The Copperbelt University

School of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department

EE 220 – ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONIC

PRINCIPES I

2021/2022 Alternating Circuit Analysis

By Mr. Buchizya Kumwenda

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Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 3
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... 4
Alternating Circuit Analysis ........................................................................................................... 5
Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 5
Content ........................................................................................................................................ 5
1.0 Alternating Current (AC) Waveforms {Why sinusoidal over other periodic functions?} ... 6
1.1 Average values .................................................................................................................. 8
1.2 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value ...................................................................................... 9
1.3 Form factor and crest factor ............................................................................................ 10
2.0 Alternating current in passive elements – R, L and C ........................................................ 11
2.1 AC in purely resistive loads (R)...................................................................................... 11
2.2 AC in purely inductive loads (L) .................................................................................... 12
2.3 AC in RL series load ....................................................................................................... 13
2.4 AC in purely capacitive loads (C) ................................................................................... 15
2.5 AC in RC series load....................................................................................................... 16
2.6 AC in RLC series load .................................................................................................... 17
2.6 AC in parallel connected loads ....................................................................................... 20
3.0 AC power ............................................................................................................................ 20
3.1 Power dissipated by a purely resistive load .................................................................... 21
3.2 Power consumed by inductive loads ............................................................................... 22
3.3 Power in capacitive circuits ............................................................................................ 23
3.4 Apparent or Complex Power, S ...................................................................................... 24
4.0 Power factor: significance and correction ...................................................................... 26
5.0 Resonance ........................................................................................................................... 27
Tutorial Questions – AC circuit Analysis ................................................................................. 37

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Function Generators ........................................................................................................ 6
Figure 2. Coil voltage versus Angular Position .............................................................................. 6
Figure 3. Alternating system frequencies in practice...................................................................... 8
Figure 4. Instantaneous circuit (left), RMS circuit (right) – AC in purely R ............................... 11
Figure 5. 𝑣 and 𝑖 waveforms and phasor diagram ........................................................................ 11
Figure 6. Alternating current in an inductive circuit..................................................................... 12
Figure 7. 𝑣 and 𝑖 waveforms and phasor diagram ........................................................................ 13
Figure 8. a) Circuit diagram, b) phasor diagram, c) instantaneous phasor diagram and d) 𝑣 and 𝑖
waveforms for RL series AC circuit ............................................................................................. 14
Figure 9. Impedance triangle ........................................................................................................ 14
Figure 10. Capacitive AC circuit .................................................................................................. 15
Figure 11. 𝑣 and 𝑖 waveforms, and phasor diagram ..................................................................... 15
Figure 12. RC series circuit .......................................................................................................... 16
Figure 13. Phasors and waveforms for RC series AC circuit ....................................................... 16
Figure 14. RLC Series AC circuit ................................................................................................. 17
Figure 15. Phasor for Case 1:𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 yields 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 ............................................................ 17
Figure 16. Case 2:𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 yields 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 ............................................................................... 18
Figure 17. Case 3:𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 yields 𝑉𝐶 > 𝑉𝐿 ............................................................................... 18
Figure 18. Cases 4: 𝑋𝐿 ≫ 𝑋𝐶 yields 𝑉𝐿 ≫ 𝑉𝐶 ............................................................................ 18
Figure 19. Case 5: 𝑋𝐿 ≫ 𝑋𝐶 yields 𝑉𝐿 ≫ 𝑉𝐶 and 𝑅 ≈ 0 𝛺 yields 𝑉𝑅 ≈ 0 V ............................ 19
Figure 20. Case 6:𝑋𝐶 ≫ 𝑋𝐿 yields 𝑉𝐶 ≫ 𝑉𝐿 .............................................................................. 19
Figure 21. Case 7: 𝑋𝐶 ≫ 𝑋𝐿 yields 𝑉𝐶 ≫ 𝑉𝐿 and 𝑅 ≈ 0 𝛺 yields 𝑉𝑅 ≈ 0 V ............................ 20
Figure 22. Parallel circuit .............................................................................................................. 20
Figure 23. AC circuit with a resistance and reactance .................................................................. 20
Figure 24. Instantaneous power in a resistive circuit .................................................................... 22
Figure 25. Instantaneous power in a purely inductive circuit ....................................................... 23
Figure 26. Instantaneous power in purely capacitive circuit ........................................................ 24
Figure 27. S, P & Q Analogy ........................................................................................................ 25
Figure 28. Power triangle for Lagging p.f .................................................................................... 25
Figure 29. Power triangle for Leading p.f..................................................................................... 26
Figure 30. Correction of p.f .......................................................................................................... 27
Figure 31. Tuning and Filtering .................................................................................................... 27
Figure 32. AM radio broadcast Receiver ...................................................................................... 30
Figure 33. Series RLC circuit - Variable 𝑓 but constant R, L and C ............................................ 31
Figure 34. Variation of magnitude |I| and phase φ of current with frequency in a series RLC
circuit ............................................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 35. Bandwidth (BW) ......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 36. Selectivity curves......................................................................................................... 35

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Figure 37. The un-symmetrical selectivity curve ......................................................................... 35
Figure 9. ........................................................................................................................................ 37
Figure 10. Phasor diagram ............................................................................................................ 40
Figure 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 2. Correction of p.f ......................................................................................................... 44
Figure 11. Equivalent Circuit diagrams (before and after p.f. correction) ................................... 48
Figure 12. Phasor diagrams before and after p.f correction .......................................................... 49
Figure 13. Power triangle before and after power factor correction ............................................. 50
Figure 14 ....................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 15 ....................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 16 ....................................................................................................................................... 53

List of Abbreviations

A – Amperes

AC – Alternating Current

C – Capacitance

D.C – Direct Current

Hz – Hertz

𝑖 or 𝑖(𝑡) – instantaneous current

𝑰 – rms Current

L – Inductance

R – Resistance

RMS – Root Mean Square

𝑡 - time

𝑣 or 𝑣(𝑡) – instantaneous voltage

V – Volts

𝑽 – rms Voltage

W – Watts

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w.r.t – With respect to

𝜔 – angular frequency

X – Reactance

𝑋𝐶 – Capacitive reactance

𝑋𝐿 – inductive reactance

Z – Impedance

Alternating Circuit Analysis

Objectives

1. have an understanding of alternating currents and voltages

2. be capable of analysing the average and r.m.s. values of an alternating current whether
sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal
3. be capable of representing a sinusoidal quantity by means of a phasor
4. have an understanding of the effects of applying an alternating voltage across each of a
resistor, an inductor and a capacitor
5. have an understanding of impedance in a series and parallel a.c. circuit
6. be capable of analyzing circuits containing any form of series or parallel impedance
7. describe resonance and its applications

Content

1. Alternating current waveforms

2. Alternating current in passive elements
3. Power in Alternating current circuits
4. Power factor correction
5. Electrical resonance

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1.0 Alternating Current (AC) Waveforms {Why sinusoidal over other periodic
functions?}
The alternating current (AC) can be generated by AC generators, function generators and
inverters. Various AC waveforms may be created electronically using function (or signal)
generators. The advantage with function generators is that they are not limited to sinusoidal AC
gear. This is because they can produce a variety of variable-frequency waveforms, including
sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, and so on.

Figure 1. Function Generators

Alternating voltages can also be produced using DC power plants such as solar power plants.
The output voltage from the photovoltaic panels can be converted to AC using inverters. Sine
waves compared to other waveforms such as square or triangular are popularly applied in AC
systems because the system experiences less harmonics, less electrical noise, less interference,
easiest to generate. The mathematical justification is derived from the fact that the main
components that constitute an electrical system are resistors, inductors, capacitors and sources
whose current voltage relationship results in scaling, addition, subtraction, differentiation and
integration whose result is a sinusoidal. Therefore, the sinusoidal characteristic is not distorted in
these components, it only gets scaled and/or shifted. In comparison, the square and triangular
waveforms get distorted after performing these operations.

Figure 2. Coil voltage versus Angular Position

• 𝜃 is the instantaneous angular position of the coil

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 • The rate at which the generator coil rotates is called its angular velocity 𝜔 in rads/s

• 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡; 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

• (𝜔𝑡 + ∅) is the argument of the sinusoid

• ∅ is the phase angle in degrees

• 𝐸𝑚 : the maximum coil voltage, constant for a given generator and rotational velocity

• 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 when 𝜃 = 2𝜋 rads corresponds to 𝑡 = 𝑇seconds

2𝜋 1
• 𝜔𝑇 = 2𝜋 (rad); 𝜔 = rad/s; 𝑓 = Hz; 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑇 𝑇

Most electrical supplies operate at 50 Hz (Zambia) or 60 Hz (United States), with domestic

supplies at 110 V up to 230 V. However, the power is distributed at higher voltages such as 11
000 V and transmitted at such voltages as 330 kV. Currents can be anything up to a few thousand
amperes. The sounds we hear depend on frequency. We can produce sound by using electrical
signals between 15 Hz and 20 kHz, although not many of us can hear the upper limit. As the
frequencies increase, we find signals which can be used to transmit radio, television and other
communications information. In particular most of us are familiar with identifying radio stations
by a frequency between 80 and 108 MHz. Frequencies above and below this range are used for
television signals. Frequencies above 300 MHz are known as microwave frequencies. This range
can rise up to 300 GHz, thus we can experience remarkably high values of frequency in practice.
However, in most systems at high frequencies the voltages and currents are normally very small,
e.g. millivolts and microamperes. The ranges of frequency are indicated in Figure 3.

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 Figure 3. Alternating system frequencies in practice

1.1 Average values

The average value of a voltage and current waveform is the average of all the instantaneous
values of an alternating voltage and currents over one complete cycle. For symmetrical waves
like sinusoidal current or voltage waveform, the positive half cycle will be exactly equal to
negative half cycle. Therefore, the average value over a complete cycle will be zero. The average
value can be obtained using numerical methods and analytically. Numerical methods used
include the mid-ordinate, trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule.

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑−𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉1 +𝑉2 +⋯+𝑉𝑛

Mid-ordinate: 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑑−𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑛

1 𝑇
Analytically: 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇 ∫0 𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

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1.2 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value
The RMS or effective value of the alternating current is the steady current which, when flows
through a resistor of known resistance for a given period of time generates the same quantity of
heat as would be produced by that alternating current when it flows through the same resistor for
the same period of time.
Root Square
T 1 2
2
I RMS RT   i 2 (t ) Rdt  I RMS  i (t )dt
0 T
Mean

Alternatively, RMS value is the square root of means of squares of instantaneous values.
2 (𝑖12 +𝑖22 +⋯+𝑖𝑛
2)
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 ×𝑅 =𝑅× 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑛

(𝑖12 +𝑖22 +⋯+𝑖𝑛

2)
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = √ 𝑛
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠

Analytically, the mean of the squares of the instantaneous values of current over one complete
𝑇 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑇 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
cycle is ∫0 square amps. The square root of this value is √∫0 amps. This gives the root
𝑇−0 𝑇−0

mean square value as

1 𝑇
𝐼 = √𝑇 ∫0 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑠

For a sinusoidal waveform

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If say, you obtain 2 A magnitude when its phase angle is say -30°, then Irms = 2∠-30° A

1.3 Form factor and crest factor

Form factor and crest factor (peak factor) are used to give information about the actual shape of
the AC waveform.
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
For any waveform, the form factor is defined as 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ; equal to
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

0.707/0.637 = 1.11 for sine waves

𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
For any waveform, the peak or crest factor is defined as 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ; equal to
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

1/0.707 = 1.414 for sine waves

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2.0 Alternating current in passive elements – R, L and C
2.1 AC in purely resistive loads (R)

Figure 4. Instantaneous circuit (left), RMS circuit (right) – AC in purely R

If 𝑉𝑚 and 𝐼𝑚 are the maximum values of the sinusoidal voltage and current, respectively. If the
instantaneous value of the applied voltage is represented by 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡; we get;

 RMS voltage in polar form = 𝑽 = 0.707𝑉𝑚 ∠0°𝑉

 then instantaneous value of current in a resistive circuit is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
 RMS current in polar form = 𝑰 = 0.707𝐼𝑚 ∠0°𝐴
𝑽 0.707𝑉𝑚 ∠0°𝑉
• It follows that = = 𝑅 in ohms
𝑰 0.707𝐼𝑚 ∠0°𝐴

𝑣
• Also, 𝑖 = 𝑅 amps

• Figure …shows that the phase angle 𝜙 of the current phasor 𝑰 with respect to the voltage
phasor 𝑽 (i.e. the reference phasor) is equal to 𝜙 = 0°. The current and voltage
waveforms also reach their peak values at the same instant.

Figure 5. 𝑣 and 𝑖 waveforms and phasor diagram

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2.2 AC in purely inductive loads (L)

Figure 6. Alternating current in an inductive circuit

• 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝑓𝑡 (no phase shift for simplicity)

• Induced emf 𝑒 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑖⁄𝑑𝑡

𝑑(sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡)) 𝜋
• 𝑒 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑖⁄𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿𝐼𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝐼𝑚 sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 2 )
𝑑𝑡

N.B using chain rule

• instantaneous value of applied voltage is 𝑣 = 𝑒 (assuming purely inductive) 𝑣=

𝜋 𝜋
2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝐼𝑚 sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 2 ) = 𝑉𝑚 sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 2 )

• ∴ the applied voltage leads the current by a quarter of a cycle (90°) or Current lags the
voltage by 90°

• Current polar form 𝐼 = 0.707𝐼𝑚 ∠0°𝑉

• Voltage polar form 𝑉 = 0.707𝑉𝑚 ∠90°𝑉

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 Figure 7. 𝑣 and 𝑖 waveforms and phasor diagram

Inductive Reactance
𝑉𝑚
• Also, 𝑉𝑚 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝐼𝑚 ∴ = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝐼𝑚

• If 𝐼 and V are the r.m.s values, the ratio

𝑉 0+𝑗0.707𝑉𝑚 𝑗0.707𝑉𝑚
• = = = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝐼 0.707𝐼𝑚 +0𝑗 0.707𝐼𝑚

• 𝑿𝑳 = 𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑳 Ω termed as the inductive reactance.

2.3 AC in RL series load

Refer to Figure…

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅, where 𝑉𝑅 is in phase with 𝐼

𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑗𝑋𝐿 , where 𝑉𝐿 leads 𝐼 by 90°

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 (Phasor sum)

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Figure 8. a) Circuit diagram, b) phasor diagram, c) instantaneous phasor diagram and d) 𝑣 and 𝑖
waveforms for RL series AC circuit

Impedance of the circuit

1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2
• │𝑉│ = (𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 ) = (𝐼 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝐼(𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )2
2 2 2

1 1
• we get 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍 volts, where │𝑍│ = (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )2 = (𝑅 2 + 𝜔2 𝐿2 )2 ohms

• 𝑍 = │𝑍│∠𝜙 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 for RL series circuit

𝑉 𝐼𝑋 𝑋
• : 𝜙 = tan−1 (𝑉 𝐿 ) = tan−1 ( 𝐼𝑅𝐿) = tan−1 ( 𝑅𝐿) =
𝑅

𝑉 𝑅 𝑅
• cos−1 ( 𝑉𝑅 ) = cos−1 (𝑍 ) = cos−1 ( 1 )
(𝑅 2 +𝜔2 𝐿2 ) ⁄2

Figure 9. Impedance triangle

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2.4 AC in purely capacitive loads (C)

Figure 10. Capacitive AC circuit

Set voltage to have no phase shift

• 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑉𝑚 sin 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝜋
• 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑡 + 2 )
𝑑𝑡

• If I and V are the r.m.s. values, then

𝑉+𝑗0 1
• = 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝐶 = −𝑗𝑋𝐶
0+𝑗𝐼

• Where 𝑋𝐶 , is the capacitive reactance

Figure 11. 𝑣 and 𝑖 waveforms, and phasor diagram

• Current leads the voltage by 90°

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2.5 AC in RC series load

Figure 12. RC series circuit

• 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅, where 𝑉𝑅 is in phase with 𝐼

• 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼(−𝑗𝑋𝐶 ), where 𝑉𝐶 lags 𝐼 by 90°

• 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐶 (phasor sum)
1
• │𝑉│ = (𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2 )2
1
• │𝑉│ = (𝐼 2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐶2 )2

• 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑍, where │𝑍│ = (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2 ),

−𝑋𝐶
• 𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 , ∅ = tan−1 ( )
𝑅

Figure 13. Phasors and waveforms for RC series AC circuit

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2.6 AC in RLC series load

Figure 14. RLC Series AC circuit

1
2 1 2 2
• │𝑉│ = ((𝑅𝐼) + (2𝜋𝑓𝐿 − 2𝜋𝑓𝐶 ) )

│𝑉│ │𝑉│
• so that│𝐼│ = = ,
1 𝑍
√{𝑅 2 +(2𝜋𝑓𝐿−2𝜋𝑓𝐶)2 }

• Resultant reactance = inductive reactance − capacitive reactance,

𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶
• Thus, 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅 + 𝑗(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ), ∅ = tan−1 ( )
𝑅

Case 1:|𝑋𝐿 | = |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | = |𝑉𝐶 |

Figure 15. Phasor for Case 1:|𝑋𝐿 | = |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | = |𝑉𝐶 |

Case 2:|𝑋𝐿 | > |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | > |𝑉𝐶 |

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 Figure 16. Case 2:|𝑋𝐿 | > |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | > |𝑉𝐶 |

Case 3:|𝑋𝐶 | > |𝑋𝐿 | yields |𝑉𝐶 | > |𝑉𝐿 |

Figure 17. Case 3:|𝑋𝐶 | > |𝑋𝐿 | yields |𝑉𝐶 | > |𝑉𝐿 |

Cases 4: |𝑋𝐿 | ≫ |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | ≫ |𝑉𝐶 |

Figure 18. Cases 4: |𝑋𝐿 | ≫ |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | ≫ |𝑉𝐶 |

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Case 5: |𝑋𝐿 | ≫ |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | ≫ |𝑉𝐶 |

and 𝑅 ≈ 0 𝛺 yields |𝑉𝑅 | ≈ 0 V

Figure 19. Case 5: |𝑋𝐿 | ≫ |𝑋𝐶 | yields |𝑉𝐿 | ≫ |𝑉𝐶 | and 𝑅 ≈ 0 𝛺 yields |𝑉𝑅 | ≈ 0 V

Case 6:|𝑋𝐶 | ≫ |𝑋𝐿 | yields |𝑉𝐶 | ≫ |𝑉𝐿 |

Figure 20. Case 6:|𝑋𝐶 | ≫ |𝑋𝐿 | yields |𝑉𝐶 | ≫ |𝑉𝐿 |

Case 7: |𝑋𝐶 | ≫ |𝑋𝐿 | yields |𝑉𝐶 | ≫ |𝑉𝐿 |

and 𝑅 ≈ 0 𝛺 yields |𝑉𝑅 | ≈ 0 V

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Figure 21. Case 7: |𝑋𝐶 | ≫ |𝑋𝐿 | yields |𝑉𝐶 | ≫ |𝑉𝐿 | and 𝑅 ≈ 0 𝛺 yields |𝑉𝑅 | ≈ 0 V

2.6 AC in parallel connected loads

Figure 22. Parallel circuit

• 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉∠0 𝑉∠0 𝑉∠0 𝑉∠0
• =𝑍 +𝑍 +𝑍
𝑍∠−∅ 1 ∠−∅1 2 ∠−∅2 3 ∠−∅3

1 1 1 1
• =𝑍 +𝑍 +𝑍
𝑍∠−∅ 1 ∠−∅1 2 ∠−∅2 3 ∠−∅3

1
• 𝑌∠ ± ∅ = 𝑍∠∓∅ = 𝐺 ± 𝑗𝐵 = 𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠, 𝑆

• where 𝐺 = 𝑌𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ is the conductance and 𝐵 = 𝑌𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ is the susceptance

3.0 AC power

Figure 23. AC circuit with a resistance and reactance

20 | P a g e
 • If the instantaneous value of voltage is 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

• Assume phase angle to be ∅

• (range: −90° < ∅ < 90°)

• then instantaneous value of current is 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

• 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 . 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

1
• Use identity 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 2 {cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) − 𝐶𝑂𝑆(𝐴 + 𝐵)} & cos(−∅) =
cos(∅); 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 /√2 and 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 /√2
1
• 𝑝 = 2 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 {cos(−∅) − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + ∅)}

∴ 𝑝 = 𝑉𝐼 cos(∅) − 𝑉𝐼 cos(2ωt + ∅)

Note that 𝑉𝐼 cos(∅) is a constant while 𝑉𝐼 cos(2ωt + ∅) is variable

3.1 Power dissipated by a purely resistive load

∅ = 0° (Unity)
1 1
∴ 𝑝 = 2 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(∅) − 2 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2ωt + ∅) = 𝑉𝐼(1 − cos2ωt) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ωt Watts;

Note this oscillates twice as fast. see Figure 2

 The component 𝑉𝐼 is a constant while 𝑉𝐼cos2ωt is variable.

 The average value is referred to as Active Power P = 𝑉𝐼 Watts
 Active power is also known as True or Real power

21 | P a g e
 Figure 24. Instantaneous power in a resistive circuit

3.2 Power consumed by inductive loads

• 𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋 = |𝑍|∠∅,
𝑉∠0°
• 𝐼 = |𝑍|∠∅ = 𝐼∠ − ∅,(lagging phase angle)

• But we know from the operation of inductive loads that such loads absorbs reactive
power, therefore, 𝑄 should be positive

• So, in order to achieve this arithmetically, we use the conjugate of the current

• Thus, V𝐼 ∗ =(𝑉∠0°)(𝐼∠∅∗ )

• The product V𝐼 ∗ = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 + 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)

• There inherent resistance consumes P

• If it’s purely inductive, P = 0 W. Here phase angle between V and I is 900 lagging (phase
angle = - 900). The time average of p(t) is zero. see Figure...

22 | P a g e
 Figure 25. Instantaneous power in a purely inductive circuit

3.3 Power in capacitive circuits

• 𝑍 = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋 = |𝑍|∠ − ∅,
𝑉∠0°
• 𝐼 = |𝑍|∠−∅ = 𝐼∠∅, (leading phase angle)

• Since Capacitive loads generate reactive power, 𝑄 should be negative

• We use Conjugate of Current

• Thus, V𝐼 ∗ =(𝑉∠0°)(𝐼∠ − ∅)

• The product V𝐼 ∗ = 𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄 (𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 − 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)

• There inherent resistance consumes P

• If its purely capacitive, P = 0 W. Here phase angle between V and I is 900 leading (phase
angle = +900). The time average of p(t) is zero. See Figure ….

23 | P a g e
 Figure 26. Instantaneous power in purely capacitive circuit

3.4 Apparent or Complex Power, S

• The product of the voltage 𝑉 and the conjugate of the current 𝐼 ∗ in an a.c. circuit is
termed the apparent power S.

• 𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ in VA (volt-ampere)

• That is, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

• Since, 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ lies between 0 and 1; P ≤ S

• The ratio of the active power P to the apparent power S is termed the power factor pf,
𝑃 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
• pf = 𝑆
= 𝑆
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

• A value of p.f = 0% would mean all the power is supplied as reactive power;

• No motors would turn and no useful work could be accomplished

• Figure 5 is S, P & Q Analogy to give a practical real life examples to explain the above

24 | P a g e
 Figure 27. S, P & Q Analogy
• Ideal resistors only absorb active power, they neither absorb nor generate VARs (Q = 0
Var)

• Pure or ideal inductors do not absorb active power, they absorb VARs (Q > 0 Var)

• Pure or ideal capacitors do not absorb active power, they generate VARs (Q < 0 Var)

• In general, an inductive load draws a lagging current and absorbs reactive power while a
capacitive load draws a leading current and generates reactive power

• The relationship of powers in an AC circuit can be easily expressed in form of a power

triangle as shown in Figure 6 (for lagging p.f) and Figure 7 (for leading p.f) based on the
derivations above.

Figure 28. Power triangle for Lagging p.f

25 | P a g e
 Figure 29. Power triangle for Leading p.f

4.0 Power factor: significance and correction

Electric utility companies must supply the entire KVA demand but since a customer only
achieves useful work from the KW portion, a high power factor is important. However, most
useful electrical equipment like transformers, electric motors, welding units and static converters
consume reactive power. The problem is that; it

1. adds additional load to generators, transmission lines, transformers, switchgear and

cables

2. increases equipment Ratings, Sizes and Costs

3. causes a higher current flow for a given load

4. increases Loss of energy through heat dissipation, 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑡

5. increases voltage drops

Utility companies will provide a limited amount of reactive power at no cost. However,
customers with high reactive power loads are charged extra for the reactive component. When a
capacitor and an inductive device are installed on the same circuit, there will be an exchange of
magnetizing current between them, that is, the leading current taken by the capacitor neutralizes
the magnetizing current to the inductive device. The capacitor may be considered to be a
KILOVOLTAMP-REACTIVE (KVAR) generator, since it actually supplies magnetizing
requirements in the inductive device, see Figure...

26 | P a g e
 Figure 30. Correction of p.f

5.0 Resonance
• Tuning means obtaining resonance at different frequencies by varying either L or C.

• As illustrated in the Fig. below, the variable capacitance C can be adjusted to tune the
series LC circuit to resonance at any one of five different frequencies.

Figure 31. Tuning and Filtering

Series Band-pass Filter Circuits

27 | P a g e
 • A band-pass filter allows signals within a range of frequencies to pass

Resonant circuit Circuit response: Series resonance

Vin jX L  jX C
I Vout Vout
Gain =
Vin
R
1  (0dB)

0.707  (3dB)

Vout  RC
Here, Gain = 
Vin
 RC 2   2 LC  1
Consideration of frequency limits:
  0 rad/s (f  0 Hz)  Gain = 0 f1 fr f2 f(Hz)
  r rad/s (f  f r Hz)  Gain = 1
   rad/s (f   Hz)  Gain = 0
R r
BW  
L Q

Series Band-stop (Notch) Filter Circuits

• Obtained by taking the output across the resonant circuit, a band-stop (or notch or reject
or elimination) filter

Vin
I
Vout
Circuit response:
Stopband
Resonant jX L 1
circuit 0.707
 jX C

Vout  2 LC  1
Here, Gain =  f
 
Vin 2
 RC  2
  LC  1
2
f1 fr f2
Consideration of frequency limits:
  0 rad/s (f  0 Hz)  Gain = 1 R r
  r rad/s (f  f r Hz)  Gain = 0 BW  
L Q
   rad/s (f   Hz)  Gain = 1

28 | P a g e
Parallel Band-pass Filter Circuits

• Parallel band-pass or band-stop filters allows signals within a range of frequencies to pass

R
I
Circuit response:
Vin Vout
jX L  jX C Passband
1.0
Resonant 0.707
circuit
Vout L
Here, Gain = 
Vin
 2 RLC  R    L 2
Consideration of frequency limits:
f
  0 rad/s (f  0 Hz)  Gain = 0 f1 fr f2
  r rad/s (f  f r Hz)  Gain = 1
   rad/s (f   Hz)  Gain = 0  1
BW  r 
Q RC

Parallel Resonant Band-stop Filter

For the band-stop ‘notch’ or reject or elimination filter, the resonant circuit and resistance are
reversed as shown here.

 jX C Circuit response:
I Stopband
jX L 1
Vin Vout
R 0.707
Resonant
circuit

Here, Gain =
Vout


R 1   2 LC  f
 R  R 2 LC 
Vin 2
  L 
2
f1 f r f2
Consideration of frequency limits:
  0 rad/s (f  0 Hz)  Gain = 1  r 1
BW  r  
  r rad/s (f  f r Hz)  Gain = 0 Q r RC RC
   rad/s (f   Hz)  Gain = 1

The application is illustrated in Figure…

29 | P a g e
 Figure 32. AM radio broadcast Receiver
Majority of AC circuits except most telecommunication systems have constant supply voltage
and frequency. Resonance analysis examines instances in an ac series and parallel circuit where
the inductive and capacitive reactance are equal in magnitude, achieved usually by varying
frequency or value of capacitance. At series resonance, the impedance is a minimum while the
resultant current maximum. At parallel resonance, the impedance is maximum while the resultant
current minimum. Resonance effect is extremely important in communications, e.g. radio, it
allows us to select a desired radio or television signal from the vast number of signals that are
around us at any time. That is, a band-pass filter allows frequencies between two critical
frequencies and rejects all others. It can also be used as a rejector circuit or attenuator. That is, a
band-stop filter rejects frequencies between two critical frequencies and passes all others. Band-
pass and band-stop filters can be made from both series and parallel resonant circuits

30 | P a g e
 Figure 33. Series RLC circuit - Variable 𝑓 but constant R, L and C
• Inductive reactance increases linearly with frequency
• Capacitive reactance decreases with frequency (hyperbolically)

• The frequency at which the resultant reactant is zero is called resonant frequency fr
• At resonance, the impedance is then only the resistance
• The actual shapes and relative magnitudes of these curves depend on the actual values of R,
L and C in the series resonant circuit.

At f r : X L  X C
1 1
That is: r L  or 2 f r L 
r C 2 f r C
1
We get: f r  Hz
2 LC
1
or Angular frequency r  rad/s
LC

31 | P a g e
  
   1 
   L 
I
V

V   

V  1 C 
   tan  
Z  Z   2   R 
 1 
  R2    L     
   C   


I is maximum when  L 
1
C

, when the circuit is resistive   0 . 
V
Hence; I m 
R

An RLC series circuit accepts maximum current from the source at resonance and for that reason
is called an acceptor circuit

V V C
I 
 1   
 
2 2

CR    LC  1 
2 2
 R2    L  
  C    

 1 
 L    2 
C 1  LC  1
   tan 1     tan  

 R   CR 
 

Figure 34. Variation of magnitude |I| and phase φ

of current with frequency in a series RLC circuit

Quality factor Q or Voltage Magnification in series resonant circuit

32 | P a g e
 V 
At resonance: Vc  I m   jX C       jX C 
R
V  1 
Vc  V    QV
r CR  r CR 
1
where: Q  is the voltage magnification or Q factor
r CR
1 1 1 1
since  r L;   r L 
r C r C R R
1  L 1 L
Q  r 
r CR R R C
That is the Vc and VL are equals Q multiplied by the source voltage

At resonance:
reactive power
Q
active power
I2 X  L
For the inductor:  Q  m L  r
2 R
Im R
2
Im XC 1
For the capacitor:  Q  
2
Im R r CR
That is, at resonance, the reactive power is equal to Q times the active power

At resonance, the voltage across the inductor and capacitor is very much greater than the applied
voltage since Q is typically greater than 1. Therefore, it is always necessary to ensure that the
reactive elements used in a resonant circuit are able to handle the expected voltages and currents
to avoid damage.

a) At the resonant frequency, the inductor and capacitor transfer equal energy backwards
and forward between themselves equal to 1⁄2 𝐿𝐼𝑚 2
and 1⁄2 𝐶𝑉𝑚2, respectively

2
b) However, some energy is dissipated as 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 losses in the resistance of the circuit resulting
in damped oscillations

c) This has led to a more general definition of Q-factor as the ratio of the reactive power, of
either the capacitor or the inductor to the active power of the resistor at resonance

d) The lower the value of R, the lower is the power dissipated in the resistor. The value of Q
is in turn higher and the more defined is the resonance peak

33 | P a g e
Bandwidth (BW)

The bandwidth of a circuit is defined as the frequency range or band containing all frequencies
𝐼 𝑃
between the half-power points when I = 𝑚⁄ or P = 𝑚⁄2
√2
Since the current is maximum at resonance, it follows that the power must similarly be maximum
at resonance

The power response of a series resonant circuit has a bell-shaped curve called the selectivity
curve, which is similar to the current response

𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1, where the frequencies 𝜔2 and 𝜔1 are referred to as upper and lower half-power
or band or cut-off frequencies or -3dB point, respectively

Within the bandwidth frequencies, the current is greater than 70.7% of the highest resonant value

Frequencies within this range will appear at the output without significant amplitude or phase
change

In practice, high BW is obtained by operating at high frequencies

Figure 35. Bandwidth (BW)

Ideally (assuming symmetry) the center frequency 𝜔𝑟 is given by

𝜔1 +𝜔2 𝑓1 +𝑓2
𝜔𝑟 = or 𝑓𝑟 =
2 2

Selectivity defines how well a resonant circuit responds to a certain frequency and discriminates
against all other frequencies. The narrower the bandwidth, the steeper the slope, and the greater
the selectivity. The wider the bandwidth of a circuit, the lower the selectivity

34 | P a g e
 Figure 36. Selectivity curves

Figure 37. The un-symmetrical selectivity curve

The BW is narrower for higher values of Q when the selectivity is high. It can be observed that
the selectivity curve is not perfectly symmetrical on both sides of the resonant frequency. As a
result, 𝜔𝑟 is not exactly centered between the half-power frequencies. However, as Q increases,
we find that the resonant frequency approaches the midpoint between 𝜔1and 𝜔2

In general, if Q > 10, then we assume that the resonant frequency is at the midpoint of half-
power frequencies

35 | P a g e
 resonant frequency
BW 
Q-factor
V V
Im   Q
R r L
Q

Current, Phase and Impedance at Half-power Points

At maximum power when   r :

V 2 V2
Im  ; Pm  I m R
R R
At half-power when   1 and   2
2
I2R  I 
P1  P2  m   m  R  I 2 R
2  2
I V
where I  m   
2 R 2
R  R 
where    cos 1    cos 1    45
Z R 2
  45 for 1 (  r ) when Z  R(1  j ) : capacitive and
  45 for 2 (  r ) when Z  R(1  j ) : inductive

Actual Values of Half-Power Points

  L 1 
From Z  R 1  j   ;
  R CR  
L 1 1  L
@ half-power :   1; and from Q   r
R CR r CR R
Thus, expressing the above in terms of  , r and Q
 L  1  1   Q r Q   r 
We get:         1  Q     1
 R    CR  r   r  
    1
For 2 : Q  2  r   1 or 2  r  r 1
 r  2  2Q 4Q 2
   r 1
For 1 : Q  1  r   1 or 1   r 1
 r 1  2Q 4Q 2
 resonant frequency
For which BW=2  1  r = ; and also; 12  r2
Q Q-factor

36 | P a g e
 f f
We know that BW  f 2  f1.....eq(1) and that f r  1 2 ......eq(2)
2
using eq(2), making f1 the subject gives f1  2 f r  f 2
and substituting in eq(1), we get
BW
BW  f 2   2 f r  f 2   2  f 2  f r  or f 2  f r 
2
BW
And also; f1  f 2  BW  f r 
2

Tutorial Questions – AC circuit Analysis

QT1.

Consider the network in Figure 9.

I2 1 
4 j2 
I1

I5
I3 2
 j2 

Vs
j6   j2 
j4 
I4 I7
I6
 j2 

Figure 38.
Where the instantaneous supply voltage is given by

case 1. vs  t   16 2 sin  2 f  t V, f  50 Hz

case 2. vs  t   20 2 sin  2 f  t V, f  50 Hz

i. Determine the rms values (in phasor representation) of all the branch currents.
[13 marks]
ii. Draw one phasor diagram that shows the relationship of all the branch currents,
include the voltage supply voltage phasor. [10 marks]
iii. Write the instantaneous expression for the supply current (I1) and state, therefore, the
overall power factor. [2 marks]

37 | P a g e
Case 1. vs  t   16 2 sin  2 f  t V, f  50 Hz

I2 1 
4 j2 
I1

I5 1
I3 2 I3  4.159  8.97  1.8654.4 A
 j2  2.236  63.4
I 2  I1  I3  3.025  j 2.161  3.718  35.5 A
Vs  j2
j6   j2  I 6  1.63  20.2  1.63  20.2 A
j4  j2
I7 j4
I4
I6 I 7  1.63  20.2  3.26  20.2 A
j2
 j2 

1  j 2
 0.8  j 0.4 
I1 1 j2

4  j2 4.472  26.6
I 4  I1   4.159  8.97
I5 6  j4 7.211  33.7
I 4  2.58  1.87 A
I5  I1  I 4  1.53  j 0.564  1.63  20.2 A
Vs 2  j 6  j1  2  j 4 

 j4   j2 
I4 4  j2     4  j2 
 j4  j2 

1  j 2
I1 1 j2
 0.8  j 0.4 
I1 
16 2  2  0 V  4.159  8.97 A
3.8478.97 

Vs  2  j 4  4  j 2   3  j1 
2  j4  4  j2 Vs Z eq  3.8478.97 

Zeq  0.8  j 0.4  3  j1  3.8  j 0.6  3.8478.97 

power factor cos   cos  8.97   0.988 lagging
is  t   4.159 2 sin  2 f  8.97  V, f  50 Hz

Case 2. vs  t   20 2 sin  2 f  t V, f  50 Hz

38 | P a g e
 I2 1 
4 j2 
I1

I5 1
I3 2 I3  5.2  8.97  2.3354.4 A
 j2  2.236  63.4
I 2  I1  I3  3.78  j 2.705  4.648  35.6 A
Vs  j2
j6   j2  I 6  2.04  20.2  2.04  20.2 A
j4  j2
I4 I7 j4
I6 I 7  2.04  20.2  4.08  20.2 A
j2
 j2 

1  j 2
 0.8  j 0.4 
I1 1 j2

4  j2 4.472  26.6
I 4  I1   5.2  8.97
I5 6  j4 7.211  33.7
I 4  3.22  1.87 A
I5  I1  I 4  1.918  j 0.706  2.04  20.2
Vs 2  j 6  j1  2  j 4 

 j4   j2 
I4 4  j2     4  j2 
 j4  j2 

1  j 2
I1 1 j2
 0.8  j 0.4 
I1 
 20 2  2  0 V  5.2  8.97 A
3.8478.97 

Vs  2  j 4  4  j 2   3  j1 
2  j4  4  j2 Vs Z eq  3.8478.97 

Zeq  0.8  j 0.4  3  j1  3.8  j 0.6  3.8478.97 

power factor cos   cos  8.97   0.988 lagging
is  t   5.2 2 sin  2 f  8.97  V, f  50 Hz

The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 10.

39 | P a g e
 I3

Vs
I4

I5 where
 I2
I1  I 2  I3  I 4  I5
I1
I6 I5  I 6  I 7

I7

Figure 39. Phasor diagram

QT2.

For the circuit shown in Figure 1.

Figure 40
i. Find the circuit impedance. [3]
ii. Determine the active and reactive power consumed in each branch, the power
triangle and overall power factor. [4]
iii. Draw the phasor diagram showing the relationship of all the branch currents
and the voltages. [3]
iv. State the need for power factor correction. [1]
v. Provide power factor correction to achieve unity power factor showing the
modified circuit diagram, phasor diagram and desired specifications/ratings of
the added element. [4]
Solution:
40 | P a g e
 I1 Z1

I2 Z2 Z4
A B C Z eq
I

I3 Z3

V  1000 V
V

Circuit connection

Figure 2
Z AB  0.625  23.2 ; Z BC  0.89463.4 
A)
Zeq   Z1 / / Z 2 / / Z3   Z 4  1.1229.5 

V
I  89.329.5 A
Z eq
VAB  IZ AB  55.9  52.6 V
V
I1  AB  10.4  120.8 A
Z1
V
I 2  AB  50.310.8 A
Z2
V
I3  AB  55.9  52.6 A
Z3

Active and reactive power consumed in each branch

due to I1; S1  VAB I1*  581.3668.2 VA  215.9 W  j 539.8 VAr

due to I 2 ; S2  VAB I 2*  2811.77  63.4 VA  1259 W  j 2514 VAr
due to I3 ; S3  VAB I3*  3124.80 VA  3124.8 W  j 0 VAr
due to I across BC; S4  VBC I 4*  7126.1463.4 VA  3190.8 W  j 6371.9 VAr
Total consumption: ST  VI *  893029.5 VA  7772 W  j 4397 VAr

41 | P a g e
 A
30V
9
S 8 jQ  4397 VAr

P  7772 W

Power triangle

Figure Q3ii)

p. f  cos   cos(29.5)  0.87 lagging

I2

V  1000 V

  29.5 VBC
I1
I3

VAB Phasor diagram

Importance of power factor correction

• reduces loading to generators, transmission lines, transformers, switchgear and

cables
• reduces equipment Ratings, Sizes and Costs
• reduces magnitude of current flow in the network
• reduces Loss of energy through heat dissipation, 𝐼2 𝑟𝑡. Improves the overall
efficiency
• reduces voltage drops, improves the voltage profiles at the buses or nodes in the
network
• Utility companies that install equipment to correct the power factor and starts
consuming less reactive power have a reduced tariff. It therefore reduces the cost
of using electrical energy and overall cost of production (increases profits)

42 | P a g e
 Figure. Correction of p.f

I Z eq

I new V  1000 V
IC
  29.5 IC
I new

Phasor diagram
V I

I new  89.3cos(29.5)  77.460 A

B) I C   j89.3sin(29.5)  43.9  90 A
V 1
 jX C    j 2.28 ; C  = 1.396 mF; -jQC   j 4397 VAr
IC 2 (50)2.28

QT3.

A) Three loads connected in parallel draw a total of 2.4 kW at 0.7 pf lagging from a
120-V rms, 50-Hz line. One load absorbs 0.5 kW at a 0.45 pf lagging and the
second load absorbs 1 kW at unity p.f.
i. Highlight the importance of power factor correction. [1.0]
ii. Draw a well labelled circuit diagram, the equivalent phasor diagram and
power triangle. Include the computed currents and impedance values.
[2.5]

43 | P a g e
 iii. A power factor correction element is added to attain a unity power factor.
Adjust the phasor diagram obtained in part (ii) and provide the circuit
diagram derived from the new phasor diagram that shows the added
element. [2.0]
iv. Specify the rating of the element connected in part (iii). [2.0]
SECTION A Solution to Q2A

i. Importance of power factor correction [1]

• reduces loading to generators, transmission lines, transformers, switchgear and
cables
• reduces equipment Ratings, Sizes and Costs
• reduces magnitude of current flow in the network
• reduces Loss of energy through heat dissipation, 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑡. Improves the overall
efficiency
• reduces voltage drops, improves the voltage profiles at the buses or nodes in the
network
• Utility companies that install equipment to correct the power factor and starts
consuming less reactive power have a reduced tariff. It therefore reduces the
cost of using electrical energy and overall cost of production (increases profits)

Figure 41. Correction of p.f

ii. Equivalent circuit, phasor diagram and power triangle [2.5]

44 | P a g e
 IS  28.6  45.6 A I3  14.3  58 A IS  28.6  45.6 A

I1  9.25  63.6 A
V  1200 V
V  1200 V I 2  8.3330 A

Z3  3.72158  Z3

Z 2  14.40 
Z1  1363.3 

S  I *V   28.583  45.6 120

S  P  jQ  2.4 kW+j 2.45 kVAr Circuit

 p.f.  cos(45.6)  0.7 lagging

V  1200 V
63.3
  45.6
Phasor diagram

I1
I2
Is 58
I3

VA
A .45 p.f
. 45 V 3
S = 3 7 p.f S = 0.7
@ 0. @
+jQ = +j2.45 kVAr
-jQ = -j2.45 kVAr
  45.6
*
  45.6
*

P = -2.4 kW P1 P2 P3
0.5 kW 1 kW 0.91 kW
Power Triangle (Supply side)
Power Triangle (Load side)

iii. Adjusted phasor diagram to correct the power factor to unity [2]
IS  20.0240 A I C  20.412  90 A
Is
V  1200 V   0 V  1200 V
28.6  45.6 A
63.3 IC
Phasor diagram
Z3  jX C   j 5.879 
I1
I2 58
I3

The required element is a capacitor bank since the supply current lags the voltage, the
capacitor will provide additional reactive power required to make the supply current
attain an angle equal to the voltage angle (in phase).

iv. Rating of capacitor bank (C in farads and –jQ in vars) [2]

45 | P a g e
The current through the capacitor bank is obtained by the sum of the imaginary
components of the three load currents.

I C  I1 cos 1  I 2 cos 2  I3 cos 3   j 20.412 A

The reactance, capacitance and reactive power rating is

V 1
jX C    j 5.879   C   541  F
IC 2  50  5.879  [2]
 jQC   j 2.45 kVAr

QT4.

A) Consider a circuit in Figure 1b.

10sin t L  0.2 mH C  8 F
R  8 k

Figure 1b
i. Define resonance and state its applications. [1.5]
ii. Derive the expression for the frequency at which the circuit resonates and
determine its value and the power dissipated. [2]
iii. Determine the quality factor, bandwidth and the half power frequencies and the
power dissipated at the half power frequencies. [4]
SECTION A. Solution to Q1(B)

i. The most prominent feature of the frequency response of a circuit may be the
sharp peak (or resonant peak) exhibited in its amplitude characteristic. The
concept of resonance applies in several areas of science and engineering.
Resonance occurs in any system that has a complex conjugate pair of poles; it is
the cause of oscillations of stored energy from one form to another. It is the
phenomenon that allows frequency discrimination in communications networks.
Resonance occurs in any circuit that has at least one inductor and one capacitor.
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and inductive
reactances are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting in a purely resistive
impedance. Resonant circuits (series or parallel) are useful for constructing
filters, as their transfer functions can be highly frequency selective. They are
used in many applications such as selecting the desired stations in radio and TV
receivers. [1.5]

46 | P a g e
ii. The resonant frequency is derived below
1 1 1  1 
The admittance is Y   jC    j  C 
R j L R   L 
Resonance occurs when the imaginary part of Y is zero. Thus,
1 1 
joC   0  o   25 krads/s or f o  o  3.98 kHz [1]
jo L LC 2
1
At   o ; Y  or Z  R  8 k , the parallel LC part of the circuit acts like an
R
open circuit. Thus, the current flows only through the resistance.
10 
V  
2
Applying rms values, I  = =0.884 mA
R 8k
P  I 2 R   0.884 mA  8 k   6.25 mW
2
[1]

R
iii. The quality factor, Q   1600 ; [1]
o L

Bandwidth, BW  o  15.625 rads/s [1]
Q
Half-power frequencies
BW
lower cut; 1  o   24992 rads/s
2
[1]
BW
upper cut; 2  o   25008 rads/s
2
V2 102
At   1, 2 ; P  m = =3.125 mW [1]
4 R 4  8k 

QT5.

A single-phase motor takes 10 A at a power factor of 0.776 lagging when connected to a 230V,
50 Hz supply. A capacitor bank is connected in parallel with the motor to raise the power factor
to 0.95.

a) Calculate the motor equivalent impedance, the currents in the circuit, and draw the phasor
diagram before and after power correction. [9 marks]
b) Draw the power triangle before and after power correction. [6 marks]
c) Calculate the kVar rating of the capacitor bank and the value of equivalent capacitance.
[5 marks]
d) State five (5) benefits of adding a capacitor bank to the above circuit based on the
information obtained from parts a, b and c of the question. [5 marks]

47 | P a g e
QT6

a) We start by drawing the equivalent circuits diagram, shown in Figure 11, indicating all
branch currents and if necessary the voltage drops

Io Where;

V = supply voltage
V
I mr I o = supply current before p.f. correction
Z mr Zmr = the motor equivalent impedance at the
stated frequency
Imr = the current drawn by the motor

Before power factor correction

In Node 1
Where;

V = supply voltage
V IC Imr = I o
In = supply current after p.f. correction
-jX Z mr Zmr = the motor equivalent impedance at the
C
stated frequency
Imr = the current drawn by the motor

-jXC = capacitive reactance

IC = the current drawn by the capacitor bank

After power factor correction

Figure 42. Equivalent Circuit diagrams (before and after p.f. correction)
Case 1. Before power factor correction

48 | P a g e
p. f0 .  cos 0  0.776 lag  0.776  0  cos 1  0.776   39.1  39.1 lag
I mr  I mr 0  10  39.1 A
V 2300 V
Z mr    2339.1  (polar) or Z mr  17.8  j14.5  (rectangular)
I mr 10  39.1 A
It is interesting to note that the motors equivalent impedance has a positive reactance. This is
the reason it takes a lagging power factor. In addition, there is only one path, therefore, the
supply current is equal to the current drawn by the motor
 I 0  I mr  10  39.1 A

Case 2. After power factor correction

p. f n .  cos n  0.95 lag  0.95  n  cos 1  0.95   18.2  18.2 lag

The active power generated before and after power factor is equal P  V I o cos o  V I n cos n W
Making the new supply current I n the subject, and accounting for the phase angle
 I cos o  1  10  0.776   
In   o    cos n       18.2  8.17  18.2 A
 cos n   0.95 
By KCL at node: I c  I n  I mr  8.17  18.2  10  39.1  3.7690   j3.79 A
As can be illustrated in Figure 12, the phasor diagram before power factor correction for this
example will compose of only the supply current phasor (= motor current) and supply voltage
phasor (= motor terminal voltage drop). After power factor correction, motor current is no longer
equal to the supply current. This is because the capacitor bank will draw some current and the
sum of the capacitor current and the motor current yields the supply current. We note that the
motor current maintains the value as before due to the terminal voltage not changing. The
essence of power factor correction is not to change the normal performance of the motor but to
reduce the supply current so as to reduce the system losses (𝐼 2 𝑟), voltage drops, size of supply
etc. with the help of the capacitor bank. This is noted by the decrease in the supply current from
10∠39.1° A to 8.17∠18.2° A
o
V = Vmr o -18.2 = ϕ n V = Vmr= Vc o
o 0 ϕ =ϕ
0
Φo= -39.1 reference line o n In reference line

Ic
o
Φo= -39.1 o
90
I0= Imr I0= Imr
After power factor
Before power
correction
factor correction

Figure 43. Phasor diagrams before and after p.f correction

49 | P a g e
 b) Power triangles

Case 1. Before power factor correction

p. f0 .  0.776 lag  0  39.1  39.1 lag

  
So  VI o*  2300o V 10  39.1 A  2300  39.1  1785 W  j1451 Var
It is interesting to note that the motor consumes both active and reactive power. The active power
is consumed due to its resistance while the reactive power due to its inductance.
Case 1. After power factor correction

p. f n  0.95 lag  0  18.2  18.2 lag

  
Sn  VI n*  2300o V 8.17  18.2 A  1879.1  18.2 VA  1785 W  j587 Var

It can be observed that the generated active power does not change because the addition of
a capacitor bank (assumed ideal) does not consume additional active power. However, the
reactive power generated by the supply reduces since the capacitor bank generates the
extra in order to maintain the initial reactive power which the motor consumes under normal
operation.

This can be seen in Figure 13.

*
Φo So
So -jQ
c
Q jQ
mr mr
Sn
o
* 39.1 o -jQn
Φ= *
Φn= 18.2
P P

Before power factor correction After power factor correction

Figure 44. Power triangle before and after power factor correction
c) kVar rating of the capacitor bank

Since the new reactive power generated is 𝑗587 𝑉𝑎𝑟, and the old reactive power generated by
the supply was is 𝑗1451 𝑉𝑎𝑟 (the reactive power consumed by the motor), the capacitor bank
should be rated so as to generate the difference. That is

−𝑗𝑄𝑐 = 𝑗𝑄𝑛 − 𝑗𝑄𝑚𝑟 = 𝑗587 − 𝑗1451 = −𝑗864 𝑉𝑎𝑟 = −𝑗0.864 𝑘𝑉𝑎𝑟

50 | P a g e
 The equivalent capacitance is found using (from the circuit diagram):

V V 2300 V j
Ic    jX c     j 61.17    jX c    j 61.17 
 jX c I c 3.7690 A 2 fC
1
C   52.03  F
2 (50)(61.17)

d) At an improved power factor, it has been shown that it

6. reduces load requirements to generators, transmission lines, transformers,

switchgear and cables as it takes up the reactive power load requirements

7. reduces equipment Ratings, Sizes and Costs e.g. cables

8. reduces current flow for a given load

9. reduces loss of energy through heat dissipation, 𝐼 2 𝑟𝑡

10. reduces voltage drops in the network

QT7

A circuit is composed of loads connected to a 60 Hz supply such that the resulting phasor
diagram is shown in Figure 14.

I  870 A

VS  ???

V3  2060 V

V1  30  60 V
V2  200 V

Figure 45
a). Draw a well labelled circuit diagram, derived from Figure 12. Include the computed
impedance values. [5
marks]
b). A power factor correction element is added to attain a unity power factor. Adjust the
phasor diagram and provide the circuit diagram derived from the new phasor diagram
that shows the added element.
[5 marks]

51 | P a g e
 c). Provide the rating of the added element in part (ii). Include the power triangle in the
working.
[10
marks]
d). Outline at least five (5) reasons for improving the power factor based on the solutions
above.
[5 marks]

Solution

a) The circuit connection is series as shown in Figure 15. This is because the same current
flows through all the elements and that their voltage drops are different.

I  870 A I

VS  56  9.2 V Z1 V1

VS  ???
V3  2060 V Z2 V2

V1  30  60 V
V3
V2  200 V Z3

Where;
VS  V1  V2  V3  55.974  9.23 V
V1 V V
Z1   3.75  130 ; Z 2  2  2.5  70 ; Z3  3  2.5  10 
I I I

Figure 46
b) To achieve a unity power factor, the phasor diagram has to become, Figure 16.

52 | P a g e
 I

I1  870 A I1  I
79.2 VS V1 IL
Z1
IL
9.2 0
90
90
Z2 V2 jX L
I
VS  56  9.2 V
V3  2060 V

Z3 V3
V1  30  60 V
V2  200 V

Where; I  8cos  79.2    9.2  2.564  9.2 A

I L  I  I1 or 8sin  79.2    99.2  7.58  99.2 A
V
jX L  S  7.38490  j 7.374 
IL
XL 7.374
L   19.56 mH
2 f 2  60

Figure 47

The VAr rating is 7.58 Ar × 55.974 V = 424.28 Var

c) refer to above
d) refer to the solution for Question Four (Test_day) part d.

QT8

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