Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

1.4 Logical Reasoning & Proof

At the end of this section, students are expected to

a. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and conclusions made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts;
b. Write clear and logical proofs.

Mathematical Proof
Cambridge Dictionary (2023) defines a proof to be a fact or piece of information that
shows something exists or is true. By analogy, a mathematical proof is a piece or pieces of in-
formation that show a math object exists or is true or a proposition about them and relations
among them are true.

You had been proving theorems and propositions in geometry, algebra, and general
mathematics since high school, and you probably came to understand a proof in two ways.
As practical undertaking, it is what you do to convince others to accept a theorem or a prop-
osition. As a formal undertaking, it is a sequence of steps, each is a logical deduction from the
preceding step.

A formal mathematical proof is attributed to a tradition of mathematical thinking devel-

oped by Aristotle, Boole, Pierce, Frege, Russel, Hilbert, and Gödel. It contains formal sen-
tences translated into symbols which are then transformed according to strict rules of formal
logic.

Our experience with proof suggests its twin-natures. On one side, it is informal; it is a
short piece of a formal argument or a short calculation that completes or verifies some infor-
mal reasoning. On the other side, it is strictly formal. It is done according to rules of conven-
tion of logic. It uses formal vocabulary, formal axioms, and formal rules of inference.

Computer-Aided Proofs
Computers are now used as proof-assistants, and proofs assisted by computers are called
computer-aided proofs. The goal of such proofs is to use computers to implement lengthy
computations and take their results as proof to propositions.

Computer-Verified Proofs
Since a proof can be constructed formally using symbols and rules of inference of formal
logic, it can also be verified by computer programs. The Mizar System and Metamath are two
computer programs that can perform automated proof checking.

Inductive & Deductive Reasoning

Having spent six years in junior and senior high schools, you may have done some rea-
soning in math, science, or even social science subjects which take on a pattern. When you
draw conclusions from specific instances of what you are investigating, you are said to have

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reasoned out inductively. For example, if every ant you have investigated produces a foul
smell when you crush them, you feel compelled to conclude that ants, in general, contain this
substance that smells truly awful. This substance belongs to a class of chemicals called me-
thyl ketones. The same chemicals found in blue cheese. They are ant’s chemical defense. A
conclusion reached through induction is called a conjecture which implies such conclusion
may or may not be correct.

When you make conclusions about outcomes based on general assumptions about them,
you are said to have reasoned out deductively. One famous example of deductive reasoning
attributed to Aristotle says: All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mor-
tal. This is deductive reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning
Induction is a type of reasoning that forms generalizations based on the examination of
specific examples or instances of events.

Example 1 Predict the Next Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the sequence.

a. 4, 8, 12, 16, ? b. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, ?

Solution
a. Each successive number is 4 larger than the last. Thus, we predict that the next number
after 16 is 16 + 4 which is 20.
b. The first two numbers in the list are not too helpful, but the succeeding numbers are.
Two is the sum of 1 plus 1, 3 is the sum of 1 plus 2, 5 is the sum of 2 plus 3. The succeed-
ing numbers after the first two 1’s are the sum of the two numbers preceding them.
Thus, the next number after 8 is 13, because 8 plus 5 is 13.

Example 2 State the Generalization

1 1 1
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, . . ., 𝑎𝑛 , . . . b. 1, , , , … , 𝑏𝑛 , …
2 4 8

Solution
a. The list consists of multiples of 5.

5 = 5 × 1, 10 = 5 × 2, 15 = 5 × 3, 20 = 5 × 4

In general, it just seems reasonable to conclude that the number appearing in the nth
place of the list follows the rule 𝑎𝑛 = 5𝑛, where n is a natural number.

b. The list contains elements in which the succeeding numbers is half of the preceding ele-
ment. For example, with 1 as the first element, the rest is computed in the following
manner,

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
=1× , = × , = ×
2 2 4 2 2 8 4 2

In general, it just seems reasonable to conclude that the number appearing in the nth place
𝑛−1
of the list follows the rule 𝑏𝑛 = (12) , where n is a natural number.

Example 3 Predict the Next Figure

4 25

9
?
1 1 2 3 5
?
?
Mathematical Induction
Mathematical induction is the formal presentation of a proof by induction in mathematics.
The proof has three parts.

I. Base Case. A statement that shows the proposition 𝑃(𝑛 = 1) is true for the natural
number 𝑛 = 1. The goal of the first part is to show that the proposition is true for a
few cases of natural numbers.
II. Induction Hypothesis. This part assumes that the conjecture 𝑃(𝑘) is true for some
natural number k and proceeds with showing that 𝑃(𝑘) implies 𝑃(𝑘 + 1).
III. Induction Step. This part shows 𝑃(𝑘) implies 𝑃(𝑘 + 1). By showing this part, the
proof demonstrates a domino-effect in the truth of the proposition. If a proposition
about k implies that the proposition about 𝑘 + 1 is true, then it follows that the
proposition about 𝑘 + 1 implies that it is also true for 𝑘 + 2, and so on.

Math majors are expected to prove by mathematical induction propositions that are ame-
nable to this reasoning. Here is a sample of propositions that can be proven by mathematical
induction.

1
a. For all natural numbers n, 1 + 2 + 3 +∙∙∙ +𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1).
2
b. For all natural numbers n, 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 +∙∙∙ +2𝑛−1 = 2𝑛 − 1.

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Example 4 Prove by Mathematical Induction

1
Proposition: for all natural numbers n, 1 + 2 + 3 +∙∙∙ +𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1).
2

Proof
Base Case. For 𝑛 = 1

1
1= ×1×2
2

Induction Hypothesis. Suppose the proposition is true for some natural number 𝑘, that is,

1
1 + 2 + 3 +∙∙∙ +𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
2

Induction Step. Using the induction hypothesis, the sum of the set of counting numbers from
1 to 𝑘 + 1 is

1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 +∙∙∙ +𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) = 𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1)
2

Factor out 𝑘 + 1.

1 𝑘
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + (𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1) ( + 1)
2 2

𝑘+2 1
= (𝑘 + 1) ( ) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
2 2

𝑃(𝑘) implies 𝑃(𝑘 + 1). Therefore, the proposition is true for all natural numbers n∎

Example 5 Prove by Mathematical Induction

Proposition: for all natural numbers n, 20 + 21 + 22 + 23 +∙∙∙ +2𝑛−1 = 2𝑛 − 1. Take note that
20 = 1.

Proof
Base Case. For 𝑛 = 1,

20 = 21 − 1

For 𝑛 = 2,

20 + 21 = 22 − 1

Induction Hypothesis. Suppose the proposition is true for some natural number 𝑘, that is,
20 + 21 + 22 + 23 +∙∙∙ +2𝑘−1 = 2𝑘 − 1.

Induction Step. Using the induction hypothesis, the sum the terms from 1 to 2𝑘+1 is

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20 + 21 + 22 + 23 +∙∙∙ +2𝑘 + 2𝑘+1 = (2𝑘+1 − 1) + 2𝑘+1 .

By commutativity,

= 2𝑘+1 + 2𝑘+1 − 1

= 2 ∙ 2𝑘+1 − 1

= 2𝑘+2 − 1

𝑃(𝑘) implies 𝑃(𝑘 + 1). Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction, the proposi-
tion is true for all natural numbers n.∎

Sigma Notation
Many of the propositions that require proof by mathematical induction are written using
sigma notation. For example, the sum of integers from 1 to n can be written as
𝑛

1 + 2 + 3 +∙∙∙ +𝑛 = ∑ 𝑖
𝑖=1

The letter 𝑖 the index of summation and n is the upper limit. The equality 𝑖 = 1 means the
summation starts with 1. The upper limit says the last index is 𝑛. A summation of counting
numbers that runs to infinity is written as
∞

1 + 2 + 3 +∙∙∙= ∑ 𝑖
𝑖=1

The symbol for the index need not always be 𝑖. Other frequently used indices are 𝑛, 𝑚, 𝑘, and
𝑗.

Example 6 Sigma Notation

𝑛−1
0 1 2 3 𝑛−1
a. 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +∙∙∙ +2 = ∑ 2𝑖−1
𝑖=1
𝑛

b. 12 + 22 + 32 +∙∙∙ +𝑛2 = ∑ 𝑖 2
𝑖=1
c. 1 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 3 + 3 ∙ 4 + 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 + 1) = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖(𝑖 + 1)

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that produces conclusions based on general as-
sumptions, procedures, principles, and laws of logical reasoning. Deductive is at the heart of
Euclidean geometry, a subject studied by all junior high school students under K+12.

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Proof by mathematical induction aims to produce a domino-effect. If statement 𝑃(𝑘) implies

𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true, then 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) implies 𝑃(𝑘 + 2), and so on. This means that the proposition
is true for all natural numbers.

Example 7 Use Deductive Reasoning to Produce Conjectures

a. All integers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5. What conclusion can you make of
1,005?
b. To earn a master’s degree in mathematics, a graduate student must earn 42 units.
Mr. Rolando G. Panopio, a mathematics graduate student, has earned 36 units. What
conjectures can you make of Mr. Panopio?
c. All noble gases are stable, and helium is a noble gas. What conjectures can you make
of helium?

Discussion
a. Our familiarity with integers does not make us doubt the assumptions we have
about integers ending in either 0 or 5. Since, 1,005 ends in 5, it is divisible by 5. In
addition, our understanding of being divisible by 5 means there is a natural number
n such that 1,005 = 5𝑛. To obtain n, we divide 1,005 by 5 which yields 201.
b. These are the conjectures we can make about Mr. Panopio. He still needs 6 units to
earn a master’s degree, or he is close to finishing his studies to get a master’s degree.
c. Helium is stable. Along with other noble gases in group 18 of the periodic table, its
outer shell holds the maximum number of valence electrons. As a noble gas, it does
not easily react with other elements.

Deductive reasoning is at work when we make conclusions about the characteristics of

elements based on its location in the periodic table. Elements in a group display similar
physical and chemical characteristics in the outermost electron shells. The periodic table of
elements is organized in such a way that similar elements occupy the same column or are ad-
jacent with other columns that are closely similar in characteristics. This information guides
us in making educated guesses about the element based on its location in the periodic table
of elements.
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Deductive reasoning is often the form of reasoning employed in proofs of many theorems
in geometry, algebra, calculus, and number theory. Let us prove a few of them.

Example 8 Proof by Deductive Reasoning

Prove that if 𝑘 is an odd integer, then 𝑘 2 is also an odd integer.

Proof
Suppose 𝑘 is an odd integer. By definition of odd integers, for some integer n,

𝑘 = 2𝑛 + 1

Applying special product on 𝑘 2 ,

𝑘 2 = (2𝑛 + 1)2 = 4𝑛2 + 4𝑛 + 1

𝑘 2 = 2(2𝑛2 + 2𝑛) + 1

Since addition and multiplication in the set of integers is closed, 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛 is another integer.
Let 𝑚 = 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛. Thus, 𝑘 2 is odd, because

𝑘 2 = 2𝑚 + 1. ∎

Example 9 Deductive Reasoning Two-Column Proof

Prove that if 3𝑥 − 2 = 10, then 𝑥 = 4.

Proof
1 3𝑥 − 2 = 10 Given
2 3𝑥 = 12 Addition property of equality
1
3 ∙ 3𝑥 = 4 Multiplication property of equality
3
4 1∙𝑥 =4 Multiplicative inverse property of real numbers
5 𝑥=4 Multiplicative identity property of real numbers

Indirect Proof
Proofs by mathematical induction and deductive reasoning are examples of direct proof.
But propositions can also be proven using indirect proof. It can be done either by proof by
contrapositive or proof by contradiction.

Proof by Contrapositive
The statement “p implies q” (𝑝 → 𝑞) is equivalent to “NOT q implies NOT p” (¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝).
Given a proposition that says 𝑝 → 𝑞, proof by contrapositive requires that the proof begins
with ¬𝑞. If the proof leads to ¬𝑝, then the proof is done. The proof has shown that indeed
𝑝 → 𝑞.
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Example 9 How to Start and End Proofs by Contrapositive

Proposition Beginning of Proof End of Proof
a. If 𝑛 is even, then 𝑛2 is even. Suppose 𝑛2 is odd. 𝑛 is odd.
b. If 𝑛 is a multiple of 3, then 2𝑛 is a Suppose 2𝑛 is not a multi- 𝑛 is not a multiple
multiple of 3. ple of 3. of 3.
c. If 5𝑥 − 1 > 9, then 𝑥 > 2. Suppose 𝑥 ≤ 2 5𝑥 − 1 ≤ 9

Example 10 Proof by Contrapositive

Prove that if 5𝑥 − 1 > 9, then 𝑥 > 2.

Proof
1. Suppose 𝑥 ≤ 2 Assumption
2. 5𝑥 ≤ 10 Multiplication property of inequality
3. 5𝑥 − 1 ≤ 9 Addition property of inequality
4. If 5𝑥 − 1 > 9, then 𝑥 > 2 Contrapositive (#1, #2, #3)

Example 11 Proof by Contrapositive

Prove that if every element of 𝐴 is not in 𝐵, then sets A and B are disjoint.

Proof
Suppose 𝐴 and B are joint sets. By definition of joint sets, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ≠ ∅. This means that there is
at least one element 𝑥 in A that is also in B. This implies some elements of A are in B. This is
equivalent to its contrapositive. If all elements of A are not in B, then sets A and B are dis-
joint. ∎

Proof by Contradiction
Given a proposition “p implies q” (𝑝 → 𝑞), proof by contradiction requires that the proof
begins with two assumptions: 𝑝 and NOT q (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞). If the proof leads to q, then a contradic-
tion emerges: q and NOT q. This contradiction can only be rectified if NOT q is negated.
Therefore, p implies q.

Example 12 How to Start and End Proofs by Contradiction

Proposition Beginning of Proof End of Proof
a. If 7𝑥 − 4 ≠ 10, then 𝑥 ≠ 2. Suppose 7𝑥 − 4 ≠ 10 and 𝑥 = 2. 𝑥≠2
b. If 𝑛 is a multiple of 𝑎, then Suppose 𝑛 is a multiple of 𝑎 and 𝑛 + 𝑎 is a multi-
𝑛 + 𝑎 is a multiple of 𝑎. 𝑛 + 𝑎 is NOT a multiple of 𝑎. ple of 𝑎.
5𝑥 − 1 < 9 and
c. If 5𝑥 − 1 < 9, then 𝑥 < 2. Suppose 5𝑥 − 1 < 9 and 𝑥 ≥ 2
𝑥 < 2.
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Example 13 Proof by Contradiction

Prove that if 𝑛 is even, then 𝑛2 is even.

Proof
Suppose 𝑛 is even but 𝑛2 is odd. By the definition of odd integers, 𝑛2 = 2𝑘 + 1 for some inte-
ger 𝑘. By assumption, 𝑛 = 2𝑖 for some integer 𝑖. It follows that

𝑛2 = (2𝑖)2 = 2𝑘 + 1

→ 2(2𝑖 2 ) = 2𝑘 + 1

Let 𝑗 = 2𝑖 2 . It follows that 𝑛2 = 2𝑗 = 2𝑘 + 1. The integer 𝑛2 is both an even and an odd inte-
ger. A contradiction. Therefore, if 𝑛 is even, then 𝑛2 is even.∎

Example 14 Proof by Contradiction

Let 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 be sets such that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶. Prove that if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 then 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴\𝐶.

1. Suppose 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 but 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴\𝐶 Negating the assumption

2. 𝐴∩𝐵 ⊆𝐶 Given
3. 𝑥 ∈𝐴∩𝐵 →𝑥 ∈𝐴∧𝑥 ∈𝐵 Definition of set intersection
4. 𝑥 ∈𝐴∩𝐵 →𝑥 ∈𝐶 Definition of a subset, #2
5. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴\𝐶 → 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐶 Definition of set difference, #1
6. 𝑥 ∈𝐶∧𝑥 ∉𝐶 A contradiction, #4, #5
7. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 → 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴\𝐶 Negating the assumption, #1

Intuition in Mathematical Reasoning

The New-Merriam Webster Dictionary defines intuition as the ability to know things with-
out conscious reasoning; it is a quick and ready insight. It was intuition which guided us to
predict the next element in the list of integers 4, 8, 12, 16. Likewise, it was also by intuition
that we feel justified to make a conjecture that the general term for this list is 𝑎𝑛 = 4𝑛,
where n is a natural number. Using this conjecture, we can readily state its 11th term: 𝑎11 =
4 × 11 = 44.

Intuition is behind many mathematical discoveries. It suggested ways and directions by

which mathematicians investigated mathematical problems and discovered great theorems.
It reveals what is plausible or convincing in the absence of a formal proof.

Carl Friedrich Gauss, a famous mathematician, was said to have discovered the formula to
compute the sum of n consecutive integers in this manner when he was still in elementary
grades. His teacher challenged the class to obtain the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . +100. His class-
mates did it by adding the numbers term by term, but Gauss did it differently. He noticed
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that the sum of certain integer pairs is 101. For example, (1+100), (2 + 99), (3 + 98), and so
on, and there are 50 pairs of them. He immediately gave the answers to his teacher and got it
right. The sum is 50 × 101 = 5050. The formula to obtain the sum of n consecutive positive
1
integers is formally stated as 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1).
2

Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is inductive reasoning supported by intuition. It is a type of learning,
in which one considers a number of related cases and then makes a generalization of these
case.

The differing approaches to learning offered by inductive and deductive reasoning reveal
the morphing patterns of learning displayed by students as they mature. Kids, in general,
learn by making generalizations of events as they experience them one at a time. For exam-
ple, they discover that angles of a triangle make a straight line by cutting out the angles of
each triangle and aligning their vertices. The three angles when aligned form a straight line.

Inductive reasoning is the mode of learning fit to young students because it helps them
understand the world by investigating it piece by piece. Deductive reasoning, on the other
hand, is a mode of reasoning and learning which becomes progressively available to students
only when they already possess a sufficient understanding of the world. In mathematics, this
means knowledge of axioms, theorems, and some fundamental principles of mathematical
operations and properties of sets.

Induction and Deduction in Science

In science, reasoning by induction and deduction work together to produce the body of
knowledge that we call science. Science begins with induction which is precisely what Aristo-
tle said about physical reality. We investigate a physical reality by observation and experi-
mentation. Along the way, we produce bits and pieces of relevant information. These pieces
of information grow in size which, in the end, compels us to make generalization.

This design of investigation is induction at the core. Conclusions are obtained from bits
and pieces of information obtained through observation and experimentation. It does not
stop here, however. Generalizations obtained by observation become the working
knowledge with which other scientists investigate physical reality. Thereafter, what takes
place is deduction. In physics, such as the physics of free fall, for example, this requires the
knowledge of the relationships between distance, time, and gravity. The capacity to compre-
hend these profound laws of mathematics and nature is beyond the understanding and edu-
cation of very young students.

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Mathematical Systems
There is not one mathematics pervading the discipline of mathematics. Mathematics is
composed of mathematical systems; some are intersecting, some are completely independ-
ent and distinct from others. A mathematical system is a set consisting of assumptions, for-
mally referred to as postulates or axioms, rules of logic, and theorems. Taken together, they
make a coherent and consistent whole. At least for many people, they are coherent and con-
sistent enough. Since mathematics is composed of mathematical systems, this suggests the
possibility some truths in one system may not be equally true in another. This was demon-
strated by the contrasting consequences from Euclidean Geometry and Hyperbolic Geometry
on account of their different assumptions about the Fifth Postulate.

Euclidean Geometry Fifth Postulate (Parallel Postulate)

Hyperbolic Geometry Fifth Postulate (Parallel Postulate)

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Euclidean Geometry vs. Spherical Geometry

Euclidean geometry is what many understand as plane geometry. Our exposure to plane
geometry convinces us that parallel lines drawn on a perfectly flat surface will never inter-
sect, and the perpendicular distance between them stays the same for every pair of matching
points. But this proposition, which is true in plane geometry, is not true in spherical geome-
try.

On a spherical surface, lines that are perpendicular to the great circle are parallel to each
other, but they intersect at the poles. Not only do they have a point of intersection, they have
two points of intersection on the sphere. As a consequence, the perpendicular distance of
parallel lines becomes progressively smaller as they approach the poles. In addition, trian-
gles drawn on spheres contain angles whose some sum is greater than 180°, whereas in
plane geometry, the sum is exactly 180°. This is one instance when what is true and certain
in one mathematical system is false in another.

Euclidean Geometry. Lines perpendicular to a line on a plane are parallel to each

other and do not intersect. Spherical Geometry. Lines perpendicular to the great cir-
cle intersect at the poles of the sphere.

Mathematics is composed of mathematical systems; a true proposition developed in it is

contained in one or more of these systems, but not necessarily in all. As a consequence, it
suggests the possibility what is true in one is false in another. This revelation ought to dis-
possess us of the notion that what comes out of mathematics is always certain.

This, interestingly, is formally stated as a theorem by Kurt Gödel. The theorem implies
there is no set of axioms sufficient for all mathematics. There are statements in a mathematical
system which can neither be proved nor disproved. Further, a statement in a mathematical

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system could be true, but it cannot be demonstrated to be true using methods of proof in that
system. That proof is to be found in a separate system.

Goedel’s Incompleteness Theorems

Given a formal system, either this system is incomplete or inconsistent. In particular,

a. There are always questions in a system that cannot be answered, using a certain set
of axioms.
b. The set of axioms in a system cannot be proven consistent, unless a different set of
axioms is used.

These two theorems reveal that it is not always possible to produce a formal proof to
mathematical truths, a revelation that demolishes many mathematicians’ faith in the power
of logical reasoning. A case in point is the Goldbach Conjecture. The conjecture claims that
every even counting number greater than 2 is a sum of two primes. For example,

4 = 2 + 2, 6 = 3 + 3, 8 = 3 + 5, 12 = 5 + 7.

These are just a few. However, no formal proof has been laid down to prove Goldbach’s
conjecture. This conjecture is one of the unsolved problems in mathematics and has stayed
so since 1742. In addition to the claims made about even counting numbers, Goldbach added
that every odd counting number greater than 7 is a sum of three odd primes. For example,

9 = 3 + 3 + 3, 11 = 3 + 3 + 5, 13 = 2 + 3 + 8.

The Goldbach Conjecture is a mathematical truth that is easily verifiable by enumeration

of examples, but it defies a formal proof. It remains unprovable.

Paradox
The root words of paradox are “para” and “doxon”. Para means “contrary to”, and doxon
means “opinion”. A paradox is contrary to opinion. Cambridge dictionary defines a paradox
as a statement that has the quality of being self-contradictory, but after some careful reflec-
tion, the statement, in fact, carries some truth. In literature and composition writing, a para-
dox is a figure of speech that sounds impossible and true at the same time. Often, they are
written in a playful manner that has the unexpected effect of making the message profound.
For example,

Aren’t we curious why eating more only makes us hungrier?

In marriage, two people come together to become one.
To keep peace, we must be prepared to make war.

Mathematical Paradox
A paradox in mathematics has this same quality. It is a conclusion that comes as a result
of logical reasoning, but at the same time, it is a conclusion that contradicts some founda-
tional assumptions of a mathematical system. Russel’s paradox is often cited as an example of

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a paradox that has problematic implications in classical set theory. It is a carefully con-
structed set using classical set theory, but it gives way to a question that is impossible to an-
swer, or if it can be answered at all, the answer is both true and false.

Russel’s paradox shall not be presented here because to dwell on this paradox so stu-
dents come out of it better informed requires sufficient immersion in the philosophy of
mathematics. It requires mathematical maturity to fully understand the implications of Rus-
sel’s Paradox. Fortunately, the essence of Russel’s paradox is similarly conveyed by the fol-
lowing puzzles.

Liar’s Paradox: Paulo says “I am lying”. Is Paulo telling the truth?

Barber Paradox: Mang Juan shaves only and only those who do not shave themselves. Who
shaves Mang Juan?

We enjoin you to answer these questions yourself.

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Name: Date:

Section: Score:

Activity 1.4 Inductive Reasoning & Deductive Reasoning

I. Analyze the arguments and determine what type of reasoning is used to make the conclu-
sion. Explain your answer.

1. Two days ago, it rained. Yesterday, it rained again. Tomorrow, it will rain again.

2. All novels written by Stephen King tell tales of horror and suspense. Salem Lot is a
novel written by Stephen King in the 80s. Salem Lot must be truly scary and full of
suspense.

3. The distance 𝑑 covered by a biker is given by 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑡 + 0.5𝑎𝑡 2 , where 𝑣 is the initial

velocity, 𝑎 acceleration, and 𝑡 time. The biker’s initial velocity is 5 m/s and continues
to accelerate at the rate of 0.1 m/s2. If the biker continues to move forward for 20
seconds, the distance he would have covered is 120 meters.

4. The sum of 2 and 4 is 6, the sum of 6 and 8 is 14, and the sum of 8 and 10 is 18. In all
these cases the sum is even. Therefore, the sum of even counting numbers is always
even.

5. The force of gravitational attraction between two objects with masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the masses. Two astro-
nomical objects are observed at the night sky. At time 𝑡1 , the distance between them
is 10,000 km. At 𝑡2 it is 20,000 km. At 𝑡2 the force of gravitational attraction between
the two objects is weaker than at 𝑡1 .

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Name: Date:

Section: Score:

Activity 1.5 Construction of Proofs

I. On a piece of bond paper, write a formal proof in paragraph form to the following propo-
sitions.

1. For any positive integer n, if 3𝑛 + 2 is even, then 𝑛 is also even.

2. The sum of two odd integers is even.
3. The sum of two consecutive counting number is equal to the difference of the
square of each number.
4. For any real number 𝑥, the expression 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 20 is always positive.
5. The sum of three consecutive natural numbers is a multiple of three.

II. Write a two-column proof to the following propositions.

6. If 5𝑥 − 6 = 54 − 𝑥, then 𝑥 = 10.
7. 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 = 4, then either 𝑥 = 4 or 𝑥 = −1.
8. If 7𝑥 − 5 > 16, then 𝑥 > 3.

III. Write an indirect proof to the following propositions.

1
9. For all positive real numbers 𝑥, 𝑥 + ≥ 2.
𝑥
10. For all positive integers n, if 3𝑛 + 2 is odd, then 𝑛 is also odd.
11. There is no largest even integer.

IV. Proof by Mathematical Induction

12. For all natural numbers n, if 0 < 𝑎 < 𝑏, then 𝑎𝑛 < 𝑏 𝑛 .
13. For 𝑛 ≥ 2, 𝑛! < 𝑛𝑛 .
1
14. Prove that 12 + 22 + 32 +∙∙∙ +𝑛2 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
6
15. Prove that for all positive integers 𝑛 and 𝑚, (𝑎3 )𝑛 = 𝑎3𝑛 . (Do not prove this proposi-
tion by saying that this is among the laws of integer exponents)

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Name: Date:

Section: Score:

Activity 1.6 Logical Reasoning & Proof

I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. This is the sigma notation for 1 + 21 + 32 + 43 +∙∙∙ +𝑛𝑛−1 .
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 𝑖−1 𝑖+1
A. ∑ 𝑛 B. ∑ 𝑛 C. ∑ 𝑖 𝐷. ∑ 𝑖 𝑖−1
______ 𝑖=0 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

2. If 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 > 0, then either both 𝑥 and 𝑦 are positive or both are negative. To
prove this by direct proof, this is how the proof must begin.
A. Suppose 𝑥 and 𝑦 are not both positive or not both negative.
B. Suppose 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 > 0.
C. Suppose 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ≤ 0.
______ D. Suppose 𝑥 and 𝑦 are both negative integers.
3. A finite sequence of partial sum is defined by
𝑛

∑ 2𝑖
𝑖=1
This is the fifth term.
______ A. 16 B. 10 C. 32 D. 64
4. A finite sequence of partial sum is defined by
𝑛

∑𝑖
𝑖=1
This is the sum of the first 5 terms.
______ A. 10 B. 16 C. 14 D. 15
5. The statement says if n is a prime number greater than 2, then n is odd. This is
its contrapositive.
A. If n is a prime number that is even, then 𝑛 ≤ 2.
B. If n is a prime number that is odd, then 𝑛 ≤ 2.
C. If n is a prime number that is even, then 𝑛 > 2.
______ D. If n is a prime number that is odd, then 𝑛 = 2.
6. Red meat is rich in iron. Beef is a red meat. Therefore, beef is rich in iron. This
is an example of this type of reasoning.
A. Deductive Reasoning C. Inductive Reasoning
______ B. Math Induction D. Intuition
7. The proposition says if 7𝑥 + 1 > 15, then 𝑥 > 2. This is how you begin the
proof to this proposition when the proof is by contradiction.
A. Suppose 𝑥 > 2.
B. Suppose 𝑥 ≤ 2.
______ C. Suppose 7𝑥 + 1 > 15 and 𝑥 ≤ 2.
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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

D. Suppose 7𝑥 + 1 > 15.

8. This does not belong in the list.
______ A. Direct Proof B. Proof by Contradiction C. Proof by Contrapositive
9. This is the general term for 1, −2, 3, −4, 5, −6,∙∙∙
______ A. −𝑛𝑛 B. (−1)𝑛+1 ∙ 𝑛 C. (−1)𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 D. −𝑛 ∙ 𝑛
10. The proposition says for all natural numbers 𝑛 ≥ 2, 𝑛 > 𝑛!. The proof to this
𝑛

proposition by mathematical induction begins with this statement.

A. Suppose 𝑛𝑛 < 𝑛!
B. Suppose 𝑛 ≥ 2.
C. Suppose 𝑛! ≥ 𝑛𝑛
______ D. For 𝑛 = 2, 22 > 2 ∙ 1.

Part II. Paradoxes

Study the Liar’s and Barber’s paradoxes and come up with your own paradox. Produce your
own paradox without the help of Google.

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