Viewpoint

From Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable

Development Goals
Jeffrey D Sachs

Lancet 2012; 379: 2206–11 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) mark a high-level global sustainability panel, appointed in the
Earth Institute, Columbia historic and effective method of global mobilisation to lead-up to the Rio+20 summit in June, 2012, has issued a
University, New York, NY, USA achieve a set of important social priorities worldwide. report recommending that the world adopt a set of
(Prof J D Sachs PhD)
They express widespread public concern about poverty, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This spring,
Correspondence to:
hunger, disease, unmet schooling, gender inequality, and Secretary-General Ban indicated that after the Rio+20
Prof Jeffrey D Sachs, Earth
Institute, Columbia University, environmental degradation. By packaging these priorities summit he plans to appoint a high-level panel to consider
New York, NY 10027, USA into an easily understandable set of eight goals, and the details of post-2015 goals, with UK Prime Minister
sachs@columbia.edu by establishing measurable and timebound objectives, David Cameron, Indonesian President Susilo Bambang
the MDGs help to promote global awareness, political Yudhoyono, and Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf
For more on the report by the accountability, improved metrics, social feedback, and as co-chairs. One scenario is that the Rio+20 summit will
High-level Panel on Global public pressures. As described by Bill Gates, the MDGs endorse the idea of the SDGs, and world leaders will adopt
Sustainability see http://www.
un.org/gsp/report
have become a type of global report card for the fight them at a special session of the UN General Assembly to
against poverty for the 15 years from 2000 to 2015. As review the MDGs in September, 2013.
with most report cards, they generate incentives to The SDGs are an important idea, and could help finally
improve performance, even if not quite enough incen- to move the world to a sustainable trajectory. The detailed
tives for both rich and poor countries to produce a global content of the SDGs, if indeed they do emerge in
class of straight-A students. upcoming diplomatic processes, is very much up for
Developing countries have made substantial progress discussion and debate. Their content, I believe, should
towards achievement of the MDGs, although the progress focus on two considerations: global priorities that need
is highly variable across goals, countries, and regions. active worldwide public participation, political focus, and
Mainly because of startling economic growth in China, quantitative measurement; and lessons from the MDGs,
developing countries as a whole have cut the poverty rate especially the reasons for their successes, and corrections
by half between 1990 and 2010. Some countries will achieve of some of their most important shortcomings. I have
all or most of the MDGs, whereas others will achieve very served Secretaries-General Kofi Annan and Ban Ki-Moon
few. By 2015, most countries will have made meaningful as Special Advisor on the MDGs, and look forward to
progress towards most of the goals. Moreover, for more contributing to the SDGs as well. The following sugges-
than a decade, the MDGs have remained a focus of global tions, which I make solely in my personal capacity,
policy debates and national policy planning. They have include priorities for the SDGs and the best ways to build
become incorporated into the work of non-governmental on the MDG successes and lessons.
organisations and civil society more generally, and are
taught to students at all levels of education. Why SDGs?
The probable shortfall in achievement of the MDGs is The idea of the SDGs has quickly gained ground because
indeed serious, regrettable, and deeply painful for people of the growing urgency of sustainable development for
with low income. The shortfall represents a set of the entire world. Although specific definitions vary,
operational failures that implicate many stakeholders, sustainable development embraces the so-called triple
in both poor and rich countries. Promises of official bottom line approach to human wellbeing. Almost all
development assistance by rich countries, for example, the world’s societies acknowledge that they aim for a
have not been kept. combination of economic development, environmental
Nonetheless, there is widespread feeling among policy sustainability, and social inclusion, but the specific
makers and civil society that progress against poverty, objectives differ globally, between and within societies.
hunger, and disease is notable; that the MDGs have Certainly, as yet, no consensus regarding the tradeoffs
played an important part in securing that progress; and and synergies across the economic, environmental, and
that globally agreed goals to fight poverty should continue social objectives has been agreed. Still, a shared focus on
beyond 2015. In a world already undergoing dangerous economic, environmental, and social goals is a hallmark
climate change and other serious environmental ills, of sustainable development and represents a broad
there is also widespread understanding that worldwide consensus on which the world can build.
environmental objectives need a higher profile alongside The urgency of the triple bottom line arises from a new
the poverty-reduction objectives. realisation brought to global awareness by earth science
For these reasons, the world’s governments seem poised and the yearly changes around us. The world has entered a
to adopt a new round of global goals to follow the 15 year new era, indeed a new geological epoch, in which human
MDG period. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon’s activity has come to play a central and threatening part in

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 Viewpoint

fundamental earth dynamics. Global economic growth per high-fertility settings should be empowered to adopt
person, now led by the emerging economies, and a still- rapid and voluntary reductions of fertility to benefit
burgeoning population that reached 7 billion last year (and themselves, their children, and the local and global
that is expected to reach 8 billion by 2024) are combining to economy and environment.
put unprecedented stress on the earth’s ecosystems. The combination of a rising world population and
Following the lead of Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen, one of rapidly rising incomes per person in large emerging
the discoverers of the chemistry behind stratospheric economies such as China and India suggests that the
ozone depletion, scientists have quickly adopted the new demand for food grains and feed grains will continue to
term Anthropocene to denote the human-driven age of the increase, amplified by rising meat consumption in the
planet. A closely related notion is termed planetary emerging economies, against a backdrop of around
boundaries—the idea that human activity is pushing 1 billion people who are already chronically hungry, mainly
crucial global ecosystem functions past a dangerous in Africa and south Asia. In the past two decades, many of
threshold, beyond which the earth might well encounter the key yield-raising technologies of the green revolution
abrupt, highly non-linear, and potentially devastating have run their course; increases in productivity of food and
outcomes for human wellbeing and life generally. feed grains have slowed worldwide. A substantial share of
The present era is distinguished by the fact that these US maize production has been diverted into biofuel.
pressures are both global and local, and that they impinge Increased grain production is increasingly difficult, and
simultaneously on several different crucial earth sys- threatens continued destruction of natural habitats,
tems, including the carbon, nitrogen, and water cycles. climate change, water stress, increased fertiliser pollution,
Humanity faces not only one but many overlapping crises decrease in biodiversity, and more. Social outcomes could
of environmental sustainability, including: climate change be deeply destabilising, because sharp increases in food
as the result of human-caused emissions of greenhouse prices threaten to push hundreds of millions of people into
gases; massive environmental pollution (eg, the poisoning chronic hunger.
of estuaries and other ecosystems as a result of heavy Another set of challenges surrounds social inclusion—
runoff of nitrogen-based and phosphorus-based fertil- or, put more simply, fairness—in the world’s economies.
isers); the acidification of the oceans, caused mainly by the As the world has been stumbling through the intense
increased concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, period of globalisation since 1980, together with the
which is the most important human-produced greenhouse advent of the digital age, inequalities in income have
gas; the massive loss of biodiversity caused by unsustain- generally soared. Gaps in earnings between workers with
able demands on forests (eg, logging for timber or wood higher education and those without have widened sharply.
fuel; figure 1) and the continuing conversion of forests The wages of highly educated and well trained workers
and remaining wilderness into farms and pastures; and have grown substantially, whereas earnings of lower-
the depletion of key fossil resources, including energy (oil, skilled workers with fewer years of education have tended
gas, coal) and groundwater. to decrease. The fragility of gainful employment for large
In view of these dire and unprecedented challenges, parts of the world’s labour force, in both rich and poor
the need for urgent, high-profile, and change-producing countries, has contributed to increased public unrest
global goals should be obvious. The public is beginning to (figure 2) and even the toppling of governments in the
sense that the increasing frequency of extreme climate past few turbulent years, with more unrest expected.
events is indicative of an underlying dangerous trend Of course, the increased inequality caused by differences
of long-term change. The detailed reports of the Inter- in educational attainment adds to longstanding inequalities
governmental Panel on Climate Change have enabled the in other dimensions. The goal of gender equality between
world community to keep abreast of the latest scientific men and women and boys and girls (MDG 3) has not yet
findings of anthropogenic interference in the climate
system. Moreover, the growing burdens of high and
volatile food prices are confronting billions of people daily.
Beyond the environmental threats, humanity faces
other serious threats that are part of the sustainable
development agenda. The human population continues
to grow rapidly, by around 75–80 million people per
year, and is on a trajectory to reach 9 billion by the
middle of the 21st century, and even 10 billion by the
end of the century. Even the medium forecast of the UN
Population Division (which foresees a world population
of 10·1 billion in 2100) could well turn out to be low,
since it is predicated on a rather steep decline in fertility
Corbis

rates in low-income countries. These demographic

trends have to be taken seriously, and households in Figure 1: Illegal logging near Anapu, Pará, Brazil

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The economic dimension should build on the MDGs,

which have helped to advance the world’s agenda in
the fight against poverty, hunger, and disease. Between
2015 and 2030, the world should aim not merely to
achieve the MDGs where they have not been met, but to
carry on with the task initiated at the very start of the UN
itself (and represented in the Universal Declaration of
Ben Curtis/AP/Press Association Images

Human Rights): to secure the basic material needs—and

human rights—of everybody on the planet. To declare
that by 2030, all extreme deprivation—hunger, extreme
income poverty, and avoidable disease and deaths—can
be eliminated is both realistic and profound. All
individuals should be able to access safe water (figure 3)
Figure 2: Greek workers demonstrating against job losses and sanitation, electricity, connection to information and
communication technology (figure 4), and primary health
care, and be protected from natural hazards. Many places
been met worldwide, even though some progress has been will remain poor, but no place should be destitute, unable
made on girls’ school enrolment and women’s participation to meet these basic needs.
in politics and business. Minority groups (ethnic, religious, A key challenge is to adopt a meaningful standard of
racial) continue to endure hardships in all countries. basic needs worldwide. I would propose the following goal.
Longstanding discrimination against indigenous popu-
lations is stark and in many places intensifying as a SDG 1: by 2030, if not earlier, all the world’s people
will have access to safe and sustainable water and
scramble for jobs, water, and arable land increases. Youth sanitation, adequate nutrition, primary health services,
also find themselves aggrieved. They have arrived on the and basic infrastructure, including electricity, roads, and
planet at a time of remarkable technological advancement, connectivity to the global information network.
notably in digital, material, and health technologies, but
seemingly also at a time when technological advance is This target might seem optimistic, but it is well within
threatening the access of many people to good jobs rather reach. Technological advances and economic growth are
than enhancing it. making it possible. One of the notable facts about poverty
nowadays is that well over half of the 1 billion people with
The triple bottom line plus good governance a low income are living in middle-income countries,
The MDGs were targets mainly for poor countries, to which means that they are living in societies with the
which rich countries were to add their solidarity and financial and technological means to address their
assistance through finances and technology. The SDGs remaining poverty (as Brazil and China have effectively
will, necessarily, have a different feel about them. and notably done in recent years). Although hundreds of
Sustainable development is eluding the entire planet. millions of impoverished people still live in the least
The SDGs should therefore pose goals and challenges for developed countries, they are a dwindling proportion of
all countries—not what the rich should do for the poor, the world’s poorest people, such that small financial and
but what all countries together should do for the global technological transfers from high-income and middle-
wellbeing of this generation and those to come. Middle- income countries can alleviate their plight.
income emerging economies, such as Brazil, China, The second pillar is environmental sustainability,
India, and others, will be crucial leaders of the SDGs, usefully conceptualised by the global planetary boundaries.
and will have their own internal challenges of balancing SDG 2: from 2015 to 2030, all nations will adopt economic
growth and environmental sustainability; vulnerabilities strategies that increasingly build on sustainable best-
to adverse trends such as climate change; and rising practice technologies, appropriate market incentives, and
geopolitical roles, regionally and globally. individual responsibility. The world will move together
I would propose organisation of the SDGs into the towards low-carbon energy systems, sustainable food
three broad categories of economic development, systems, sustainable urban areas (including resilience in
the face of growing hazards), and stabilisation of the
environmental sustainability, and social inclusion, with
world’s population through the voluntary fertility choices
the proviso that success in any of these three categories of families supported by health services and education.
(or subcategories within them) will almost surely depend Countries will adopt a pace of change during these
on success of all three. The SDGs might have three 15 years, individually and with global cooperation, that
bottom lines, but achievement of any of them is likely to will enable humanity to avoid the most dangerous
need concerted global efforts to achieve all of them. planetary thresholds. The world community will help
low-income countries to bear the additional costs that
Moreover, the three bottom lines will depend on a fourth
they might entail in adoption of sustainable systems for
condition: good governance at all levels, local, national, energy, agriculture, and other sectors.
regional, and global.

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I have put the emphasis on the main drivers of human-

induced global environmental change: energy use,
food production, urbanisation with its attendant pollu-
tion and potential hazards, and population increase.
Food production, for example, is a major driver not only
of greenhouse gas emissions, but also of the loss of
biodiversity and increasing stress on fresh water supplies.
If humanity can address these drivers of change in a

Dieter Telemans/Panos Pictures

respectful, civilised, balanced, and evidence-based
manner, through appropriate economic institutions,
these challenges will be large but achievable. If these
issues continue to be ignored, they will eventually
become calamitous. In my view, none of the environ-
mental dangers constitutes a fundamental obstacle to Figure 3: Pupils in India drinking rainwater from an underground store
close the technology and income gaps between high-
income and low-income countries. In other words, with
improved technologies and behavioural choices, both participation. Many countries are adopting new metrics
development and nature can coexist. SDG 2, as stated to measure these determinants of wellbeing and to
above, begs many questions, especially as to who will measure their ultimate bottom line: life satisfaction of
help low-income countries to accomplish what the high- the population. Bhutan has inspired the world with its
income countries have not yet even accepted. measure of gross national happiness. During the 15 years
The third broad SDG is social inclusion, the commit- of the SDGs, all governments should agree to introduce
ment to future economic and technological progress new multidimensional measures of citizen wellbeing
under conditions of fairness and equitable access to and the distribution of wellbeing in the population.
public services, and with the government counteracting
social discrimination on the basis of gender, ethnic origin, Governance for sustainable development
religion, and race. A fourth basic determinant of the world’s ability to
SDG 3: every country will promote the wellbeing and
achieve SDGs 1–3 will be the quality of governance at
capabilities of all their citizens, enabling all citizens to all levels, from local to global, and in the private sector as
reach their potential, irrespective of class, gender, well as government. At every level, government and
ethnic origin, religion, or race. Every country will official agencies should be responsive to the citizenry.
monitor the wellbeing of its citizenry with improved Companies need to recognise and act on their
measurements and reporting of life satisfaction. responsibility to a wide range of stakeholders. Together,
Special attention will be given to early childhood, youth,
the world’s governments should cooperate to finance and
and elderly people, addressing the vulnerabilities and
needs of each age cohort. provide essential public goods and protect the interests
of future generations from the short-sighted despoliation
A particular focus should be on early childhood caused by the present generation. I would therefore
development (ages 0–6 years), the period of crucial brain suggest the following SDG.
development, formation of cognitive skills, and vital SDG 4: governments at all levels will cooperate to
health outcomes, all of which have important lifetime promote sustainable development worldwide. This
implications. Special care should also be taken for target includes a commitment to the rule of law, human
children (aged 6–14 years) and youth (aged 15–24 years), rights, transparency, participation, inclusion, and sound
especially girls, to ensure that all young people can economic institutions that support the private, public,
complete secondary education and make an effective and civil-society sectors in a productive and balanced
manner. Power is held in trust to the people, not as a
transition from school to skills to the labour market. In a
privilege of the state.
world where 12% of the population, and 22% of that of
more developed regions, will be older than 65 years by Governments represent not only today’s generation, but
2030, new targeted programmes and social protections also those to come. They will introduce political
will be needed for elderly people in many countries. institutions to ensure that the rights of future generations
Traditional measures of economic performance— are respected. Societies will promote the notion of
namely, gross domestic product and household income— subsidiarity—ie, that governance should be as close to
capture only a small part of what determines human the people as functionally possible, giving individuals
wellbeing. Human happiness, life satisfaction, and the and families maximum freedom of action. Governments
freedom from suffering depend on many things in will share information, exchange ideas, encourage
addition to meeting of material needs, including social meetings and brainstorming, and work in good faith
trust, honest government, empowerment in the work- across cultures. They will also shape a new sustainable
place, mental health services, and a high level of civic and decent approach towards human migration,

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recognising the growing economic and environmental Rio de Janeiro in 1992, runs to 351 pages. These eight
pressures on people to leave their homelands, and goals were what stuck in the public’s mind, not the
protecting the rights of migrants to resettle their families 18 targets and 48 indicators. Simplicity has worked
and meet their basic needs. effectively in this case from the point of view of public
Sustainability requires the leadership and responsibility awareness, mobilisation, advocacy, and continuity.
of the private sector alongside the public sector and civil Second, the MDGs were not a legally binding set of
society. The private sector is the main productive sector commitments, but rather a set of moral and practical
of the world economy, and the holder of much of the commitments. Little time was lost negotiating the exact
advanced technologies and management systems that words of the MDGs. Legally binding commitments are
will be crucial for success of the SDGs. Private-sector almost universally regarded as the gold standard of
companies should support the SDGs in practical and international diplomacy, but the number of years that
measurable ways, in their policies, production processes, are often invested in reaching legally binding treaties
and engagement with stakeholders. They should refrain on sustainable development are unlikely to counter-
from lobbying and political activities that might endanger balance the heavy transaction costs and delays. Even
the SDGs. when legally binding agreements are reached (as in the
Official development assistance will have a continuing case of the Kyoto Protocol), they are often ignored in
role for low-income countries during 2015–30, but the practice because of the absence of effective enforcement
role of aid will decline as today’s low-income countries mechanisms.
reach middle-income status as the result of economic Third, the MDGs could be pursued through practical
growth. Private philanthropy and volunteering will be and specific measures adopted by governments, busi-
encouraged. All but the poorest countries will share in ness, and civil societies worldwide. I do not want to
the financing of global public goods, in relation to their overstate the case—many of the MDGs will not be met in
respective economic capacities and according to the many countries—yet much progress has been achieved,
principle of common but differentiated responsibilities. and the practical nature of the MDGs has played a
Official financing for the public goods of sustainable powerful part in that success.
development will be based on secure, predictable, and As Special Advisor for the MDGs, I have always
agreed formulas to end the non-fulfilment of financial emphasised very specific and actionable measures as the
pledges. Governments will join together to implement keys to success. The UN Millennium Project, which I
international strategies and institutions to ensure the was honoured to lead, subtitled its report A practical plan
effective and rapid diffusion of technologies that support to achieve the MDGs.1 The studies in that project described
sustainable development. many practical technologies—from antimalaria bednets
to high-yield seeds—that taken together could provide
Some lessons learned from the MDGs the basis for achievement of the MDGs.
The SDGs can benefit from both the successes and The MDGs have also had their share of weaknesses,
the shortfalls of the MDGs. The successes are notable. and these should be recognised to improve the
Unlike many UN goals, the MDGs are still very much performance of the SDGs that will follow. I will mention
with us almost 12 years after their adoption. This four domains in which the SDGs should improve upon
commitment is rare. I believe that three strengths of the the organisation of the MDG effort. First, the 15-year
MDGs can explain the longevity of public support and MDG period had no intermediate milestones. The
awareness. First, the MDGs were reasonably easy to 15 years of the SDGs should include intermediate
state—eight simple goals that fitted well on one poster! objectives and milestones with clear dates. 15 years is a
By contrast, Agenda 21, adopted at the UN conference in good stretch for serious policy making, but intermediate
stages along the way would ensure closer feedback
between policies and outcomes.
Second, the lifeblood of the MDGs and the SDGs
should be data that are accurate, timely, and available to
managers, policy makers, and the public. One of the
biggest drawbacks of the MDGs is that the data are
often years out of date. Accurate published information
from the past 12 months is still not available for most
low-income countries. This timelag was inevitable
when data were obtained by hand in household surveys,
but in the age of the mobile phone, wireless broadband,
Sven Torfinn/Panos

and remote sensing, data collection should be vastly

quicker. Governments should consciously invest in a
real-time reporting system for the SDGs to produce
Figure 4: Nurse in a rural hospital in Nyamata, Rwanda reliable data with no more than a yearly, if not quarterly,

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timelag. This investment would vastly strengthen middle-income economies to low-income economies.
programmes in several ways: advocacy, feedback, and Meeting the SDGs will be different. The world will need
real-time management. new technologies and new ways to organise human
Third, the private sector should be crucially engaged activity to combine improving living standards and
from the very start. Neither the MDGs nor the SDGs will ecological imperatives. Technological and social change
be achieved without the leadership of private companies, will be paramount, in both rich and poor countries alike.
large and small. Multinational companies bring unique For this reason, the SDGs need the identification of new
strengths: a worldwide reach, cutting-edge technologies, critical pathways to sustainability. Moving to a low-carbon
and massive capacity to reach large-scale solutions, energy system, for example, will need an intricate global
which are all essential to success. Yes, many large interplay of research and development, public investments
companies are also lobbyists for policies antagonistic to in infrastructure (such as high-voltage direct current
sustainable development, so engagement with business transmission grids for long-distance power transmission),
has to be done cautiously, but it should also be active, private investments in renewable power generation, and
forward-looking, and intensive. new strategies for regulation and urban design. The task
Fourth, and finally, the success of the SDGs will need is phenomenally complex. Market-based strategies (such
societies worldwide to invest adequately in their success. as carbon taxation) can help to simplify the policy
Sustainable development is the only viable path for challenge by steering private decisions in the right
humanity, but it will not be achieved unless a small part direction, but politics, planning, and complex decision
of consumption spending is turned into investments making by many stakeholders will be unavoidable.
for long-term survival. The investments for sustainable The SDGs will therefore need the unprecedented
development (eg, transition to low-carbon energy sys- mobilisation of global knowledge operating across many
tems) will not be heavy, certainly not compared with the sectors and regions. Governments, international insti-
massive costs if no investment is made. I have previously tutions, private business, academia, and civil society will
estimated that meeting the major goals of poverty need to work together to identify the critical pathways to
reduction, biodiversity conservation, climate change success, in ways that combine technical expertise and
mitigation, and primary health for all would need democratic representation. Global problem-solving net-
perhaps 2–3% of global income.2 That small amount, if works for sustainable development—in energy, food,
properly invested, would be transformative. urbanisation, climate resilience, and other sectors—
The MDGs relied on voluntary financing mechanisms, will therefore become crucial new institutions in the
notably the foreign aid outlays voted by each parliament. years ahead.
Experience has shown that free riding on financial New social media and information technology have
assistance is the norm, not the exception. Only a handful given the world an unprecedented opportunity for
of countries have abided by their promises to give 0·7% inclusive, global-scale problem solving around the
of their gross domestic product as official development main sustainable development challenges. Scientists,
assistance. Even specific, timebound pledges (such as the technologists, civil society activists and others are
pledge at the G8 Gleneagles summit in 2005 to double increasingly turning to online networks for collaboration,
official development assistance to Africa) were not met. crowdsourcing, group problem solving, and open-source
The SDGs should be more focused and realistic with solutions such as for software and applications. The
regard to financing than were the MDGs. Rather than pathways to sustainable development will not be
relying on so-called aid voluntarism, in which countries identified through a top-down approach, but through a
announce their individual aid promises (and then fail to highly energised era of networked problem solving
honour them in most cases), countries should agree to that engages the world’s universities, businesses, non-
transparent and specific standards of financing, such as governmental organisations, governments, and espe-
quotas and assessments (eg, International Monetary Fund cially young people, who should become the experts and
quotas and UN dues) related to national incomes, and leaders of a new and profoundly challenging era.
levies on national greenhouse gas emissions (eg, a few Conflicts of interest
dollars per ton of carbon dioxide emitted per year). The The author declares that he has no conflicts of interest.
sums are small, manageable, and essential for success. Acknowledgments
I thank Guido Schmidt-Traub, Shiv Someshwar, Erin Trowbridge,
Technology, the private sector, and critical pathways to Joanna Rubinstein, Lauren Barredo, and Claire Bulger.
sustainable development References
1 UN Millennium Project. Investing in development: a practical plan
When it comes to elimination of extreme poverty, the main to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. New York: United
strategy is to expand the reach of crucial technolo- Nations, 2005.
gies (including medicines, diagnostics, electrification, 2 Sachs JD. Common wealth: economics for a crowded planet. New
high-yield seeds, and internet) from high-income and York: Penguin Press, 2008.

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