F-281 TOC

Proceedings of ASME FEDSM’02

Proceedings of ASME FEDSM'02:
ASME 2002
2002 ASME Fluids Engineering DivisionSummer
Fluids Engineering Division Meeting
Summer Meeting
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, July 14-18, 2002
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, July 14-18, 2002

FEDSM2002-31024
FEDSM2002-31024

SIMILITUDE OF AIR ENTRAINMENT AT VERTICAL CIRCULAR PLUNGING JETS

Hubert CHANSON Shin-ichi AOKI

Dept. of Civil Eng., The University of Dept. of Architecture and Civil Eng., Toyohashi
Queensland, Brisbane QLD 4072, Australia University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580,
Japan

Ashabul HOQUE
Dept. of Architecture and Civil Eng., Toyohashi
University of Technology, Toyohashi 441-8580,
Japan

ABSTRACT characteristic velocity Ve which is a function of the inflow

Air bubble entrainment at plunging jet takes place when conditions (e.g. ERVINE et al. 1980, CUMMINGS and
the jet impact velocity exceeds a critical velocity function of CHANSON 1999). The mechanisms of bubble entrainment
the inflow conditions. This study investigates scale effects depends upon the jet velocity at impact, the fluid properties,
affecting air entrainment and bubble dispersion at vertical the nozzle design, the free-falling jet length and the jet
circular plunging jets. Three scale models were used and turbulence. For small jet velocities larger than the onset
detailed air-water measurements were performed velocity, air is entrained in the form of individual air
systematically for identical Froude numbers. The results bubbles. At larger jet velocities, large packets of air are
highlight significant scale effects when We1 < 1E+3 or entrained and broken up subsequently in the shear flow (e.g.
V1/ur < 10. Bubble chord times were also measured and BIN 1993, CUMMINGS and CHANSON 1997a,
presented in terms of pseudo-bubble chord length which was CHANSON and BRATTBERG 1998, ZHU et al. 2000). At
found to overestimate real bubble chords by 10 to 30%. The the impingement perimeter, the bubble entrapment is highly
data show pseudo-bubble chord sizes ranging from less than unsteady, affecting the stability of the complete system : i.e.,
0.5 mm to more than 10 mm. The average pseudo-chord jet and receiving pool.
sizes were between 5 and 7 mm.
Keywords : Air bubble entrainment, plunging jet,
Dimensional analysis
physical modelling, scale effects.
Laboratory studies of air-water flows require the
selection of an adequate similitude. Considering air bubble
INTRODUCTION
entrainment at vertical plunging water jets, the relevant
At the intersection of a plunging jet with a pool of
parameters needed for any dimensional analysis include
water, free-surface instabilities develop and air bubble
fluid properties and physical constants, channel (or flow)
entrainment may be observed (Fig. 1). This is a form of
geometry, upstream flow properties, air-water flow
local, singular aeration (CHANSON 1997). Plunging jet
properties. It yields :
flow situations are encountered in Nature (e.g. at impact of
waterfalls). Industrial applications of plunging jets include  dab x1 
FC ; Fr ; Tu ; ; ; Fr1 ; We1 ; Tu1 ; Mo = 0 (1)
minerals-processing flotation cells, waste-water treatment,  d 1 d 1 
oxygenation of mammalian-cell bio-reactors and riverine re- where C is the void fraction, Fr = V/ g * d1, V is the
oxygenation weirs (e.g. CHANSON 1997, KOLANI et al. velocity, d1 is the jet impact diameter, x1 is the free-jet
1998). In the oceans, plunging breaking waves can entrain a length, Tu is the turbulence intensity, dab/d1 is a
large amount of air bubbles when the top of the wave forms a dimensionless characteristic bubble size. The dimensionless
water jet projecting ahead and impacts the water free-surface
inflow variables are Fr1 = V1/ g * d1, We1 =
in front of the wave (e.g. GRIFFIN 1984).
ρw*V12*d1/σ and Tu1 while Mo = (g*µw4)/(ρw*σ3) is the
Several studies showed that air entrainment at plunging
Morton number also called liquid parameter. In Equation
jets takes place when the jet impact velocity exceeds a
(1), C, Fr, Tu and dab/d1 are dimensionless characteristics

1 Copyright ©2002 by ASME

of the flow field below impingement. range of flow situations. The results presents new evidence
leading to a better understanding of scale effects affecting
Fig. 1 - Photograph of air bubble entrainment at plunging jet the air entrainment process.
(V1 = 2.2 m/s, x1 = 0.5 m, Model 2)

NOMENCLATURE
C air concentration, also called void fraction;
Cmax maximum void fraction in a cross-section;
chab pseudo-bubble chord length (m);
Dt turbulent diffusivity (m2/s) of air bubbles;
D # dimensionless turbulent diffusivity : D# =
Dt/(V1*r1);
d circular jet diameter;
dab air bubble diameter (m);
do nozzle diameter (m);
F bubble count rate or bubble frequency (Hz);
Fr Froude number defined as : Fr = V/ g * d ;
g gravity constant (m/s2);
Mo Morton number defined as : Mo =
(g*µw4)/(ρw*σ3);
Qw water discharge (m3/s);
Qair quantity of entrained air (m3/s);
r radial distance (m) from the centreline;
r1 jet radius (m) at impingement point : r1 = d1/2;
Fig. 2 - Sketch of air entrainment at vertical circular
Tu turbulence intensity defined as : Tu = u'/V;
plunging jet
tch bubble chord time (s);
ur bubble rise velocity (m/s);
u' std of longitudinal turbulent velocity (m/s);
V velocity (m/s);
Ve onset velocity (m/s) for air entrainment;
W channel width (m);
We Weber number : We = ρw * V2 * d/σ;
x distance along the flow direction (m);
x1 distance (m) between nozzle and impingement
point;
YCmax radial distance (m) where C = Cmax;
µw dynamic viscosity (Pa.s);
ρw density (kg/m3);
σ surface tension between air and water (N/m);
Subscript
1 inflow conditions (i.e. at impingement).
In free-surface flows, gravity effects are important and
most laboratory studies are based upon a Froude similitude EXPERIMENTAL FACILITIES
(HENDERSON 1966, CHANSON 1999). The entrapment of Two experimental facilities were used to provide three
air bubbles and the mechanisms of bubble breakup and circular plunging jet configurations called Models 1, 2 and 3
coalescence are dominated by surface tension effects (Table 1, Fig. 1). Experiments were conducted with tap
implying the need for Weber similitude (WOOD 1991, water and ambient air. In Model 1, the receiving channel
CHANSON 1997). For geometrically-similar models, it is was 0.3 m wide, 3.6 m long and 1.8 m deep with glass walls.
impossible to satisfy simultaneously Froude and Weber The circular nozzle was made of aluminium with a 1/2.16
similarities with the same fluids in model and prototype. In contraction ratio. In Models 2 and 3, the receiving flume was
small size models based upon a Froude similitude, the air 0.10 m wide, 0.75 m deep and 2 m long. The nozzle was
entrainment process may be underestimated. WOOD (1991) sharp-edged, being machined with an accuracy less than 0.1
and CHANSON (1997) discussed such scale effects. KOBUS mm and the water was supplied by a straight circular vertical
(1984) presented some applications. PVC pipe.
This study reviews basic air entrainment characteristics In Model 1, the discharge was measured with an orifice
at vertical circular plunging jets. Three scale models were meter (British Standards design) calibrated on-site with a
built and detailed experiments were performed for a wide volume-per-time technique. The flow rate was measured

2 Copyright ©2002 by ASME

 with a volume per time technique in Models 2 and 3. The Froude numbers Fr1. Measurements were performed at
error on the discharge measurement was less than 2%. In the similar cross-sections (x-x1)/r1 where x is the longitudinal
largest facility (Model 1), clear water jet velocities and coordinate and r1 is the jet impact radius (r1 = d1/2, Fig. 2).
turbulent velocity fluctuations were measured in the free-
falling jet using a Prandtl-Pitot tube (diameter 3.3 mm) and BASIC FLOW PATTERNS
a conical hot-film probe system (Dantec 55R42, 0.3 mm Each model exhibited similar flow patterns. For all the
size). experiments, the free jet was transparent up to impingement.
Air-water flow properties were measured with single-tip No entrained bubbles could be seen but some small
conductivity probes (needle probe design). In Model 1, the longitudinal streaks were visible at the free-surface. For very
probe (inner electrode: ∅ = 0.35 mm) signal was scanned at low velocity V1, no air was entrained at jet impact. With
5 kHz for three minutes. In Models 2 and 3, a Kanomax™ increasing jet velocities, all the other parameters being
System 7931 resistivity probe was used (inner electrode ∅ = unchanged, individual bubble entrainment was seen. The
0.1 mm). Void fraction and bubble count rates were inception conditions for air bubble entrainment were
calculated by analog integration for five minutes. In Model measured and reported in Table 1, column 3. The results for
2, raw probe outputs were also recorded at 25 kHz to Models 1 and 2 were consistent with previous results
calculate bubble chord time distributions. (ERVINE et al. 1980, CUMMINGS and CHANSON 1999).
In Model 3, the flow conditions at inception were visually
Table 1- Summary of experimental flow conditions different. The free jet surface was smooth, followed by free-
surface annular waves developing in the flow direction
do x1 Inception V1 Fr1 Tu1 Comments similar to wavy flow patterns illustrated by BRENNEN
m m condition m/s (1970) and HOYT and TAYLOR (1977). It is believed that
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) the inflow was laminar.
Model 1 For a jet velocity slightly greater than the inception
0.025 0.1 Ve = 1.58 3.5 7.2 0.39% Tap water (σ = 0.055 velocity, individual air bubble entrainment was observed.
m/s, Tu1 4.1 8.4 0.46% N/m). Inflow pipe: Most entrapped bubbles were visually small (i.e. with
4.4 9.0 0.96% 3.5 m long. Water diameter less than 0.5 to 1 mm) and tended to follow a
= 0.47%
depth: ~1.5 m. slightly helicoidal trajectory around the jet centreline. For
Model 2 larger jet velocities (V1 > Ve), an unstable air cavity
0.0125 0.05 Ve = 1.03 2.42 7.1 N/A Tap water (σ = 0.073
developed at one point along the impingement perimeter.
m/s 3.04 8.8 N/m). Inflow pipe :
3.18 9.2 1.2 m long. Water
The air cavity position changed with time in an apparently
3.46 10.0 depth: ~0.65 m. random manner. Large air packets were entrained below the
Model 3 air cavity with the stretching and breakup of the cavity tip.
0.0068 0.027 Ve = 0.73 1.79 7.1 N/A Tap water (σ = 0.073 Visual observations showed predominantly entrained bubble
m/s 2.16 8.5 N/m). Inflow pipe : 1 sizes between 0.5 and 5 mm. Such millimetric size bubbles
2.30 9.0 m long. Water depth: have a nearly constant bubble rise velocity : i.e., ur ≈ 0.25 to
2.49 9.7 ~0.65 m. 0. 3 m/s (COMOLET 1979). At larger speeds, the air cavity
developed all around the perimeter and most air was
Notes : Tu1 : turbulence intensity of the jet core at impact; σ entrained by elongation, stretching and breakup of the
: measured surface tension between air and water. ventilated cavity (Fig. 2). Visually most entrained bubbles
tended to follow a somewhat helicoidal trajectory.
Measurements were taken on the jet diameter through Although the bulk of entrained bubbles did not penetrate
the centreline. In each Model at each cross-section, the probe deeply and never reached the bottom of the flume, fine
sensor and support were initially located at r < -d1 and bubbles with sizes less than 0.5 to 1 mm were consistently
measurements were conducted by moving the probe tip with observed at deeper depths. Visual observations showed tiny
increasing radial coordinate r (Fig. 2). The displacement of bubbles trapped in large vortical structures for a relatively
the probes in the flow direction and direction normal to the long time before being ejected to another eddy or toward the
jet support was controlled by fine adjustment travelling free-surface.
mechanisms. The error in the probe position was less than
0.2 mm in each direction. Further details on the experiments DISTRIBUTIONS OF VOID FRACTIONS AND
were reported in CHANSON et al. (2002). BUBBLE COUNT RATES
In the developing flow region, the distributions of void
fraction exhibited smooth, derivative profiles (Fig. 3 & 4).
Design procedure
Figure 3 presents data for an impact Froude number Fr1 = 9
The models were designed to be geometrically similar
and Figure 4 shows data for smaller jet velocities (i.e. Fr1 =
based upon a Froude similitude with undistorted scale. The
7). The data illustrate the advective diffusion of entrained air
geometric scaling ratio between Model 1 and Model 2 was
associated with an quasi-exponential decay of the maximum
2.0, and the scaling ratio was 3.66 between Models 1 and 3.
air content with longitudinal distance from impingement and
Similar experiments were conducted for identical inflow

3 Copyright ©2002 by ASME

a broadening of the air diffusion layer. For all experiments, Qair 1
the data may be fitted by a simple analytical solution of the C = *
Qw x - x1
advective diffusion equation for air bubbles : 4 * D# *
YCmax

 YC  + 1
Fig. 3 - Dimensionless distributions of void fractions C and 2
 
 1 *  max  * I  1 * Cmax(2)

r r
bubble count rates F*r1/V1 for Fr1 = 9 - Comparison
Y
between Model 1 (run BM44_2), Model 2 (run CIR5_5),
 4 * D#  o2 * D# x - x1 
* exp -
Model 3 (Run-2) and Equation (2) : (Top) (x-x1)/r1 = 1.6, x - x1
(Middle) (x-x1)/r1 = 2.4, (Bottom) (x-x1)/r1 = 4.0
 YCmax   YCmax

C Run
where Qw is the water flow rate, Qair is the air flux, x is the
y/r longitudinal coordinate and r is the radial distance (Fig. 2),
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0BM44_2
0.5 1 1.5 21
C Run
D# is a dimensionless air bubble diffusivity,
0 CIR_5
0 YCmax = r(C=Cmax) and Io is the modified Bessel function
C Run-3 of the first kind of order zero (CHANSON 1997). Equation
0.1 0.1
(2) is compared with Models 1 and 2 data on Figures 3 & 4.
C Theory Values of D# and Qair/Qw were determined from best fit.
0.2 0.2
F.r1/V1 Fig. 4 - Dimensionless distributions of void fractions C and
Run 0.3 bubble count rates F*r1/V1 for Fr1 = 7 - Comparison
0.3 BM44_2
F.r1/V1 between Model 1 (run BM35_1), Model 2 (run CIR2_5),
Run CIR_5 0.4 Model 3 (Run-3) and Equation (2) : (Top) (x-x1)/r1 = 1.6,
0.4 F.r1/V1
C F.r1/V1 (Bottom) (x-x1)/r1 = 2.4, (c) (x-x1)/r1 = 4.0
Run-3

C BM35_1 y/r1
y/r -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 01 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 C CIR_2 0
0 0
0.05
0.05 C Run-1
0.1 0.1 0.1
0.1 0.15
C Theory
0.2 0.2 0.2
0.15
F.r1/V1 0.25
0.3
0.3 BM35_1
0.3
0.2
0.4 F.r1/V1
0.4 C CIR_2 F.r1/V0.35
1
C F.r1/V1
F.r1/V1

y/r1 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 y/r01 0.5 1 1.5 2

-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0 0
0 0
0.05
0.05
0.1 0.1 0.1
0.1 0.15
0.2 0.2
0.2
0.15
0.3 0.25
0.3
0.2 0.3
0.4 0.35
F.r1/V
0.4 F.r1/V1 C 1
C

Distributions of bubble count rates are also shown (Fig. 3 &

4). For all experiments, the results highlighted maximum
bubble frequency in the developing shear layers. The

4 Copyright ©2002 by ASME

maximum bubble count rate occurred consistently in the shear.
inner shear region: i.e., at a distance from the jet centreline The results show further that, at a given cross-section,
that was smaller than the location YCmax where the void the mean chord size increases with increasing jet velocity.
fraction was maximum. Such a result was previously The trend characterises the entrainment of larger air packets
observed with two-dimensional jets (BRATTBERG and with increasing impact velocity V1 and it is consistent with
CHANSON 1998). BRATTBERG and CHANSON assumed two-dimensional plunging jet observations (e.g.
that this was caused by "the non-coincidence between the air CUMMINGS and CHANSON 1997b).
bubble diffusion layer and the momentum shear layer".
DISCUSSION. SCALE EFFECTS
Fig. 5 - Pseudo-bubble chord length distributions (chab = V1 Experiments were conducted with three geometric scales
* tch) - Model 2, Fr1 = 9.1, x1/do = 4 based upon a Froude similitude with undistorted geometric
Pdf x-x1=10 mm, 2991 0.16 scale. For identical fluids in all three Models, the Froude
0.15 bubbles 0.23 similitude implies that the Weber number differs between
x-x1=15 mm, 3341 experiments and that surface tension-dominated processes
bubbles may not be properly scaled. In the present study, identical
0.1 x-x1=25 mm, 2823 results were basically observed between Models 1 and 2 at
bubbles each cross-section for Fr1 = 8.5 and 9. Some differences
0.05 were noted for the lowest Froude number (Fr1 = 7) (Fig. 4).
That is, a faster decay of void fraction and bubble count rate
with distance (x-x1)/r1 in Model 2. The trend suggests a
0 greater detrainment rate in Model 2 because the bubble rise
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 > velocity cannot be scaled properly with a Froude similitude,
Chord time * V1 (in mm) 10 and the rise velocity was nearly identical in all Models.
Based upon the present study, it is suggested that scale
effects in terms of detrainment occur for V1/ur < 10, where
ur is the characteristic rise velocity of entrained air bubbles.
Model 3 data showed consistently lesser entrained air
BUBBLE CHORD TIME DISTRIBUTIONS
than the two larger models. That is, lesser void fractions and
The bubble chord time is defined as the time spent by a
dimensionless bubble count rates for identical inflow
bubble on the probe sensor. Chord time data were calculated
conditions. The observations imply that the rate of air
from the raw signal scanned at 25 kHz for 2.6 seconds at 8
entrainment was underestimated in Model 3 and hence the
locations per cross-section. The results are presented in
experiments were affected by scale effects. For the range of
terms of pseudo-bubble chord length chab defined as :
investigated flow conditions (Table 1), air entrainment at
chab = V1 * tch (3)
vertical circular jets was affected by scale effects for We1 <
where tch is the bubble chord time. CHANSON et al. (2002) 1E+3 where We1 is the inflow Weber number.
showed that Equation (3) overestimates the bubble chord
lengths by about 10 to 30%. Pseudo-bubble chord length data
are shown in Figure 5 for one experiment at three cross- Remarks
sections: (x-x1)/r1 = 1.6, 2.4 & 4.0. At each cross-section, For the lowest Froude number (Fr1 = 7), Models 1 & 2
the histograms describe all bubbles detected across the shear data showed strong dissymmetry which might be attributed
layer width (i.e. 8 locations). In Figure 5, each histogram to a feedback mechanism between the probe support and
column represents the probability of chord length in 0.5 mm developing vortices. For r > 0, the probe support interfered
intervals : e.g., the probability of a chord length from 2.0 to with both sides of the developing shear region, preventing
2.5 mm is represented by the column labelled 2.0. The last the development of helicoidal vortical structures. In turn, air
column (i.e. > 10) indicates the probability of chord lengths entrapment was affected.
exceeding 10 mm.
The data demonstrate the broad spectrum of pseudo- CONCLUSION
bubble chord lengths at each cross-section : i.e., from less Air entrainment at vertical circular plunging jets was
than 0.5 mm to larger than 10 mm (Fig. 5). The pseudo- investigated for a range of flow conditions (Table 1). The
bubble chord length distributions are skewed with a project was focused on scale effects affecting air entrainment
preponderance of small bubble sizes relative to the mean. and bubble dispersion. Three scale models were used with jet
The probability of bubble chord length is the largest for nozzle diameters of 6.8, 12.5 and 25 mm. Detailed air-water
bubble sizes between 0 and 2 mm although the mean pseudo- measurement were performed systematically based upon a
chord size is typically 5 to 7 mm for all Models. It is worth Froude similitude.
noting the large fraction of bubbles larger than 10 mm next The study of air entrainment inception conditions
to the impingement perimeter : i.e., at x-x1 = 10 mm (Fig. showed that the inception velocity Ve is comparable to
5). These large bubbles may be large air packets entrapped at previous studies. Air concentration and bubble count rate
impingement which are subsequently broken up by turbulent results highlighted the advective diffusion of entrained air.

5 Copyright ©2002 by ASME

In Model 2, the mean pseudo-chord sizes were between 5 31-42.
and 7 mm where the pseudo-bubble chord length chab = CUMMINGS, P.D., and CHANSON, H. (1997a). "Air
V1*tch was found to overestimate real bubble chords by 10 Entrainment in the Developing Flow Region of Plunging
to 30%. Distributions of pseudo-bubble chord sizes ranged Jets. Part 1 Theoretical Development." Jl of Fluids Eng.,
from less than 0.5 mm to more than 10 mm. The Trans. ASME, Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 597-602.
distributions were skewed with a preponderance of small CUMMINGS, P.D., and CHANSON, H. (1997b). "Air
bubbles. Significant scale effects when We1 < 1E+3 or V1/ur Entrainment in the Developing Flow Region of Plunging
< 10 in terms of void fraction and bubble count rate. For Jets. Part 2 : Experimental." Jl of Fluids Eng., Trans.
We1 < 1E+3, the air entrainment rate is underestimated. For ASME, Vol. 119, No. 3, pp. 603-608.
V1/ur less than ten, the detrainment rate is overestimated. CUMMINGS, P.D., and CHANSON, H. (1999). "An
Overall the study demonstrates scale effects in small- Experimental Study of Individual Air Bubble Entrainment at
size laboratory models of plunging jets. Further studies of a Planar Plunging Jet." Chem. Eng. Research and Design,
the developing flow region should investigate air-water Trans. IChemE, Part A, Vol. 77, No. A2, pp. 159-164.
velocity distributions and turbulent velocity fluctuations. ERVINE, D.A., McKEOGH, E.J., and, ELSAWY, E.M.
(1980). "Effect of Turbulence Intensity on the rate of Air
Entrainment by Plunging Water Jets." Proc. Instn Civ.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Engrs, Part 2, June, pp. 425-445.
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the GRIFFIN, O.M. (1984). "The Breaking of Ocean
Australian Academy of Science, Japan Society for the Surface Waves." Naval Research Lab. Memo., Report No.
Promotion of Science and Ministry of Education, Japan. H. 5337, Washington, USA.
CHANSON and S. AOKI thank their students for help and HENDERSON, F.M. (1966). "Open Channel Flow."
assistance : T. McGIBBON and B. BOLDEN (Australia), MacMillan Company, New York, USA.
IWATA and KIDA (Japan). HOYT, J.W., and TAYLOR, J.J. (1977). "Waves on
Water Jets." Jl of Fluid Mech., Vol. 83, Pt 1, pp. 119-127.
KOBUS, H. (1984). "Proceedings of International
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