TAMO Training Induction Terence Teri

Induction
30 November 2024
Terence Teri
terenceteri2002@gmail.com

There are basically five methods of proofs, which are proof by deduction, proof by induction,
proof by contradiction, proof by counterexample and proof by contrapositive. All of them are
just sequences of correct logical reasoning that together validates a certain statement. And all of
them have a unique philosophy lurking in the background. In this lecture we will be based upon
the Induction method and how it can be useful in Olympiad problems like in TAMO, PAMO,
USAMO, PUTNAM and IMO.

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TAMO Training Induction Terence Teri

1. Basic Induction:
The Induction Principle
Let 𝑃(𝑛) be a collection of statements, one for each natural number. If 𝑃(1) is true, and for each
𝑛 ≥ 1, 𝑃(𝑛) ⟹ 𝑃(𝑛 + 1), then 𝑃(𝑛) is true for every natural number 𝑛.
Induction is one of the earliest methods of proof that you learn, but can be quite powerful when
applied in clever ways in solving advanced problems.
Here’s an example of a problem that requires this basic induction.
𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
Example: Show that 13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = ( ) .
2

Solution: The identity is obvious for 𝑛 = 1. Assume the statement is true for 𝑛, then
2
3 3 3
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
3 3 2
𝑛2
1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 + (𝑛 + 1) = ( ) + (𝑛 + 1) = (𝑛 + 1) ( + (𝑛 + 1))
2 4
2
(𝑛 + 1)2 (𝑛 + 2)2 (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
= =( ) .
4 2
as required.
Example: Show that if sin 𝑥 ≠ 0 and 𝑛 is a natural number, then
sin 2𝑛 𝑥
cos 𝑥 . cos 2𝑥 … . cos 2𝑛−1 𝑥 = .
2𝑛 sin 𝑥
Solution: We use induction. The case for 𝑛 = 1 (base case) follows from the identity sin 2𝑥 =
2sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥. Now assume that the result holds for 𝑛. Then
sin 2𝑛 𝑥 2 sin 2𝑛 𝑥 cos 2𝑛 𝑥 sin 2𝑛+1 𝑥
cos 𝑥 . cos 2𝑥 … . cos 2𝑛−1 𝑥 . cos 2𝑛 𝑥 = × cos 2𝑛
𝑥 = = 𝑛+1 .
2𝑛 sin 𝑥 2𝑛+1 sin 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥
where again, we have used the double angle formula for the sine function.

The above examples are the kinds you will come across in the school curriculum problems. In
Olympiad problems however you will often need to tweak the inductive hypothesis. Sometimes
you may find the inductive hypothesis is not giving you every information you need, when this
happens remember you can improve (slightly generalize) the inductive hypothesis! Investigate
the problem and ask yourself what else has to be true concerning the problem at hand. As
paradoxical as it may sound, general statements are sometimes easier to prove than specific ones!
Here are some examples to illustrate this.
1
Example: Prove that ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 (𝑛+1) < 2 for all positive integers 𝑛.
√𝑛

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TAMO Training Induction Terence Teri

1
Solution: Letting 𝑆𝑁 = ∑𝑁
𝑛=1 (𝑛+1) . We would want to prove an upper bound for 𝑆𝑁 by
√𝑛
1
induction. If all you know is 𝑆𝑁−1 < 2, then all you can get is 𝑆𝑁 < 2 + (𝑛+1) 𝑛, which isn’t
√
2
strong enough. On the other hand, you could instead prove by induction that 𝑆𝑁 < 2 − , as
√𝑁+1
2
follows. 𝑆1 = 1.5 < 2 − √2 = 2 − , hence the base case holds. Now assume it holds for 𝑁,
√2
then
1 2 1 2𝑁 + 3
𝑆𝑁+1 = 𝑆𝑁 + <2− + =2−
(𝑁 + 2)√𝑁 + 1 √𝑁 + 1 (𝑁 + 2)√𝑁 + 1 (𝑁 + 2)√𝑁 + 1
2√(𝑁 + 1)(𝑁 + 2) 2
< 2− = 2− .
(𝑁 + 2)√𝑁 + 1 √𝑁 + 2

Where the second inequality follows from the fact that 2𝑁 + 3 > 2√(𝑁 + 1)(𝑁 + 2) for all
𝑁 ≥ 1, just square it to see why.
In school, you are often taught to just look at 𝑛 − 1 in the most obvious way, in Olympiad
problems however, induction arguments may align with the extreme principle. So you should
also try to be smart on how you reduce to smaller cases. Try looking at the objects that achieve a
maximum or minimum values and induct on them.
Example: (Classic) There are 𝑛 identical cars on a circular track. Among all of them, they have
just enough gas for one car to complete a lap. Show that there is a car which can complete a lap
by collecting gas from the other cars on its way around.
Solution: The statement is obvious for 𝑛 = 1. Suppose that we have proven the statement for 𝑛.
Let there be 𝑛 + 1 cars. Then there is a car 𝐴 which can reach the next car 𝐵, otherwise there
will not be enough fuel for one lap, contradicting the problem conditions. Now we can empty the
fuel from 𝐵 into 𝐴 and remove car 𝐵 (this is synonymous to the process of merging car 𝐵 to car
𝐴.) Now we have 𝑛 cars which between them, we have enough fuel for one lap. By the induction
hypothesis, there is car which can complete a lap. The same car can also get around the track
with all 𝑛 + 1 cars on the road. From 𝐴 to 𝐵, there will be enough gas(from car 𝐴) and, on the
remaining road sections, this car has the same amount of gas as in the case of 𝑛 cars.

In the last example we could have choose 𝐴 to be the car for which the ratio of the amount of gas
it contains to the distance of its next neighbor is maximum. The next example is from an IMO
shortlist in which the extremes considered are the points on the convex hull of a set of points in
the plane. The convex hull of a set 𝑆 ∈ ℝ2 is the smallest convex set containing 𝑆.
Example: (ISL 2013 C2) In the plane, 2013 red points and 2014 blue points are marked so that
no three of the marked points are collinear. One needs to draw 𝑘 lines not passing through the
marked points and dividing the plane into several regions. The goal is to do it in such a way that
no region contains points of both colors. Find the minimal value 𝑘 such that the goal is attainable
for every possible configuration of 4027 points.
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Solution: We will first prove a lower bound on 𝑘, 𝑖𝑒(𝑘 ≥ 2013) by means of a counter example
and then an upper (𝑘 ≤ 2013) bound by induction. Mark 2013 red and 2013 blue points on a
circle in an alternating fashion, and mark one blue point somewhere else in the plane. The circle
is thus split into 4026 arcs, each of which has end points of different colors. Thus if the goal is
reached then each arc must intersect some of the drawn lines. Since any line contains at most two
4026
points of the circle, one needs at least 2 = 2013 lines.

It remains to prove that one can reach the goal using 2013 lines. In fact, we will prove a more
general statement:
If n points in the plane, no three of which are collinear, are colored in red and blue arbitrarily,
𝑛
then it suffices to draw ⌊ ⌋ lines to reach the goal.
2

We proceed by induction on 𝑛. If 𝑛 ≤ 2, then the statement is obvious. Now assume that 𝑛 ≥ 3,

and consider a line 𝑙 containing two marked points 𝐴 and 𝐵 such that all the other marked points
are on one side of 𝑙; for instance, any line containing a side of the convex hull works. Remove
for a moment the points 𝐴 and 𝐵. By the induction hypothesis, for the remaining configuration it
𝑛
suffices to draw ⌊ 2⌋ − 1 lines to reach the goal. Now return to the points 𝐴 and 𝐵 in the picture.
Three cases are possible.
Case 1. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are of the same color, then one may draw a line parallel to 𝑙 and separating 𝐴
𝑛
and 𝐵 from the other points. Obviously the obtain configuration of ⌊ 2⌋ lines works.

Case 2. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 have different colors, but they are separated by some drawn line, then again
the same line parallel to 𝑙 works.
Case 3. Finally, assume that 𝐴 and 𝐵 have different colors and lie in one of the regions defined
by the drawn lines. By the induction hypothesis, this region no other points of one of the
colors−without loss of generality, the only blue point it contains is 𝐴. Then it suffices to draw a
line separating 𝐴 from all other points.
Thus the induction is complete.
Sometimes you will need to construct a counterexample by induction, as in the following
problem as a partial solution to IMO 2018 Shortlist G3.
Example: Let 𝜔 denote a circle of radius 1. Prove that for each positive integer 𝑛, there exists a
set of 𝑛 triangles each of which is inscribed in 𝜔, each has perimeter greater than 4 and no two
triangles have a common interior point.
Solution: The construction is by induction, we construct inductively an (𝑛 + 2) −gon
𝐵𝐴1 𝐴2 … 𝐴𝑛 𝐶 inscribed in 𝜔 such that 𝐵𝐶 is a diameter and the triangles
𝐵𝐴1 𝐴2 , 𝐵𝐴2 𝐴3 , … 𝐵𝐴𝑛−1 𝐴𝑛 , 𝐵𝐴𝑛 𝐶 satisfy the problem conditions. Let 𝐵𝐶 be the horizontal
diameter of 𝜔. For 𝑛 = 1, take any point 𝐴1 in the upper semi-circle of 𝜔, then the perimeter of
triangle 𝐵𝐴1 𝐶 is greater than 2𝐵𝐶 = 4 by the triangle inequality. To perform the induction step,

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assume that the (𝑛 + 2) −gon 𝐵𝐴1 𝐴2 … 𝐴𝑛 𝐶 is already constructed. Since 𝐴𝑛 𝐵 + 𝐴𝑛 𝐶 + 𝐵𝐶 >

4, one can choose a point 𝐴𝑛+1 on the small arc 𝐶𝐴̂𝑛 , close enough to 𝐶, so that 𝐴𝑛 𝐵 +
𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑛+1 + 𝐵𝐴𝑛+1 is still greater than 4 (by continuity). Thus each of these new triangles
𝐵𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑛+1 and 𝐵𝐴𝑛+1 𝐶 has perimeter greater than 4, which completes the induction step.

2. Strong Induction
Strong Induction Principle:
Let 𝑃(𝑛) be a collection of statements such that 𝑃(1) is true, and for each natural number
𝑛, we have the implication 𝑃(1), 𝑃(2), … , 𝑃(𝑛 − 1) ⟹ 𝑃(𝑛). Then 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all natural
numbers 𝑛.
When it comes to Olympiad problems it is often useful to consider strong induction as it is more
powerful than the basic one and equally easier to the basic one. Here are some examples to
illustrate this. We know that the sum, the sum of squares and the sum of cubes of the first 𝑛
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
positive integers is , , and ( ) respectively, which are polynomials in 𝑛
2 6 2
of degree 2,3 and 4 respectively. The following example generalizes this.
Example: Show that for every non-negative integer 𝑘, there exist a polynomial 𝑃𝑘 (𝑥) of degree
𝑘 + 1, such that 1𝑘 + 2𝑘 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘 (𝑛) for all positive integers 𝑛.
Solution: For 𝑘 = 0, then the polynomial 𝑃0 (𝑥) = 𝑥 works as, 10 + 20 + ⋯ + 𝑛0 = 1 + 1 +
⋯ + 1 = 𝑛 = 𝑃0 (𝑛) ∀ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. Assume that the statement holds for all non-negative integers
𝑖 ≤ 𝑘 − 1. To prove the induction step, we consider the following algebraic identity.
𝑘
𝑘+1 𝑘+1
𝑘+1 𝑖
(𝑥 + 1) −𝑥 = ∑( )𝑥
𝑖
𝑖=0

Now summing both sides from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 𝑛, we get that the L.H.S telescopes to:
𝑘 𝑛 𝑛 𝑘
𝑘+1
𝑘+1 𝑘+1
(𝑛 + 1) = ∑( ) ∑ 𝑥 𝑖 = (𝑘 + 1) ∑ 𝑥 𝑘 + ∑ ( ) 𝑃𝑖 (𝑛)
𝑖 𝑖
𝑖=0 𝑥=0 𝑥=0 𝑖=0

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We have used the induction hypothesis in the second equality. Hence ∑𝑛𝑥=1 𝑥 𝑘 =
1
((𝑛 + 1)𝑘+1 − ∑𝑘𝑖=0(𝑘+1
𝑖
)𝑃𝑖 (𝑛)), which is a polynomial in 𝑛 of degree 𝑘 + 1. Therefore
𝑘+1
𝑘
1 𝑘+1
𝑃𝑘+1 (𝑥) = ((𝑥 + 1)𝑘+1 − ∑ ( ) 𝑃𝑖 (𝑥)),
𝑘+1 𝑖
𝑖=0

And the induction is complete.

Example: Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … be a sequence of real numbers satisfying 𝑎𝑖+𝑗 ≤ 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑎𝑗 for all 𝑖, 𝑗 =

1,2, …. Prove that
𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑎𝑛
𝑎1 + + + ⋯+ ≥ 𝑎𝑛
2 3 𝑛
for all positive integers 𝑛.
Solution: The base cases for 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑛 = 2 are trivial. Now assume that the statement is true
for 𝑛 ≤ 𝑘, for some integer 𝑘 ≥ 2. Then if we try the basic induction then it will not work as the
𝑎
inequality 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 𝑎𝑛 doesn’t always hold, but if we use strong induction then we assume
that,
𝑎1 ≥ 𝑎1 ,
𝑎2
𝑎1 + ≥ 𝑎2 ,
2
𝑎2 𝑎𝑘
𝑎1 + + ⋯ + ≥ 𝑎𝑘 .
2 𝑘
Adding all these inequalities gives,
𝑎2 𝑎𝑘
𝑘𝑎1 + (𝑘 − 1) +⋯+ ≥ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 ,
2 𝑘
Adding (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 ) to both sides of the last inequality yields
𝑎2 𝑎𝑘
(𝑘 + 1) (𝑎1 + + ⋯ + ) ≥ (𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑘 ) + (𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑘−1 ) + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑘 + 𝑎1 ) ≥ 𝑘𝑎𝑘+1 .
2 𝑘
Dividing both sides of the last inequality by (𝑘 + 1) gives
𝑎2 𝑎𝑘 𝑘𝑎𝑘+1
𝑎1 + + ⋯+ ≥ ,
2 𝑘 𝑘+1
or
𝑎2 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑘+1
𝑎1 + + ⋯+ + ≥ 𝑎𝑘+1 .
2 𝑘 𝑘+1
This completes the induction.

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In some cases even after using induction, there is still some work to be done. In such cases you
will need to use induction to its full power like using induction successively.

Example: There are 𝑛 lamps, in a room, with certain lamps connected by wires. Initially all
lamps are off. You can press the on/off button 𝐴, but this also switches the state of all the lamps
connected to lamp 𝐴 from on to off and vice versa. Prove that by pressing enough buttons you
can make all the lamps on. (Connections are such that if lamp 𝐴 is connected to lamp 𝐵, then
lamp 𝐵 is also connected to lamp 𝐴.)

Solution: We prove this via induction on 𝑛. The base case of 𝑛 = 1 is trivial. Now assume that
the statement is true for 𝑛 − 1 lamps. Now consider a set of 𝑛 lamps and ignore some lamp 𝐴.
Then by the induction hypothesis, we can turn the remaining lamps on by pressing some buttons.
Now if after doing this process 𝐴 is also on, we are done. Otherwise assume that, after doing this
process, 𝐴 is off. Since 𝐴 was chosen arbitrarily out of the 𝑛 lamps, we can assume that by
pressing a sequence of buttons, we can flip the states of all lamps except one of our choosing.
Now taking 𝐴 and 𝐵 to be two different lamps, flipping the states of all lamps except 𝐴, then
flipping the states of all lamps except 𝐵, we see that we can flip the states of only 𝐴 and 𝐵. So
this means we can flip the states of any even number of even lamps. Now, we divide into two
cases:

 Case 1: 𝑛 is even.
Then we are already done since we can flip the states of any even number of lamps.

 Case 2: 𝑛 is odd.
In this case it is well known that there must exist a lamp 𝐴 with an even number of lamps
connected to it (prove this!). Now first press the button on 𝐴, and so after this, an even
number of lamps will still be of, so group them in pairs arbitrarily and flip their states to
on.

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Miscellaneous Problems:
Most of the following problems can be solved by induction, for the harder problems you
might need further analysis to solve them, but one thing is for sure, you need to be
creative! I have tried to arrange the problems in the order of increasing difficulty, enjoy!

1. Fred wants to but exactly 𝑛 dollars worth of snacks for his trip. He has an infinite
number of two-dollar coins and an infinite number of five-dollar bills. Show that for
every positive integer 𝑛 ≥ 4, he will be able to pay for the snacks without requiring any
change.
2. Let 𝑛 be an integer. Consider all points (𝑎, 𝑏) in the plane with integer co-ordinates
such that 0 ≤ 𝑎, 0 ≤ 𝑏, and 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≤ 𝑛. Show that if these points are covered by straight
lines then there are at least 𝑛 + 1 such lines.
3. Prove that 3𝑛 ≥ 𝑛3 for all positive integers 𝑛.
4. Let 𝑛 be a positive integer. Show that
1 1 1 1
a) (1 + 13 ) (1 + 23 ) (1 + 33 ) … (1 + 𝑛3 ) < 3.
1 1 1 1 5
b) (1 + 2) (1 + 22 ) (1 + 23 ) … (1 + 2𝑛) < 2.
1 1 1 3
c) 1 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 < 2.

5. (CMO 2015 P1)Let ℕ = {1,2,3, … } be the set of positive integers. Find all functions
𝑓:ℕ → ℕ, such that (𝑛 − 1)2 < 𝑓(𝑛)𝑓(𝑓(𝑛)) < 𝑛2 + 𝑛 for every positive integer 𝑛.
6. Let 𝑛 be a positive integer, show that
𝑛
𝑛+𝑘 1
∑( ) 𝑘 = 2𝑛 .
𝑘 2
𝑘=0

7. Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 be positive integers such that 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 =

𝑏1 + 𝑏2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 < 𝑛𝑚. If 𝑛, 𝑚 ≥ 2, prove that it is possible to delete some, but not
all, of the 𝑎𝑖 ′𝑠 and 𝑏𝑗 ′𝑠 so that the sum is still equal.
8. Let 𝑛 ≥ 2 be a positive integer. Prove that if one square of a 2𝑛 × 2𝑛 chessboard is
removed, the remaining squares can be tiled (covered, with no tile covering outside the
chessboard) by 𝐿-shaped triminoes as the one shown below (they can be rotated or
reflected)

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9. (USAMO 1997 P4)A sequence of polygons is derived as follows. The first polygon is
a regular hexagon of area 1. Thereafter each polygon is derived from its predecessor by
joining two adjacent midpoints and cutting off the corner. Show that the polygons have
1
area greater than .
3

10. Prove that for every positive integer 𝑛 there exists an 𝑛-digit number divisible by 5𝑛 all
of whose digits are odd.
11. The Fibonacci sequence is a sequence of integers defined by 𝐹0 = 0, 𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹𝑛+1 =
𝐹𝑛 + 𝐹𝑛−1 , for all 𝑛 ≥ 1. Prove that
𝑛
𝑛−⌊ ⌋
(a) 𝐹𝑛 = (𝑛−1
0
) + (𝑛−2
1
) + (𝑛−3
2
)+⋯+( 𝑛
2
)
⌊ ⌋
2

(b) ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝐹𝑖2 = 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+1 .

1 1 𝑛 𝐹 𝐹𝑛
(c) ( ) = ( 𝑛+1 ).
1 0 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛−1
(d) 𝐹𝑛−1 𝐹𝑛+1 = 𝐹𝑛2 + (−1)𝑛 .
(e) 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛+2 − 1.
(f) 𝐹1 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ + 𝐹2𝑛−1 = 𝐹2𝑛+2 , 1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹4 + ⋯ + 𝐹2𝑛 = 𝐹2𝑛+1 .
(g) 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+1 − 𝐹𝑛−2 𝐹𝑛−1 = 𝐹2𝑛−1 , 𝐹𝑛+1 𝐹𝑛+2 − 𝐹𝑛 𝐹𝑛+3 = (−1)𝑛 .
2
(h) 𝐹𝑛−1 + 𝐹𝑛2 = 𝐹2𝑛−1 , 𝐹𝑛 (𝐹𝑛+1 + 𝐹𝑛−1 ) = 𝐹2𝑛 .
3 3
(i) 𝐹𝑛3 + 𝐹𝑛+1 − 𝐹𝑛−1 = 𝐹3𝑛 .
(j) 𝑚|𝑛 ⇒ 𝐹𝑚 |𝐹𝑛 .
12. (Bay Area Math Olympiad 2015 P3)Let 𝑘 be a positive integer. Prove that there exists
integers 𝑥 and 𝑦, neither of which is divisible by 3, such that 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 3𝑘 .
13. Call a positive integer square-full if each of its prime divisors occurs to a second or
higher power in its prime decomposition. Prove that there are infinitely many pairs of
consecutive square-fulls.

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TAMO Training Induction Terence Teri

14. (Pick’s Theorem)Given a simple (non-self-intersecting) polygon in the plane whose

vertices lie on lattice points (points with integer co-ordinates), show that the area of the
polygon is given by 𝐼 + 𝐵⁄2 − 1, where 𝐼 is the number of lattice points entirely within
the polygon and 𝐵 is the number of lattice points that lie on the boundary of the
polygon.
15. (PAMO 2002 P3) Prove that for every integer 𝑛 > 0, there exists an integer 𝑘 > 0 such
that 2𝑘 𝑛 can be written in decimal notation using only digits 1 and 2.
16. (PAMO 20006 P4) For every positive integer 𝑘 let 𝑎(𝑘) be the largest integer such that
2𝑎(𝑘) divides 𝑘. For every positive integer 𝑛, determine 𝑎(1) + 𝑎(2) + ⋯ + 𝑎(2𝑛 ).
17. A positive integer 𝑛 is called good if it can be written as 𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 for not
necessarily distinct positive integers 𝑎𝑖 such that

1 1 1
1= + + ⋯+ .
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎𝑘

Given that all the numbers 37 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 73 are good, prove that 𝑛 is good for all integers
𝑛 ≥ 73.

1 1
18. Let 𝛼 be any real number such that 𝛼 + 𝛼 is an integer. Prove that 𝛼 𝑛 + 𝛼𝑛 is an integer

for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
19. Let 𝑥 be a real number such that cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 is rational. Prove that for all positive
integers 𝑛, (cos 𝑥)𝑛 + (sin 𝑥)𝑛 is rational.
1 1 1
20. Prove that 1 < 𝑛+1 + 𝑛+2 + ⋯ + 3𝑛+1 < 2 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.

21. Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be an increasing sequence of real numbers, and let 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 be

another sequence of that contains the same numbers but possibly in a different order.
Suppose that
𝑎1 + 𝑏1 < 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 < ⋯ < 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 .
Prove that 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 for all 𝑖.

22. Let 𝑓: ℕ → ℕ be such that 𝑓(𝑛 + 1) > 𝑓(𝑓(𝑛)) for all natural numbers 𝑛. Prove that
𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑛 for all 𝑛.

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23. Inside a right triangle a finite set of points is given. Prove that these points can be
connected by a broken line such that the sum of the squares of the lengths in the broken
line is less than or equal to the square of the length of the hypotenuse of the given
triangle.

24. Consider all possible subsets of {1,2,3, … , 𝑛} which contain no neighboring elements.
Prove that the sum of the squares of the products of all numbers in these subsets is
(𝑛 + 1)! − 1.

25. A knight is located at the origin of an infinite chessboard. How many squares can it
reach after exactly 𝑛 moves?

26. Let 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1, and for each positive integer 𝑛 ≥ 2 define 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑓𝑛−1 (𝑓1 (𝑥)).
How many distinct real roots does the polynomial 𝑓2009 have?

27. Let 0 ≤ 𝑚 < 𝑛 be positive integers and let 𝑃(𝑥) be any real polynomial of degree 𝑚.
Prove that
𝑛
𝑛
∑(−1)𝑘 ( ) 𝑃(𝑘) = 0
𝑘
𝑘=0

28. (ISL 2015 A1) Suppose that a sequence 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … of positive real numbers satisfies
𝑘𝑎𝑘
𝑎𝑘+1 =
𝑎𝑘2 + (𝑘 − 1)
for every positive integer 𝑘. Prove that 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 𝑛 for every 𝑛 ≥ 2.

29. (EXCL Assignment P4) A sequence defined by the conditions 𝑎1 = 2, and

𝑎𝑛+1 = 2𝑎𝑛 + 2
for all 𝑛 ≥ 1. Prove that 𝑎𝑛+1 is divisible by 𝑎𝑛 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.

30. (ISL 2006 A2) The sequence of real numbers 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … is defined recursively by

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TAMO Training Induction Terence Teri

𝑎𝑛−𝑘
𝑎0 = −1, ∑𝑛𝑘=0 = 0 for 𝑛 ≥ 1.
𝑘+1

Prove that 𝑎𝑛 > 0 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.

31. Let 𝑘 be a positive integer and 𝑚 be an odd number. Prove that there exists a positive
integer 𝑛 such that 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑚 is divisible by 2𝑘 .
32. Let 𝑛 ≥ 𝑘 ≥ 1 be integers. Divide all the numbers with less than 𝑛 digits into two
classes, those whose digits add up to an even number and those whose digits add up to
an odd number. Prove that the sum of the 𝑘-th powers of all the numbers in one class is
equal to the sum of the 𝑘-th powers of all the numbers in the other class.
33. (USAMO 1991)Prove that for any natural number 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, the sequence 𝑎1 = 1, 𝑎𝑖+1 =
2𝑎𝑖 is eventually constant when considered modulo 𝑛.
34. (ISL 2019 C1) The infinite sequence 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … of (not necessarily different) integers
has the following properties: 0 ≤ 𝑎𝑖 ≤ 𝑖 for all integers 𝑖 ≥ 0, and
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( ) = 2𝑘
𝑎0 𝑎1 𝑎𝑘
for all integers 𝑘 ≥ 0.
Prove that all integers 𝑁 ≥ 0 occur in the sequence.
35. (ISL 2007 C1) Let 𝑛 > 1 be an integer. Find all sequences 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛2 +𝑛 satisfying
the following conditions:
a) 𝑎𝑖 ∈ {0,1} for all 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛2 + 𝑛;
b) 𝑎𝑖+1 + 𝑎𝑖+2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖+𝑛 < 𝑎𝑖+𝑛+1 + 𝑎𝑖+𝑛+2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖+2𝑛 for all 0 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛2 −
𝑛.
36. (ISL 2010 A4) A sequence 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … is defined by 𝑥1 = 1 and 𝑥2𝑘 = −𝑥𝑘 , 𝑥2𝑘−1 =
(−1)𝑘+1 𝑥𝑘 for all 𝑘 ≥ 1. Prove that 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 ≥ 0 for all 𝑛 ≥ 1.
37. (JBMO 2004) Consider a convex polygon with 𝑛 ≥ 4 sides, and a triangulation of that
polygon. Paint a triangle black if it has 2 sides which are also sides of the original
polygon, and red if it contains no sides of the original polygon. Prove that there are 2
more black triangles than red triangles.
38. (ISL 2023 C2) Determine the maximal length 𝐿 of a sequence 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝐿 of positive
integers satisfying both the following properties:
(a) Every term in the sequence is less than or equal to 22023 , and

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(b) There does not exist a consecutive subsequence 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑎𝑖+1 , … , 𝑎𝑗 (where 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑗 ≤

𝐿) with a choice of signs 𝑠𝑖 , 𝑠𝑖+1 , … , 𝑠𝑗 ∈ {1, −1} for which
𝑠𝑖 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑠𝑖+1 𝑎𝑖+1 + ⋯ + 𝑠𝑗 𝑎𝑗 = 0.

39. The Art Gallery problem.

(a) Consider a polygon with some non-intersecting diagonals drawn in. Prove that it is
possible to color the vertices red, blue, or green, such that two vertices of the same
color are not connected by an edge or a diagonal.
(b)An art gallery is shaped like a polygon with 𝑛 sides. Prove that we can place at most
𝑛
guards inside so that every other point inside the gallery is visible to at least one
3

guard.
40. (Bulgarian Solitaire)You are given (𝑛2) stones, divided into piles of various sizes. Each
minute, you take one stone from each existing pile, and group them together into a new
pile. If a pile is emptied during the process it is no longer considered a pile. Prove that
eventually, you will have one pile of size 𝑖 for each 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛.
41. (ISL 2009 C3) Let 𝑛 be a positive integer. Given a sequence 𝜀1 , … , 𝜀𝑛−1 with 𝜀𝑖 ∈ {0,1}
for each 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 − 1, the sequences 𝑎0 , … , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏0 , … , 𝑏𝑛 are constructed by the
following rules:
𝑎0 = 𝑏0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 = 7,

2𝑎 + 3𝑎𝑖 𝑖𝑓 𝜀𝑖 = 0
𝑎𝑖+1 = { 𝑖−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 − 1
3𝑎𝑖−1 + 𝑎𝑖 𝑖𝑓 𝜀𝑖 = 1
2𝑏𝑖−1 + 3𝑏𝑖 𝑖𝑓 𝜀𝑖 = 0
𝑏𝑖+1 = { 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 − 1
3𝑏𝑖−1 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑖𝑓 𝜀𝑖 = 1
Prove that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛 .

42. (ISL 2009 C4) For an integer 𝑚 ≥ 1, we consider partitions of a 2𝑚 × 2𝑚 chessboard

into rectangles consisting of cells of the chessboard, in which each of the 2𝑚 cells
along one diagonal forms a separate rectangle of side length 1. Determine the smallest
possible sum of rectangle perimeters in such a partition.

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43. (ISL 2008 N3) Let 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … be a sequence of positive integers such that the greatest
common divisor of any consecutive terms is greater than the preceding term; in
symbols, gcd(𝑎𝑖 , 𝑎𝑖+1 ) > 𝑎𝑖−1 . Prove that 𝑎𝑛 ≥ 2𝑛 for all 𝑛 ≥ 0.
44. (ISL 2008 N4) Let 𝑛 be a positive integer. Show that the numbers
2𝑛 − 1 2𝑛 − 1 2𝑛 − 1 2𝑛 − 1
( ) ,( ) ,( ) , … , ( 𝑛−1 )
0 1 2 2 −1
are congruent modulo 2𝑛 to 1,3,5, … , 2𝑛 − 1 in some order.
45. (Russia 1998 Grade 10 P8)Each square of a (2𝑛 − 1) × (2𝑛 − 1) board contains either
1 or −1. Such an arrangement is called successful if each number is the product of its
neighbors. Find the number of successful arrangements.
46. (ISL 2000 N6)Prove that the set of positive integers that cannot be represented as a sum
of distinct perfect squares is finite.
47. (ISL 2023 C6) Let 𝑁 be a positive integer, and consider an 𝑁 × 𝑁 grid. A right-down
path is a sequence of grid cells such that each cell is either one cell to the right of or
one cell below the previous cell in the sequence. A right-up path is a sequence of grid
cells such that each cell is either one cell to the right of or one cell above the previous
cell in the sequence.

Prove that the cells of the 𝑁 × 𝑁 grid cannot be partitioned into less than 𝑁 right-
down or right-up paths. For example, the following partition (by coloring) of the 5 × 5
grid uses 5 paths

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48. (IMO 2006 P6) Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be distinct positive integers and let 𝑀 be set of 𝑛 − 1
positive integers not containing 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 . A grasshopper is to jump along the
real axis, starting at the point 0 and making 𝑛 jumps to the right with lengths
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 in some order. Prove that the order can be chose in such a way that the
grasshopper never lands on any point in 𝑀.
49. (ISL 2016 N7) Let 𝑛 be an odd positive integer. In the Cartesian plane, a cyclic polygon
𝑃 with area 𝑆 is chosen. All its vertices have integral coordinates, and the squares of its
side lengths are all divisible by 𝑛. Prove that 2𝑆 is an integer divisible by 𝑛.
50. (ISL 2006 N7) Prove that for every positive integer 𝑛, there exists an integer 𝑚 such
that 2𝑚 + 𝑚 is divisible by 𝑛.
51. (Five color theorem)Prove that it is possible to color every vertex of a planar graph with
5 colors such that any two adjacent vertices are different colors.

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