fields will interact
 Since like poles repel, parallel fields indicate repulsion. Opposite fields indicate attraction.
 Used in medical imaging machines like MRI – finding internal problems, some migrating birds sense
earth’s magnetic field and can determine north/south, magnetic bacteria – food with magnetic field.

14.2 – Magnetic Field Around a Current – Carrying Conductor

Discovery of Electromagnetism
 An electric current in a wire had no effect on a nearby magnetic compass. He placed s wire at right
angles to stationary compass needle. Because Earth’s magnetic field, the needle pointed north. When he
passed a current through it the needle did not change. The wire was oriented parallel to needle and when
the current flowed through it the needle swung away from north
 Magnetic force produced by electricity – electromagnetism
 Patrolling aircraft use to detect submarines beneath ocean surface
 The magnetic field around a straight, current-carrying conductor is circular with conductor located at
centre
 Viewed from above, when the current flows down the wire, the magnetic field is clockwise. Conversely,
when current flows up wire – counter clockwise
 X – current flowing away from you........... dot – current flowing toward you
 Right hand rule – grasp the conductor with your right hand so that the thumb points in direction of
current. Your fingers then wrap around the conductor in the same direction as the magnetic field
 When using iron filings...if lines are fuzzy then the magnetic field strength is small....strength of the
magnetic field increases are the distance from the wire increases
 Right hand rule for helix – grasp the helix with your right had so that your fingers wrap around the helix
in the same direction as current. Your thumb points toward north
 Enormous increase in the strength of magnetic field about a helix when a ferromagnetic core is inserted.
A helix that contains core is called electromagnet.
 Strength of electromagnet depends on current in helix, no of turns / unit length, and permeability of core
 Current in helix – strength of electromagnet varies directly with current. Force exerted by electromagnet
is proportional to current
 Number of turns/ unit length – force exerted by electromagnet is proportional to number of turns
 Permeability of core – relative permeability is the factor by which the strength of field increases due to
presence of core. Non- magnetic metal such as Cu and Al – relative permeability is 1.0
Earth’s magnetic field
 The magnetic poles are not located exactly at geographic poles
 Magnetic north is near nunavat 1600 km away from geographic pole
 Magnetic poles are not directly opposite each other and they continually move slowly
 Geological evidence indicates clearly that earth’s north and south pole have reversed no. of times
  Earth’s magnetic field is produced by circulation of charged atoms or ions in large eddies in earth’s
molten outer core
 Large scale movement of these charged particles would create a magnetic field much as an electric
current does in an helix
 Circling motion of the eddies could be driven by thermal conduction and earth’s rotation about its
axis

14.3 – Ferromagnetism
 Ferromagnetic substances, steel which consists mainly of Fe become magnetised in the presence of
magnetic field – induced magnetism
 Magnetism disappears when original field is removed
 If you take a steel needle and stroke it several times with one of the poles of a strong magnet, it will
retain its magnetism
 E- in an atom allow ferromagnetic elements to become magnetised
 The e- is a tiny, current carrying loop with north pole and south pole
 The e- carries negative charge and this spin is equivalent to conventional current flow in opposite
direction
 Electrons spinning in one direction are almost completely paired up with e- spinning in opp
 Magnetic field of one pair cancels that of its partner’s and the atom is left with little or no magnetic field

14.4 – Electromagnets in action

 Relay is a remote control switch
 By closing a switch in low voltage circuit, you cause a switch in a high voltage circuit to close
 Armature in an electromagnetic device is the part which is moved by magnetic forces (made of iron or
steel)
 Switch in low voltage circuit is closed, and current will flow through the coil. The resulting magnetic
field exerts an attractive force on armature, pulling it to the left
 When switch in low voltage circuit is open, current no longer flows through coil. The magnetic field
around the coil collapses and the spring causes the armature to swing to the right. The contacts separate
and current stops in the 120 V circuit

Solenoid switch
 Fe core has been partly inserted into coil.....current is turned on and the magnetic field pulls core into the
coil. This action can be used to close and open a switch
 Electromagnets are also called solenoids. This type of switch – solenoid switch (can be used to operate
valves or counters)

Chapter 15 – Motors and Generators

15.1 – The Motor Principal
 A magnetic field exerts force on a moving charge is called motor principal
 Motor principal – when a current-carrying conductor is located in an external magnetic field
perpendicular to the conductor, the conductor experiences a force that is perpendicular to both itself and
external magnetic field
 Magnitude depends on the amount of current and magnitude of external magnetic field
 Magnetic field is telsa (T)
 1N=1T
 1 T = 1N/(Cm/s) = 1 kg/(As2)
 Tesla is about ten thousand times the strength of earth’s magnetic field, so a smaller unit gauss G is used
 1 G = 10-4 T
  Right hand rule for electromagnetic force – hold out your right hand so that your thumb points in the
direction of the current and your fingers point in direction of external magnetic field. The force on the
conductor is directed outward from palm of you hand.
 Direction of electromagnetic field on conductor depends on direction of current and direction of
perpendicular external magnetic field.
 Voltmeter – device used to measure the electric potential diff. Between 2 points in a circuit.
 A current can only be induced when magnetic field of conductor is changing. This occurs when circuit is
closed or opened. The current when opening switch is opposite in direc. to that when closing.

Magnitude of Electromagnetic Induction

 Faraday observed electromagnetic induction because a current was indicated by his galvanometer
 Induced current is result of induced potential diff. Both cases are known as electromagnetic induction
 Induced potential diff., V, varies with no. Of turns in helix, N.
 V is prop. To N.....V1/V2 = N1/N2
 V prop. to B/t
 Rate at which field is changing and not actual magnitude of field....important