Programming Basics for Kids

What is C++ Programming and Basic Concepts to

Better Understand C++

By

A.G Farrell
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Table of contents
INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO C++

1.1 Background of C++

1.2 C++ Programming

1.3 Constants

1.4 Data Type

1.5 Variables

1.6 Programming Examples

1.7 Exercise Sets

CHAPTER 2: HOW TO WRITE A C++ PROGRAM

2.1 Expressions

2.2 Statements

2.3 Programming Examples

2.4 Exercise Sets

CHAPTER 3: CONCEPT OF “FUNCTIONS” IN C++

3.1 Structured Programming and Designing

3.2 Functions in C++

3.3 Default Parameter Arguments

3.4 Programming Examples

3.5 Exercise Sets

CHAPTER 4: SELECTION-MAKING
4.1 Logical Data and Operators
4.2 Two Way Selection

4.3 Multiway Selection

4.4 Menu Program, C++

4.5 Programming Examples

4.6 Exercise Sets

CHAPTER 5: CONCEPT OF “ARRAYS” IN C++

5.1 Using Arrays in C++

5.2 Arrays and Functions

5.3 Array Applications

5.4 Sorting

5.5 Programming Examples

5.6 Exercise Sets

CONCLUSION
Introduction
C++ is a computer programming language widely used for general-purpose
programming. It is an extension of C-language. The basic understanding of
C++ can be acquired from C. That’s why both computer languages are
represented as C/C++. Bjarne Stroustrup developed this multi-paradigm
language in 1979.
In today’s world, many operating systems use C++ as their basic language.
Some system drivers, browsers, and games are based on C++ programs. It is
a free-form, compiled, and statically-typed programming language. Many
professionals believe that C++ is the most efficient language to achieve the
desired results.
In this book, I have covered all the essential basic concepts for beginners. It
is a step by step guide, which makes sure the understanding of C++
programming. First of all, there is a need to know the structure and syntax of
C++, along with the basic expressions. Then, it guides the major “Functions”
such as mathematical manipulation and Standard Library. Moreover, there
are complete guidance about the selection making of operators and logical
data, concepts of Arrays, Pointers, Classes and Strings in C++.
While there are so many great programming languages, but C++ is the most
favorite owing to have the privilege of the first Object-Oriented Programming
language. Nowadays, there are several high-level languages with simple
syntax and user-friendly options. Still, programmers can’t deny the
importance of C++ because of its huge number of open-source libraries, wide
applications, and highly fast run-time performance.
This guide is specially designed for beginners who want to learn C++ in a
very few days. You will discover this language by making your programs
while reading this book.
Chapter 1: Introduction to C++
In the following chapter, we will discuss about the evolution of computer
programming languages and their evolution from machine languages.
As we know C++ is a high-level language. We’ll discuss the concepts of
C++, in this chapter. Moreover, you will be able to write your first program,
after going through this chapter, i.e. “Hello World”. Furthermore, you’ll
understand the concepts of Constants, Variables, Data types and some of the
operators that may help you writing and understanding a C++ program.
1.1 Background of C++
C++ is considered a properly structured programming language, that’s why
this is so popular. C++, as you know, is a high level language because it
allows a programmer to concentrate on the problem at his hand, without
worrying about the system that the program may be using. There are many
languages who claim to be system or machine independent but C++ is one of
the best among them.
Like many other languages, C++ is basically derived from ALGOL, which
was the first language to have a structure. ALGOL was developed in the early
1960s and it made a path for structured programming and its concepts. Very
first work in ALGOL was done by two scientists name as Guiseppe Jacopini
and Corrado Bohm. Both of them published a research in 1960 which defined
a thorough idea of structured programming.
In 1967, a computer scientist named as Martin Richards designed a language
designed a programming language; he named Basic Combined Programming
Language aka. BCPL. In 1970, Ken Thompson developed a language, known
as “B”. Following him, Dennis Ritchie, in 1972, developed the concept of
language “C”.
Following all the concepts from the languages, ALGOL, BCPL, B and C,
Bjarne Stroustrup, developed C++ in mid 1980s.

1.2 C++ Programming

Now, when you know about the background of C++, i guess, you’ll be eager
to write your first program. This section will let you know the basic parts of a
C++ program, so that you’ll be able to write your very first program.
How to write a C++ program

Firstly, we need to understand, the “Global Declaration”. Your program is

considered a little world; a world of computer universe. So, we may start our
program with global declaration.
Secondly, only one function, in your program must be named as “main”.
Main is the starting of the basic program, after global declaration. Main can
have two kinds of code;
Declaration

Declaration is considered the data that you may use to justify or write your
program or function. If you declare something in a function, it’ll be known as
“Local Declaration”. We call them local declarations because the are read,
only be the function itself.
Statements

Statements are some commands to the machine, that is using the program.
Statements cause the machine to perform the actions, such as adding or
subtracting numbers, multiply them, taking their average etc.

Simple Program

We know that C++ allow us to make declarations and statements at the same
time, but, everytime, we should write a program, which should be well
organized so that any other programmer or even the machine could
understand it fast. This is the reason, we follow the language C’s concepts of
organization. The concept states that one should perform declaration first and
statements second. Moreover, most of the times, one should use comments
for the identification of the sections; Declarations and Statements.
A C++ program is a mixture of two components main (Main) and fun
(function). In other words, function is called or used by main. Usually, we
write the code for the “main”, first. After that, we’ll code the function and
sub functions, in their order.
Moving forward, there is another concept; concept of preprocessor directives
or precompiler directives. These are some statements which give instructions
to a compiler or processor to execute the program in a unique pattern.
A statement which is globally used as a preprocessor directive is, “include”.
This statement allows the compiler to extract some data from global libraries,
known as header files. Without these header files or libraries, you will not be
able to write even a single program, because it’ll be so complex to write the
commands even for your input or output. Even, you will need an “include”
command, to write your very first program. This will be used to instruct C++
that you will be in need for the input and output libraries, so that you may
print your desired data to the console screen.

Hello World

Your first C++ program is going to be very straightforward. It will include

just one precompiler directive and no global or local declaration would be
made. It will just display a greeting to the user on a console screen. Because
this program is not so complex, it will contain only two statements; first, to
display a greeting, the second one would be used to terminate our program.
We will write the precompiler directive in the very beginning of our program.
Precompiler directives must start with a number sign i.e. “#”, in any C++
program. The syntax for our precompile directive would be:
#include <iostream.h>
In this precompiler directive, we may write # first and there should be no
space between “#” and “include”. Statement “include” will include the
concerned library in your program, which will be mentioned in the pointed
brackets “<>”.
In the following statement, “iostream” is a short form for “input output
stream” and “.h” is to represent header file.
Moreover, we’ll use another statement in our program which is:
using namespace std;
For understanding this statement, we have to consider a classroom with a boy
and a girl; sharing the same name and class, but having different functions.
So, when you will call their name, both will respond. The very same
confusion can be a part of programming, as if there is a function named as
“poi()” and in some other library there is another function named as “poi()”,
your compiler would not be able to identify your desired function. To
overcome this difficulty we usually use this statement.
Moving forward, our program’s executable part would be starting with a
function header, such as:
Int main (void)
For this statement, we have to understand that the “int” states that this
specific function will send back an integer value to the machine or operating
system.In the concerned statement, our function’s name is “main” and it has
no specific parameters, as we have voided the parameter list with “(void)”.
Now, there are two more statements, with first, we will be able to print our
desired data. And with the second, we will be able to terminate the program.
cout << “Hello world”;
This statement is used to display or print the desired data, in this case “Hello
World”. This statement uses an operator “<<”, this operator allows us to print
or display data in our console. This statement contains inverted commas “”.
Whatever, you will be writing in these commas, will be displayed in your
console.
Finally, the program will be terminated with a statement:
return 0;
This statement will simply end the program and will hand over the control to
operating system again.
Now, if you need to write your program, you’ll need a compiler first. There
are many compilers available, online and offline, to execute your code in
C++. if you need to compile your code offline Turbo C++ and Dev C++ are
highly recommended and if you need to compile your code online, you may
search for any online C++ compiler.
Typically, the first program is known as “Hello World”, but we’ll change the
odds. We will be writing our first program as “Hello to the world of C++!”.
So if you have a compiler now, you are all set to write your very first
program. We’ll start with header files and then the body of program and we
will terminate it with our termination statement.
So, our your first program should look something like this:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "Hello to the world of C++!";
return 0;
}

When you’ll execute this program, there will be a console screen popping up
with the text:
Hello to the world of C++!
We’ve already written our first program so now, we will be discussing some
more important concepts of programming in C++.
1.3 Constants
The concept of constants in programming is very similar to the concept of
constant in Mathematics. Constants are the values or data which remains
unchanged during the execution of a code or program.
In this section, we will define different types of constants in programming

Integer Constants

First thing first, integers are stored in binary formation. You’ll code integers,
as you use them in your daily routine, for example you will code eight simply
as 8.
The following table will show you different integers, their values in
programming and their data types.

Value in programming Number Data Type

98 +98 int

-865 -865 int

-68495L -68495 long int

984325LU 984325 Unsigned long int

Character Constants

Whenever, you’ll find an integer, closed between two single apostrophes, this
would be character constant. Moreover, there is a chance that you’ll find a
backslash “\” between those apostrophes.
For most machines, ASCll character set is used, i.e.
 ASCII Characters Symbolic Display

Null character “\0”

newline ‘\n’

horizontal tab ‘\t’

alert (bell) ‘\a’

backspace ‘\b’

form feed ‘\f’

vertical tab ‘\v’

single quote ‘\’’

backslash ‘\\’

carriage return ‘\r’

Float Constants

Float constants are stored as two parts in memory as float constants are
numbers having decimal parts. The first part, they obtain in memory is
significand and the second is exponent.
Float constant’s default type is “double”. You must write a code to specify
your desired data type, i.e. “float” or “long double”. We may remember that
“f” or “F” is used to represent float and “l” or “L” is used to represent long
double.
In the following table, some of the examples of float, double and long
double.are shown:

Value in Programming Number Data Type

 .0 0.00 double

0. 0.00 double

3.0 3.0 double

5.6534 5.6534 double

-3.0f -3.0 float

5.6534785674L 5.6534785674 long double

Boolean Constants

These constants are predefined keywords and they can not be defined or
declared by the programmer. It has two predefined constants, “True” and
“False”. In programming, we represent this kind of constant as “bool”.
Programming Constants

In this part, we are going to understand different programming constants, and

ways to write and define constants in a C++ program. Usually, there are three
types of programming constants.
 Defined Constants

A way to define a constant in a C++ program is to use a precompiler

statement “define”. Like every other precompiler directive, it starts with a
“#”. For example, a traditional precompiler directive for “define” would be:
#define TABLE_SIZE 150
Define directives are usually placed in the beginning of the program, so that
anyone reading your program, can find them easily.
Memory Constants

Another way to code constants is by using a memory constant. These

constants use a C++ type qualifier to remember that the specified data can not
be changed.
C++ programming provides us with an ability to define named constants. We
just have to add type qualifier in our code, before constant. For example:
Code:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
#define val 50
#define floatVal 9.7
#define charVal 'K'
int main()
{
cout << "Integer Constant in our code: " << val << "\n";
cout << "Floating point Constant in our code: " <<
floatVal << "\n";
cout << "Character Constant in our code: "<< charVal <<
"\n";
return 0;
}

Output:
In the case of this code, a console screen will pop up with the output:
Integer Constant in our code: 50
Floating point Constant in our code: 9.7
Character Constant in our code: K

Literal Constants

Literal constant is a constant which is unnamed and used to specify your

desired data. As we know constant can not be changed so we just have to
code its data value in a statement.
Literal constant is the most common form of constant. Here is a table to show
different kind of literal constants

Values Type

‘C’ Character Literal

7 Numeric Literal 7

C+8 Another Numeric Literal (8)

5.6534 Float Literal

Hello String Literal

1.4 Data Type
A data type defines a set of operations and values that have the ability to
apply on the concerned values. For example, a switch of a light bulb can be
compared to a computer system as it has two different values; True as On,
and False as off. Since the bulb switch contain just these two values, we can
consider its size as two. There are just two operations that can be done with a
bulb switch:
We can turn it On
We can turn it Off

In a C++ program, functions have their own unique types. Usually, a

function's type is specified by the data it returns. C++ usually contains five
standard data types:
void (Void)
Int (Integer)
char (Character)
bool (Boolean)
float (Floating Point)

void (Void)

In C++, void has no operations or no functions. In simpler words, both the set
of operations and the set of values are empty. It is a very useful data type in
programming although it seem unusual. Typically, it is a generic data type
that can represent any other standard data types.
int (Integer)

In C++, integer is a number without having a fraction part, we usually call it

an integral number. Our concerned language supports three types of integers
as its data types:
short (Short Integer)
Int (Integer)
 long (Long Integer)

C++ allows us to use an operator “size of”, that may tell us the size of our
data types. Whenever, we are coding in C++, we should keep this statement
in mind:
sizeof (long int) => sizeof (int) => sizeof (short int)
char (Character)

We usually think of characters as the alphabet or numbers, but programming

has its another definition. By this definition a character can be any number,
value or symbol that can be represented by the machine or computer’s
alphabets.
Moreover, we have to remember that C++ usually treat characters as an
integer because it uses memory as an integer i.e. between 0 to 255.
 bool (Boolean - logical data in C++)

Boolean data types has two functions, True and False. Traditionally, a zero is
considered as false and any non-zero part is considered as true.
float (Floating Point)

Float data type or floating point is usually a data type having a fractional part.
When coding in float data type, we should always consider this statement:
sizeof (long double) => sizeof (double) => size of (float)
We may think that the data type, float and data type, integer are the same, but
there are many differences as the “float” is always declared in a C++
program.

Data Implementations
Types

Void void

Integer Unsigned short int, unsigned int, unsigned long int, short int,
int, long int

Character char

Floating float, double, long double

point

Boolean bool
1.5 Variables
Variable, in C++ are memory locations, having different data types, such as
character or integers. Variables are manipulatable and changeable because the
use a set of different operations.

Variable Initialization

By using an initializer, we can declare and initialize a variable at the very

same time. Basically, initializer set up the variable’s very first value. Usually,
an identifier is followed by a “=” sign to first initialize and then define a
variable’s initial value, when the function starts. Simple syntax of
initialization is:
Int count = 0
Moving forward, we have to keep in mind that whenever a variable is
defined, it is not automatically initialized. The programmer should be the one
to initialize any variable, when the program starts.

Variable Declaration

Every variable, in a program, must be defined and declared. In C++, we use

Definition to create different objects and we use Declaration to name those
objects. Whenever a programmer creates a variable, definition reserves
memory for it and definition assigns it a symbolic name. Variables, when
assigned, hold data that is required by the program to fulfil its task.
In C++, multiple variable of the similar types can be declared in a single
statement. Many programmers use this technique but we won’t be
recommending this as this is not a good programming technique. This
reduces the efficiency of program and the efficiency for the execution process
of compiler.
1.6 Programming Examples
Problem 1
We read about the ASCII character set, print your desired character ASCII
values from A to Z.
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main ()
{
char a;
cout << "Enter your desired character to print its value: ";
cin >> a;
cout << "According to ASCII character set, value of " << a <<" is : "
<< (int)a;
return 0;
}
Output:
When you will execute this program, a console screen will pop up with this
text:
Enter your desired character to print its value:
You simply have to type your desired alphabet to print its value. Let's say you
want to print the value of “G”. Simply type “G” and press “Enter” key. Your
program will print the value of “G” according to ASCII character set. It will,
somehow, look like this:
According to ASCII character set, value of "G" is : 71
Problem 2
Write a program in C++ that uses five output statements to print the pattern
shown below.
A
AA
AAA
AAAA
AAAAA
Solution
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "A"<< endl;
cout << "AA"<< endl;
cout << "AAA"<< endl;
cout << "AAAA"<< endl;
cout << "AAAAA";
return 0;
}
Output:
When you execute this code, a console screen will pop us with your desired
pattern, i.e.
A
AA
AAA
AAAA
AAAAA
1.7 Exercise Sets
Write a C++ Program by using “cout” or output statements to print
the initials of your name in block letters. Program should not read
any alphabet from your keyboard. Each letter should be formed by
using seven columns and five rows, using the letter itself. For
example if your name is “Faheel”, your output should be
something like this:

FFFFFFF
F
FFFF
F
F

Write a C++ program to read an integer, character and floating

point. Program should print each of these on a separate line.

Simply, Write a code in C++ that allows the user to enter three
numbers and them it prints those numbers vertically (one in a
line), first, in ascending order and then in descending order, as
Shown in below example:

Output:
First, your console should print a line saying:

Please enter any three random numbers:

After entering numbers, let's say 10, 50, 17, it should print:

Your numbers in ascending order:

10
17
50
Your numbers in descending order:
50
17
10
Chapter 2: How to write a C++ program
C++ have three unique features that sets it apart from most of the
programming languages:

Expressions
Pointers
Classes

In this chapter we will discuss the very first of these concepts, i.e.
Expressions. We have already used expressions in Mathematics, but the way
to use expressions is unique to “C++” and its precursor “C”. The concept of
expressions is tied to the concept of precedence, operators, statements and
associativity.

2.1 Expressions
Expression, in a C++ program, is a sequence of operators and operands that
eventually reduces to a single value. For example, 10 * 2.
In the following example, the expression reduces to 20. In C++, final value
can be of any data type, other than void.

Operators

Operators are the language specific syntactical tokens that require some
action to be performed. Many operators are derived from the concepts of
Mathematics. For example “Sign of Multiplication (*)” is an operator used in
C++. It multiplies two numbers.
Every programming language has unique operators to perform unique
operations.

Operand

For any defined operator, there may be one or more than one operands.
Operand has to receive any operator’s action. In above example, (10 * 2),
Multiplier and Multiplicand are the operands of Multiplication.
There is no limit of operand sets and operators to form an expression. The
only rule is that when program will evaluate the expression, the answer
should be a single value, that may represent the expression.

Primary Expressions in a C++ Program

In C++, most initiatory kind of expressions are Primary Expressions.It

contains just one operand and no operator. We have to remember that
operand can be a name, parenthetical expression or a constant in Primary
Expression.

Names

It is an identifier which defines a function, a variable or any other object in

C++.

Constants

Another type of primary expressions are Constants.Constants are the pre

recognized or declared data whose value is unchangeable during the
compilation and execution of a program.

Parenthetical Expressions

Last kid of primary expression is parenthetical expression.It is a primary

expression because its value is always reducible to a single value. So, the
complex expression in a parenthetical expression may be bound to make it a
primary expression.
 Binary Expressions in C++

Binary expressions in C++ are typically formed by operand-operator-operand

relation. These expressions are the most common. Any two numbers
subtracted, multiplied, divider or added are written with the operator between
two operands. Or may be in algebraic expressions. Most common types or
binary expressions are:

Additive Expressions
First type of binary expressions is additive expressions. In this kind of
expression, second operand is added to the first operand or the second
operand is subtracted from the first operand. It depends upon the operator,
that is used. These kinds of expressions use parallel algebraic notations for
example, a + 18 and b - 90. Here are two sample programs to show such kind
of expressions:

For Addition:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Declaration of integers
int firstinteger, secondinteger, sum;
// Printing input and output commands
cout << "Enter any integer: ";
cin >> firstinteger;
cout << "Enter another integer: ";
cin >> secondinteger;
// Sum of two integers is stored in the variable "sum"
sum = firstinteger + secondinteger;
// Printing sum of first and second integer
cout << firstinteger << " + " << secondinteger << " = " << sum;
return 0;
}
For Subtraction:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Declaration of integers
int firstinteger, secondinteger, sub;
// Printing input and output commands
cout << "Enter any integer: ";
cin >> firstinteger;
cout << "Enter another integer: ";
cin >> secondinteger;
// Subtraction of second integer from first is stored in the variable "sub"
sub = firstinteger - secondinteger;
// Printing the subtraction of second integer from first integer
cout << firstinteger << " - " << secondinteger << " = " << sub;
return 0;
}

Multiplicative Expressions

This expression is known as multiplicative expression because of its first

operator, i.e. Multiplication. We consider it on top, in binary expressions. Its
value is calculated as the product of two operands, i.e. 5 * 2 = 10.
In such expressions, division is a little more complex. In division if both
operands are integers, the result would be the integral value of quotient. It
would be expressed as an integer, i.e. 5 / 2 = 2. Here are two sample
programs to show such kind of expressions:
For Multiplication:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Declaration of integers
int firstinteger, secondinteger, mul;
// Printing input and output commands
cout << "Enter any integer: ";
cin >> firstinteger;
cout << "Enter another integer: ";
cin >> secondinteger;
// Product of two integers is stored in the variable "mul"
mul = firstinteger * secondinteger;
// Printing sum of first and second integer
cout << firstinteger << " * " << secondinteger << " = " << mul;
return 0;
}

For Division:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
// Declaration of integers
int firstinteger, secondinteger, div;
// Printing input and output commands
cout << "Enter any integer: ";
cin >> firstinteger;
cout << "Enter another integer: ";
cin >> secondinteger;
// Integral value of quotient in division of first integer and second integer is
stored in the variable "div"
div = firstinteger / secondinteger;
// Printing the subtraction of second integer from first integer
cout << firstinteger << " / " << secondinteger << " = " << div;
return 0;
}

Assignment Expressions
Assignment expression is an expression which usually evaluates the operands
on the right side of an equation and automatically places its value to the
variable on the left side.There are two types of assignment expressions:

Simple Assignment

Simple assignment is a form of assignment expressions which is present in

the form of algebraic expressions such as x = 60 , y = n + 20 , z = x + y.
The thing to remember, in a simple assignment, is that the left operand should
be a single variable. In such expressions, the value of the right side is
evaluated and it becomes the value of the entire expression. In the following
table there are some examples of simple assignment and how its value is
calculated.

Expression Value of Value of Value of Result of

“n” “m” Expression Expression

n = m -1 20 15 14 14

n = m + 20 20 15 35 35

n=m*0 20 15 0 0

Compound Assignment

Compound assignment is considered as a shorthand writing for the simple

assignment. In this case, left operand should be repeated in the right side.
To evaluate a compound assignment, machine first changes it into simple
assignment and then performs the operations to identify the final result of the
expression.
In the following table, it is shown that how a compound assignment is
converted into a simple assignment:

Compound Assignment Simple Assignment

n %= m n=n%m

n /= m n=n/m

n *= m n=n*m

n -= m n=n-m

n += m n=n+m

In the following table there are some examples of compound assignment and
how its value is calculated.

Expression Value of Value of Calculation of Result of

“n” “m” Expression Expression

n %= m 20 15 n=(20/100)* 15 3

n /= m 20 15 n = 20 / 15 1.33

n *= m 20 15 n = 20 * 15 300

n -= m 20 15 n = 20 - 15 5

n += m 20 15 N = 20 + 15 35

In C++, we use compound assignments as:

For Addition:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int n = 5, m = 2;
//Compound assignment expression n += m means n = n + m
n += m;
 cout << n << endl;

return 0;
}

For Subtraction:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int n = 5, m = 2;
//Compound assignment expression n -= m means n = n - m
n -= m;
cout << n << endl;

return 0;
}

For Multiplication:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int n = 5, m = 2;
//Compound assignment expression n *= m means n = n * m
n *= m;
cout << n << endl;

return 0;
}

For Division:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int n = 5, m = 2;
//Compound assignment expression n /= m means n = n / m
n /= m;
cout << n << endl;

return 0;
}
 Postfix Expressions

In C++, postfix expressions operates just after the primary expression,

followed by an operator.

Function call

Function call is an elementary component in structured programming.

Function call is basically a postfix expression.In such expressions, operand is
the function’s name and it follows its operator. We have to remember that
function call always have some value so it can be used in other expressions,
except from void.

Postfix Increment and Postfix Decrement

Both postfix increment (n++) and postfix decrement are postfix operators.
Usually every program, in C++ require the value 1 to be added in its variable.
In most of the programming languages, this can be done in binary
expressions.
C++, on the other hand provides its programmer an ability to code this in
both binary as well as unary expressions.
In postfix increment, the variable increases its value by 1. So, “n++” is
calculated as the variable “n” being increased by “1”. This expression is
similar as assignment expression:
n++ means that n = n + 1
On the other hand, postfix decrement (n--) also have values and results but in
this case, machine reduces your variable (n) by 1 i.e. n - 1.

Postfix Value of n Evaluation of Value of n

Expressions (Before) Expression (After)

n-- 20 20 - 1 19

n++ 20 20 + 1 21
For Postfix Increment:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int n, a;
cout <<"Enter any integer: ";
cin >> n;

a = n++;

cout << "Post Increment Operation:"<<endl;

// Value of a will not change

cout << "a = " << a << endl;

// Value of n will change after execution of a=n++;

cout << "n = " << n;

return 0;
}

For Postfix decrement

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int n, a;
cout <<"Enter any integer: ";
cin >> n;

a = n--;

cout << "Post Increment Operation:"<<endl;

// Value of a will not change

 cout << "a = " << a << endl;

// Value of n will change after execution of a=n--;

cout << "n = " << n;

return 0;
}
2.2 Statements
In C++ any action performed by a program is caused by statements. It
translates the executable commands into machine language. In C++ there are
six kinds of statements:

Expression statement
Compound Statement
Labeled Statement
Iterative Statement
Selection Statement
Jump Statement

Most important among them is compound statement and expression

statement. We will be discussing these two statements in this section.

Expression Statement

In C++, any expression can be turned into a statement, by placing a

semicolon “;” after it. Whenever a C++ compiler sees a semicolon, it
evaluates the value of expression, saves it in variable and discards it before
compiling the next argument or statement. Just consider an expression
statement to be:
n = 69
It means that the vale of this expression is 69. The compiler will save the
value 69 in the variable “n”. After storing 69 in “n”, compile will terminate
this expression and will discard its value. Then compiler will continue to the
next statement. However, the value of “n” will remain stored in “n”.

Example Program:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
 // declaration statement
int n = 69, m;
cout << "Enter the value of m: ";
cin >> m;
// expression statement
n = n + 1;
// expression statement
std::cout << "n = " << n << '\n';
// return statement
return 0;
}
A bit more complex statement in expression statements can be:
n = m = 69;
This statement consists of two statements. If we factorize this statement, we
will see the expressions clearly
n = (m = 69);
The compiler will assign the value 69 to “m” during the compilation process.
After evaluating “m”, the compiler will terminate and discard the value of
“m” and then will start to calculate the value of “n”. After the compiler’s
execution of this statement, 69 will stored in both the variables “m” and “n”.
Moving forward, consider a postfix expression as an expression statement,
i.e.:
n++
In this expression, the value of expression is 69. It is also the value of our
variable “n”, before it is increased by 1.When the compiler will execute the
statement, the value of the variable “n” will be 70. But the value of the
expression, i.e. 69, will be terminated.
Moreover, we have a special type of expression statement known as null
expression. This expression statement has no value and no side effect and this
can be very useful in some compex statements. Null expression is represented
as a single semicolon.
;

Compound Statement
In C++, a compound statement is a coding unit consists of some statements or
no statement. We may also call compound statement; a block. This statement
allows many statements to execute as a single unit. While writing your first
program, you used a compound statement, i.e. while writing the body of the
function main. In C++, every program has a compound statement in it, which
we call function body.
Every compound statement have some parts in it, i.e.

Opening Brace “{”

Declaration and Definition (Optional)
Statement Section (Optional)
Closing Brace “}”

As we mentioned that declaration, definition and statement section is

optional, but one one them must be present in your compound statement.
Otherwise, there won’t be any need of a block.

As for your first program, the compound statement was:

{ // Opening Brace
cout << "Hello to the world of C++!"; // Statement
return 0; // Return Statement
} // Closing Brace

We have to remember that, semicolon, after this statement is not needed. If

you place a semicolon after the closing brace, compiler will consider it a
syntax error.
Furthermore, we have to remember that we may declare and define a
statement anywhere in a block but it makes the program so difficult to read
and understand. Declaration and definition of a statement on the top of the
block is considered a good programming technique. It allows a programmer
to read, understand, rewrite and maintain a C++ program easily. We may also
put comments “//” in a block to remember the statements. For example:

{ // Opening Brace
// declaration statement
int n = 69, m;
cout << "Enter the value of m: ";
 cin >> m;
// expression statement
n = n + 1;
// expression statement
std::cout << "n = " << n << '\n';
// return statement
return 0;
} // Closing Brace

2.3 Programming Examples

Problem - 1
Your program must read four integers from the keyboard, calculate their sum
and their average and it should print the answer on the screen.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{

float n, m, o, p, sum, average;

cout << "Enter first number: ";

cin>>n;

cout << "Enter second number: ";

cin>>m;

cout << "Enter third number: ";

cin>>o;

cout << "Enter fourth number: ";

cin>>p;

sum=n+m+o+p;
 average=sum/4;

cout << "The sum of " << n << " and " << m << " and " << o << " and "
<< p << " is: " << sum << endl;
cout << "The average of " << n << " and " << m << " and " << o << "
and " << p << " is: " << average << endl;

Output:

When you execute this program, a console screen will pop up with a line:
Enter first number:
After entering your desired number, let's say “69”, the program will ask for
the second number:
Enter second number:
After entering your second number, which is “69”, as well, the program will
ask for the third number:
Enter third number:
Consider you entered 69 again, as the third number.Program will demand the
fourth number:
Enter fourth number:
Just say that you entered 69 again, as the fourth number.
Your program will add all of your entered numbers and then divide their sum
on 4. After calculating It will print:

The sum of 69 and 69 and 69 and 69 is: 276

The average of 69 and 69 and 69 and 69 is: 69

Problem-2

Your program must read the temperature in Celsius and change it into
Fahrenheit, using the following equation:
Celsius = (100 / 180) * (Fahrenheit - 32)

Solution:
We have to convert this formula manually to find the amount of Fahrenheit.
So from
Celsius = (100 / 180) * (Fahrenheit - 32)
We may Calculate:
Celsius = (5 / 9) * (Fahrenheit - 32)
(9 * Celsius) / 5 = (Fahrenheit - 32)
((9 * Celsius) / 5) + 32 = Fahrenheit
Fahrenheit = ((9 * Celsius) / 5) + 32
Now, using this formula, we may write our program.

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{

float fa, ce;

cout << "Enter the temperature in Celsius : ";
cin >> ce;
fa = ((9.0 * ce) / 5.0) + 32;
cout << " Your entered temperature in Celsius : " << ce << endl;
cout << "Temperature in Fahrenheit : " << fa << endl;
return 0;
}

Output:
When you execute this program, a console screen will pop up saying:
Enter the temperature in Celsius :
After putting your desired temperature, let's say 78, the program will
calculate according to the formula and will give out the output as:

Your entered temperature in Celsius : 78

Temperature in Fahrenheit : 172.4
2.4 Exercise Sets

Write a program that reads a measurement in Inches and print the

values in

Foot i.e. 12 Inches

Centimeter i.e. 2.54 / inch
Meter i.e. 39.37 Inches
Yard i.e. 36 Inches

Write a program that reads length and width of a rectangle from

user and calculates the area of the rectangle.

Write a program that should read the temperature in Fahrenheit

and change it into Celsius, using the following equation:

Celsius = (100 / 180) * (Fahrenheit - 32)

Chapter 3: Concept of “Functions” in C++
We were learning the very basic concepts of C++ till now. The programs, we
made were able to perform one, two or a very few tasks, at one time. They
were not able to perform too many tasks, simultaneously.
Now, if we consider a larger program, we can not deal with it without
breaking it into sub parts.
For example, you have to visit all the museums of some city in a week and
then you have to make a report of them. What would you do!

You will gather data about the museums

You will calculate the distance between museums
You will make a route that would suit you
You will estimate your time

Now, programming of the larger programs follow the same process. At first,
you need to understand what the problem is. Then, you may break your larger
program into smaller parts or modules. This programming style, basically, is
known as structured Programming.
3.1 Structured Programming and Designing
In Structured programming, it is defined that a program must be divided into
a few modules and it can be further subdivided into many other modules.
In this chart, we may learn about how structured programming works:

First of all, we have a program that we have to develop. In this case, we break
it into two parts, i.e. Module A and module B. Moving forward, Module B is
sub dividen in two sub modules, Module B-1 and Module B-2.
So, we can think that Module B-1 and Module B-2 are the smaller parts of
Module B and Module A and Module B are the sub modules of a larger
program.
Our program will work by calling different modules. For example, if we want
module A to send data to module B, Both modules will communicate through
the main program. We have to remember that direct communication between
two modules is not possible if they don't have a calling-called relationship.
Moreover, a module, in structured programming can be called by only one
higher module. This allows data to pass through a function and this technique
is known as parameter passing.
3.2 Functions in C++
In C++, module and submodules are known as functions. In every C++
program, there should be one or more functions and one of them must be
main. Main is the key function, your program must start and end on main and
main can call other functions, if necessary.
A function is an independent module, that is called to perform some specific
tasks. In C++, function can return a value to the caller. In a program, main is
called by the OS (operating system), after that main is responsible for calling
other functions. When main performs its task, the control then returns back to
the operating system.
Generally, the task of a function is to receive data, works on it and returns it
in a compiled form. With its pros, function can have side effects as well. A
function can change the state of a program.as it may reduce efficiency of a
program. Moreover, receiving and returning data to an outside source and to
change any variable’s value can be a function’s side effects.
C++ provides a large use of functions in it as functions can be used to
factorize a program. Secondly, functions can be helpful if you want to use the
same function in many parts of your program. For example, if you want to
calculate the average of five random numbers. So instead of coding all the
time, you may develop a function and can call it, whenever you need it.
To understand the coding for functions, we may have a look on this code:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Function declaration
int mul (int,int);

// Main Function
int main()
{
// Function Call
cout<<mul(1,99);
return 0;
}
/* Function is defined after the main method */
int mul(int num1, int num2){
int num3 = num1*num2;
return num3;
}

User Defined Functions

Functions must be declared and defined, like any other object in C++. In
C++, we can declare a function by the declaration of prototype. The
definition of a function contains a code to perform some specific tasks. We
may understand it with this example:

#include <iostream>
// Declaration of Prototype
Int mul (int, int)
Int main ()
{
// Local declarations
………….
// Statements
………….
// Calling of a function can be done in statements
cout<<mul(1,99);
………….
………….
return 0;
}
// Definition of a function is done after the calling function
int mul(int num1, int num2)
{ // Statements
int num3 = num1*num2;
return num3; // Multiplication
}

Function Definition
The definition of a function is based upon the code for a function. In C++, it
has two parts:

Function Header
Function Body

Function body is a compound statement, We have to keep in mind that every

complex statement must have an opening brace, declarations, statements and
closing brace. The definition of function should be like:

// Function Header
return_type function name (parameter list)

// Function Body
{
// Local Declarations
………….
// Statements
………….
// Function Name
…..
……….
}

Function Header

A function header has three parts:

Return Type
Function Name
Parameter List

A semicolon is not allowed on the end of it, otherwise, there will be a syntax
error.
In function header, if the return type is not perfectly coded, the compiler will
assume it an integer. If you are not returning anything in your code, you have
to code the return type as void.
 Function Body

Generally, a function body has two main parts; Declarations and Statements.
It starts with local declarations and the declaration of variables. Following the
declarations, statements are coded. Statement section ends with a return
command. If a function is returning a void-type, It can be written without a
return command, but it is a good practice to still use it.
For Example:

// The function’s return type have to be defined

int one (...)
{
………….
………….
………….
return (n + 69);
} // First

void two (...)

{
………….
………….
………….
// We have to use a return statement, even if nothing is returned
return;
} // Second

In the above example, the function “one” is declared to return an integer, so

its return statement have the expression (n+69).When this statement is
compiled, this expression is calculated and the result is returned.
For function “two”, it returns nothing. Void is its return type, so it doesn't
need any return statement. In this case, it is executed just with a semicolon.

Prototype Declaration

Prototype declarations contain no code and consist of only a function header.

Prototype headers are also consist of three parts:
 Function Name
Parameter List
Return Type

Unlike the function headers, prototype declarations are terminated with a

semicolon. In a C++ program, it is placed before main, in global declaration
area.
For parameters, C++ does not require any identifier names, but readability
and understandability is increased is you use names for them. We have to
remember that if types are not the same, you will receive a syntax error
because compiler checks types before compiling a code, so they have to be
compatible.
We have to remember that:

Formal parameters are the variables which are declared in

the function header.
Formal parameters and actual parameters should have the
same data type, number and order. However, their names can
differ.
Actual parameters are the expressions in function body’s
calling statements.

An example for prototype declaration is:

Int add(int 1, int 2);

Function Call

In C++, function call is always a postfix expression. We have to remember

that in primary expressions, postfix expressions are on the highest level. So,
if a function is used by a larger program, compiler will calculate and execute
it first, until we command it to perform some different tasks first.
In a function call, operand is the function name, which consists of actual
parameters. These parameters evaluates and decides the values that are to be
sent to call our desired function.
For example:
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
double n, m;
cout << "Enter your desired number: ";
cin >> n;
// sqrt() - function to calculate square root
m = sqrt(n);
cout << "Square root of " << n << " = " << m;
return 0;
}

In another example, we can understand it clearly:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// Prototype declaration of a function
int add(int, int);
int main()
{
int n, m, o;
cout<<"Enters first number: ";
cin >> n;
cout<<"Enters second number: ";
cin >> m;
// Function call
o = add(n, m);
cout << "Sum of your desired numbers = " << o;
return 0;
}
// Function definition
int add(int a, int b)
{
int add;
add = a + b;
// Return statement
 return add;
}

Void Functions with no Parameters

Any function without parameters should be called with empty parentheses.

We have to remember that these parentheses are the function call operators,
as shown below
Hello ();
In the above mentioned example, the function hello receives nothing and
returns nothing as well. It has a side effect, that it displays a message. This
function is just called for that side effect. For example:

#include <iostream>
// Function Declaration
Hello (void);
Int main (void)
{
//Statements
……
// Function call
Hello();

return;
}

// Function Definition
void Hello(void)
{
cout<<”Hello to C++”
return;
} // Greeting print

Void Functions with Parameters

Now there is another function that can return void type and have parameters.
In the example, given below, our function Printints receives two parameters,
in integer type. It returns nothing to main, so its type is void. Typically, it is
called stand alone postfix as it does not return any value. We have to
remember that Printints returns no value, so its side effect allows it to print
both integers on screen.

Function Example

Problem:
Write a program which reads an integer from user and prints the least
significant (right most) digit.

Solution:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Prototype Declarations
int n (int m);
int main ()

{
cout << " Enter an integer: ";
int m;
cin >> m;
int digit = n (m);
cout << " Least Significant digit is: "<< digit << endl;

return 0;
} // main
/* ============= First Digit =================*/
// This function extracts the least significant
// Digit of an integer
// Pre "m" contains an integer
// Post Returned least significant digit
int n (int m)
{
 return (m % 10);

} // First Digit
3.3 Default Parameter Arguments
C++ provides us with the capability to define default values for the
parameters. In C++, default values are used as the initializers. When such a
function is called, compiler uses default values to initialize the compilation
process. We have to remember that coding of default parameters in the
prototype statement of a function provides more efficiency and
documentation to the function. For Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void display(char = '*', int = 1);
int main()
{
cout << "No Argument passed: ";
display();

cout << "First Argument passed: ";

display('#');

cout << "Both Arguments passed: ";

display('$', 5);
return 0;
}
void display(char c, int n)
{
for(int i = 1; i <= n; i++)
{
cout << c;
}
cout << endl;
}

3.4 Programming Examples

Problem - 1
Write a C++ code to determine whether the entered number is even or odd.

Solution:

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int v(int); // function prototype
int main()
{
int n;
cout<<"Enter a number: ";
cin>>n;
if (v(n)) // function call by value
cout<<n<<" is even";
else
cout<<n<<" is odd";
return 0;
}

int v(int m) // function definition

{
int w;
if (m%2 == 0)
w=1;
else
w=0;
return w;
}
Output:

When you will compile this code, a console screen will pop up with a text:
Enter a number:
If you enter an even number, let’s say 68, screen will show:
68 is even
And, if you put an odd number, let's say 69, your screen will display:
69 is even
Problem - 2

Write a C++ program using functions to swap two values.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
#include <conio.h>
using namespace std;

void swap(int &, int &); // function prototype

int main()
{
int n,m;
cout<<"Enter your first number: ";
cin>>n;
cout<<"Enter your second number: ";
cin>>m;
cout<<"Your Numbers, Before swapping: "<<endl;
cout<<"First Number = "<<n<<endl;
cout<<"Second Number = "<<m<<endl;
swap(n,m); // function call by reference
cout<<"Your Numbers, After swapping"<<endl;
cout<<"First Number = "<<m<<endl;
cout<<"Second Number = "<<n<<endl;
getch();
return 0;
}

void swap(int &v, int &w) // function definition

{
v=v+w;
w=v-w;
v=v-w;
}
Output:
When you’ll compile this code, a console screen will pop up with a text:
Enter your first number:
After entering your first value, let’s say 169, your program will further ask
you:
Enter your second number:
After you enter your second number, let’s say 29, your program will print:
Your Numbers, Before swapping
First Number = 169
Second Number = 29

Your Numbers, After swapping

First Number = 29
Second Number = 169
3.5 Exercise Sets

Write a C++ program to print the result in a function. For this, use
two sub functions to display results. One sub function would be
printing the results, the other one should print the measurements
and charges.

To test your program, use the data shown below:

Sr no. Length Width Discount Price

1 43 33 23 25.60

2 36 9 1 9

3 16 13 12 24.25

Write a C++ program which reads the lengths of two sides of a

right angle triangle and calculates its area and perimeter.

These formulas, may be helpful, writing your code:

O2 = N2+M2
Area = 0.5 *(N * M)
Chapter 4: Selection-Making
In this chapter, we will study about “Selection”. Selection is the second
fundamental of structured programming. Selection allows a user to select
between two or more alternatives in any function. So, we may say that In
C++, selection allows us to make decisions.
In our daily life, we face many issues, when we have to make a decision, for
example, we have to select between strawberry and chocolate ice cream, or
maybe we have to select between black or brown shoes. Imagine our world,
without selection, how boring it would be!
So, moving towards the point, in this chapter, we will know about how the
selection is made by a computer program. We have to remember that the
choices made by a computer are really simple. Computer makes selection in
binary form, i.e. 0 and 1. Typically, 0 is used as false or off and 1 is used as
true or on.

4.1 Logical Data and Operators

We may call any data logical, if it conveys the idea of true and false. Logical
Data is a very important factor in programming as well as in real life.
As far as our lives are concerned, sometimes, we have to make tough choices,
based upon logical data, i.e. true or false. For example, let us say, if someone
calls you and asks you, “Are you at home?”. You would have two choices,
“Yes! I am home” or “No! I am not.” This would lie under 0 (false) and 1
(true), in programming.
In programming, we may ask, if variable “n” is greater than “m”. The answer
would be 0 (No) or 1 (yes).

Logical Data in C++

In C++, we may represent logical data in two manners. Firstly, we may use
boolean data (bool) with constant identifiers, true and false. On the other
hand, we may use other data types, such as integers (int) and characters (char)
to represent logical data. If an item is zero among the data, it would be
considered as false.
 Logical Operators

In C++, usually we have three logical operators. We can use them to combine
and create logical values such as not, or and and.These operators are shown
in table below:

Operator Demonstration

! not

&& Logical and

|| Logical or

Not Operator

It is a unary operator. Not operator “!” changes a 1 (true) value to 0 (false) or

a 0 (false) to 1 (true).

And Operator

It is binary operator. And operator is a binary operator, so that, it has four

distinct possible combinations of values. In this operator, the resulting value
is true only if both operands are true.

Or Operator

Or Operator “||” is also a binary operator. Like and operator, or operator also
has four possibilities. But in this operator’s case, the result would be false,
only if both operands are false.

To understand these operators use in C++, we may use these tables below

Not operator “!”

Logical
n !n

false true

true false

C++ Language
n !n

zero non zero

non zero zero

And Operator (&&):

Logical
n m n && m

true true true

true false false

false true false

false false false

C++ Language
n m n && m

non zero non zero non zero

non zero zero zero

zero non zero zero

zero zero zero

Or Operator (||):

Logical
n m n && m

true true true

true false true

false true true

false false false

C++ Language
n m n && m

non zero non zero non zero

non zero zero non zero

zero non zero non zero

zero zero zero

Evaluating Logical Expressions

Compiler can evaluate binary relationships, usually with two methods. The
only difference in these methods is about, if we need to evaluate the full
expression or a part of it.
In the first method, the compiler will evaluate the whole expression, even if
there is no need of it. For example, in the case of and operator, the entire
statement will be evaluated by the compiler, even if the first operand is false.
Similarly, in the case of Or operator, compiler will go for the full relation, if
the first operand is true.
In the second method, a programmer can set a code up to print the resulting
value as soon as the compiler knows the result. If this method, the compiler
does not need to go through full expression. It will print false, as soon as it
reads a false statement in the case of and operator. Similarly, it will print true,
as soon as it reads a true statement, in case of or operator.
The first method was used by pascal computer language and the second
method was introduced by C++ itself. As we can see, the second method
seems more efficient but it may have some problems because of the side
effects of the second operand. Usually, it causes because of poor
programming skills,

So, now, you know! Practice makes a man, Perfect!

For better understanding of the evaluation of logical data, in C++, we can

have a look at this code:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

main() {
int n = 5;
int m = 20;
int o;

if(n && m) {
cout << "For line 1 - Condition is true"<< endl ;
}

if(n || m) {
cout << "For line 2 - Condition is true"<< endl ;
}

/* Let's change the values of n and m */

n = 0;
m = 10;

if(n && m) {
cout << "For line 3 - Condition is true"<< endl ;
} else {
 cout << "For line 4 - Condition is not true"<< endl ;
}

if(!(n && m)) {

cout << "For line 5 - Condition is true"<< endl ;
}

return 0;
}

Relation Operators

In C++, we have six relational operators to support logical relationships. All

of them are binary operators that can accept two operands and can compare
them.

Operator Meaning

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal

== Equals to

!= Not Equals

We have to remember that every operator among them is the complement of

another, for example if we want to evaluate an expression involving not and
less than expression, we may use greater than and equal to operators, instead
of that. We can understand this relation using this table.
 Original Simplified

! (n < m) n >= m

! (n > m) n <= m

! (n != m) n == m

! (n <= m) n>m

! (n >= m) n<m

! (n == m) n != m

Now, just look at a simple program to understand it, according to C++

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int n=10,m=20,o=10;

if(n>m)
cout<<"n is greater"<<endl;

if(n<m)
cout<<"n is smaller"<<endl;

if(n<=o)
cout<<"n is less than or equal to m"<<endl;

if(n>=m)
cout<<"n is less than or equal to m"<<endl;

return 0;
}
4.2 Two Way Selection
Usually, any decision statement in a computer is known as two way selection.
Decision is presented to the computer, a conditional statement and computer
can answer it as true or false.
In such conditions, if the answer is true, an action or a set of actions is
performed. On the other hand, if the answer is false, different action or set of
actions is performed.

If, Else

In C++, two way selection is implemented with an if else statement. If else

statement is a statement, used to make selection between two alternatives. It
is coded as

If (expression)
{
Statements
}
Else
{
Statements
}

Here are some points, we have to keep in mind about if else statements:

The expression after if statement must be closed in

parentheses.
We don’t need semicolon for the statements in if else
statements.
In if else, expressions can have side effects.
Both if and else statements can be any statement, ornull
statement.
Among if and else only one statement can be true at a time

Rules for If Else statements

The first rule, as mentioned earlier is that the expression in if else statement
should be closed in parentheses. Second rule is so simple but it can cause a
lot of problems. To explain that rule, we have to look at the example below.

if (n == 69)
N++;
else
n--;

In this example, each action that is to be performed is a single statement that

simply adds or subtracts 1 from the variable n. The rule is; we have to
remember that the semicolons in above mentioned statements belong to
arithmetic statements, not to if or else.
Third rule, we are going to discuss, is a bit more complex. In C++, it's a
common activity to code expressions having side effects, for example, most
of the times data is coded that have side effects to read or print data.
Let's suppose, we have written a line and we want to proceed towards next
line after we have written twenty numbers. A simple solution would be to
increment line count and tests the limit, in the very same statement. Fo
example

If (++lineCnt > 10)

{
cout << “\n”;
lineCnt = o
} // End Print New Line

else
{
cout << “.....”;
}

The fourth and fifth rules for if else statements are closely tied to each other.
We know that any statement can be used in if else condition but we have to
remember that it is a good practice to use a compound statement for a
complex logic.

Problem:
To understand if else statement more precisely, we may write a program that
reads an integer and prints weather the integer in positive or negative.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int n;
cout << "Enter an integer: ";
cin >> n;
// checks if the integer is positive
if ( n > 0)
{
cout << "You have entered a positive integer: " << n << endl;
}
else
{
cout << "You have entered a negative integer: ";
}
return 0;
}

Null Else Statement

In programming, after taking a decision there are two possible actions.

Typically, the action with a false statement is the one that is left out. Letts say
you are taking an average of ten numbers, but your requirement states that
every number among them should be greater than zero. So, when your
program will read the numbers from your keyboard, before compiling a
result, it will test your entered numbers. If the test is true or in other words if
all the numbers are greater than zero, your program will take their average. If
the result is false, your program will terminate and do nothing.
In above mentioned scenario, if condition is not required. So, we can say, if is
null in this case. In C++, we call this condition a null else statement. We have
to remember that typically, a null statement have only one semicolon, while
else statement is simple omitted entirely. For example

if (expression)
{
Statements
……..
}

In C++, false statement can be omitted but a true statement can never be
omitted. Most of the times, true statement will always be coded as a null
statement. We have to keep in mind that the null else statement is not a
branch of if else statement. To further understand the formation of a null else
statement, we have to look at the example below

If Else Statement:

if (expression)
;
Else
{
……
…...
}

Null Else Statement:

if ( !expression )
{
Statements
………..
}
else
; // Null Else Statement

Here is a programming example to demonstrate two way selection.

Problem:
We have to write a C++ program that may read three integers from user and
print the highest among them.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int n, m, o, maximum;
cout<<"Enter first number: ";
cin>>n;
cout<<"Enter second number: ";
cin>>m;
cout<<"Enter third number: ";
cin>>o;
maximum = n;
if(m>maximum)
{
maximum = m;
}
if(o>maximum)
{
maximum = o;
}
cout<<"\n"<<"The largest of your entered numbers is: "
<<maximum;
getch();
}

Nested If Statements

Previously, we have learned that the if else statements may be any statements,
it can include other if else statements as well. So, when an if else statement
includes another if else statement, this is known as a nested if statement.
There is no specific limit for how many levels in an if else can be nested, but
if the nesting level is increased by three, it normally reduces the readability
and understandability of the code. To understand nested if statements, we
may take a look on this coding example

if (expression)
{
if (expression)
{
Statements
………………..
}
else
{
Statements
…………
}
else
{
statements
}
}

4.3 Multiway Selection

Many programming languages provides us another selection method, i.e.
multi way selection. This allows a program to choose among many
alternatives.
In C++, there are two major ways to apply multi way selection. First method
is known as switch statement, other is known as else if statement. Switch
statement is applicable only when the selection reduces to an integral value or
expression. Moving forward, most of the times, selection is based upon the
range of values. In this case, the condition is not integral and we use else if in
this scenario.

The Switch Statement

Switch statement is composite statement used to make a decision between
many statements. In this case, the selection condition must be in integral type.
For this statement, any expression can be used but unary expression is the
most common.
Switch expression have conditions that we can evaluateFor every possible
value, that can be the result from this condition, separate case constants are
defined. With every case, there are one or more associated statements.
To understand switch statement, we may see the following syntax

Switch (expression)
{
case constant - 1 : statement
…….
statement
case constant - 2 : statement
…….
statement
case constant - n : statement
…….
statement
default : statement
…….
statement
} // End Switch

Else If Statement

Switch statement works, when and only when the case values are integers.
We will need else if statement if we need a multi way selection in a non
integer data. C++ has no concepts of else if statements in ot. It is a
programming style, basically.
In else if statement, we code else if on a single line and align it with a
previous if statement. The syntax for this style looks something like

If (n >= 90)
discount = ‘V’;
Else if (n >= 80)
discount = ‘K’;

We have to remember that else if statement is only used when the same basic
expression is being evaluated.
In C++, else if is an artificial construct, that is only used when

The selection variable is a non integer

The same variable is being tested in the expression.
4.4 Menu Program, C++

Problem
Write a C++ program that reads operand and operator from the user and
prints the answer.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char o;
float n, m;
cout << "Enter an operator (+, -, *, /): ";
cin >> o;
cout << "Enter first operand: ";
cin >> n;
cout << "Enter second operand: ";
cin >> m;

switch (o)
{
case '+':
cout << n << " + " << m << " = " << n+m;
break;
case '-':
cout << n << " - " << m << " = " << n-m;
break;
case '*':
cout << n << " * " << m << " = " << n*m;
break;
case '/':
cout << n << " / " << m << " = " << n/m;
break;
default:
 // operator is doesn't match any case constant (+, -, *, /)
cout << "Error! operator is not correct";
break;
}

return 0;
}

Output:

When you will compile this code, a console screen will pop up saying
Enter an operator (+, -, *, /):
After entering operator, let’s say /, your program will ask for your operands,
one by one, as
Enter first operand:
Enter second operand:
Let’s say you have entered both operands, 2. Your program will print output
such as
2/2=1
4.5 Programming Examples

Problem

Write a C++ program for banking management system. Your code should
include cases and selection.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
#include<iomanip>
#include<fstream>
#include<cctype>

using namespace std;

class acnt

{
int acno;
char name[50];
int deposit;
char type;

public:
void create_acnt();
void show_acnt() const;
void modify();
void dep(int);
void draw(int);
void report() const;
int retacno() const;
int retdeposit() const;
char rettype() const;
};

void acnt::create_acnt()
{

cout<<"\nEnter The account No. :";

cin>>acno;
cout<<"\n\nEnter The Name of the account Holder : ";
cin.ignore();
cin.getline(name,50);
cout<<"\nEnter The Type of account (C/S) : ";
cin>>type;
type=toupper(type);
cout<<"\nEnter The Initial amount(>=500 for Saving and
>=1000 for current ) : ";
cin>>deposit;
cout<<"\n\n\nAccount Successfully Created..";
}

void acnt::show_acnt() const

{
cout<<"\nAccount Number : "<<acno;
cout<<"\nAccount Holder : ";
cout<<name;
cout<<"\nType of The Account : "<<type;
cout<<"\nAccount Balance : "<<deposit;
}

void acnt::modify()
{
cout<<"\nAccount No. : "<<acno;
cout<<"\nModify Account Holder Name : ";
cin.ignore();
cin.getline(name,50);
cout<<"\nModify Type of Account : ";
cin>>type;
type=toupper(type);
cout<<"\nModify Balance amount : ";
cin>>deposit;
}
void acnt::dep(int x)
{
deposit+=x;
}
void acnt::draw(int x)
{
deposit-=x;
}
void acnt::report() const
{
cout<<acno<<setw(10)<<" "<<name<<setw(10)<<" "
<<type<<setw(6)<<deposit<<endl;
}

int acnt::retacno() const

{
return acno;
}

int acnt::retdeposit() const

{
return deposit;
}

char acnt::rettype() const

{
return type;
}

void write_acnt();
void display_sp(int);
void modify_acnt(int);
void delete_acnt(int);
void display_all();
void deposit_withdraw(int, int);
void intro();
//Main Function for our Program

int main()
{
char ch;
int num;
intro();
do
{
system("cls");
cout<<"\n\n\n\tMAIN MENU";
cout<<"\n\n\t01. NEW ACCOUNT";
cout<<"\n\n\t02. DEPOSIT AMOUNT";
cout<<"\n\n\t03. WITHDRAW AMOUNT";
cout<<"\n\n\t04. BALANCE ENQUIRY";
cout<<"\n\n\t05. ALL ACCOUNT HOLDER LIST";
cout<<"\n\n\t06. CLOSE AN ACCOUNT";
cout<<"\n\n\t07. MODIFY AN ACCOUNT";
cout<<"\n\n\t08. EXIT";
cout<<"\n\n\tSelect Your Option (1-8) ";
cin>>ch;
system("cls");
switch(ch)
{
case '1':
write_acnt();
break;
case '2':
cout<<"\n\n\tEnter The account No. : "; cin>>num;
deposit_withdraw(num, 1);
break;
case '3':
cout<<"\n\n\tEnter The account No. : "; cin>>num;
deposit_withdraw(num, 2);
break;
case '4':
cout<<"\n\n\tEnter The account No. : "; cin>>num;
 display_sp(num);
break;
case '5':
display_all();
break;
case '6':
cout<<"\n\n\tEnter The account No. : "; cin>>num;
delete_acnt(num);
break;
case '7':
cout<<"\n\n\tEnter The account No. : "; cin>>num;
modify_acnt(num);
break;
case '8':
cout<<"\n\n\tThanks for using bank managemnt system";
break;
default :cout<<"\a";
}
cin.ignore();
cin.get();
}while(ch!='8');
return 0;
}

void write_acnt()
{
acnt ac;
ofstream outFile;
outFile.open("account.dat",ios::binary|ios::app);
ac.create_acnt();
outFile.write(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt));
outFile.close();
}

void display_sp(int n)
{
acnt ac;
bool flag=false;
 ifstream inFile;
inFile.open("account.dat",ios::binary);
if(!inFile)
{
cout<<"File could not be open !! Press any Key...";
return;
}
cout<<"\nBALANCE DETAILS\n";

while(inFile.read(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt)))

{
if(ac.retacno()==n)
{
ac.show_acnt();
flag=true;
}
}
inFile.close();
if(flag==false)
cout<<"\n\nAccount number does not exist";
}

void modify_acnt(int n)
{
bool found=false;
acnt ac;
fstream File;
File.open("account.dat",ios::binary|ios::in|ios::out);
if(!File)
{
cout<<"File could not be open !! Press any Key...";
return;
}
while(!File.eof() && found==false)
{
File.read(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt));
if(ac.retacno()==n)
 {
ac.show_acnt();
cout<<"\n\nEnter The New Details of account"<<endl;
ac.modify();
int pos=(-1)*static_cast<int>(sizeof(acnt));
File.seekp(pos,ios::cur);
File.write(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt));
cout<<"\n\n\t Record Updated";
found=true;
}
}
File.close();
if(found==false)
cout<<"\n\n Record Not Found ";
}

void delete_acnt(int n)
{
acnt ac;
ifstream inFile;
ofstream outFile;
inFile.open("account.dat",ios::binary);
if(!inFile)
{
cout<<"File could not be open !! Press any Key...";
return;
}
outFile.open("Temp.dat",ios::binary);
inFile.seekg(0,ios::beg);
while(inFile.read(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt)))
{
if(ac.retacno()!=n)
{
outFile.write(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt));
}
}
inFile.close();
 outFile.close();
remove("account.dat");
rename("Temp.dat","account.dat");
cout<<"\n\n\tRecord Deleted ..";
}

void display_all()
{
acnt ac;
ifstream inFile;
inFile.open("account.dat",ios::binary);
if(!inFile)
{
cout<<"File could not be open !! Press any Key...";
return;
}
cout<<"\n\n\t\tACCOUNT HOLDER LIST\n\n";
cout<<"==================================================
cout<<"A/c no. NAME Type Balance\n";
cout<<"==================================================
while(inFile.read(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt)))
{
ac.report();
}
inFile.close();
}

void deposit_withdraw(int n, int option)

{
int amt;
bool found=false;
acnt ac;
fstream File;
File.open("account.dat", ios::binary|ios::in|ios::out);
if(!File)
{
cout<<"File could not be open !! Press any Key...";
return;
 }
while(!File.eof() && found==false)
{
File.read(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt));
if(ac.retacno()==n)
{
ac.show_acnt();
if(option==1)
{
cout<<"\n\n\tTO DEPOSITE AMOUNT ";
cout<<"\n\nEnter The amount to be deposited";
cin>>amt;
ac.dep(amt);
}
if(option==2)
{
cout<<"\n\n\tTO WITHDRAW AMOUNT ";
cout<<"\n\nEnter The amount to be withdraw";
cin>>amt;
int bal=ac.retdeposit()-amt;
if((bal<500 && ac.rettype()=='S') || (bal<1000 &&
ac.rettype()=='C'))
cout<<"Insufficience balance";
else
ac.draw(amt);
}
int pos=(-1)*static_cast<int>(sizeof(ac));
File.seekp(pos,ios::cur);
File.write(reinterpret_cast<char *> (&ac), sizeof(acnt));
cout<<"\n\n\t Record Updated";
found=true;
}
}
File.close();
if(found==false)
cout<<"\n\n Record Not Found ";
}
void intro()
{
cout<<"\n\n\n\t BANK";
cout<<"\n\n\tMANAGEMENT";
cout<<"\n\n\t SYSTEM";
cout<<"\n\n\n\nMADE BY : Faheel Nasir";
cin.get();
}
4.6 Exercise Sets

Write a menu driven C++ program that allows user to enter five
random numbers and find their sum, average and smallest number
among them. (Use switch statement to determine among the
operators)
Write a C++ program that may calculate the change due a
customer by denomination; that is how many pennies, dimes etc
are needed in change.
Chapter 5: Concept of “Arrays” in C++
We have been using standard data types so far, such as integer, floating point
number and character. No one can deny their importance but these data types
can not handle large amount of data, they can only handle a limited data. To
learn how can we handle large data in our programs, we should study the
derived data types. We have to begin with array structures.
With the introduction of arrays we can begin the study of data structures, as
well. In this chapter, we will be studying some of the basic concepts of data
structures. In most cases, a collecting mechanism is required to organise the
data. In the programming world, use of arrays is a common organising
technique from which we can process data as an individual element and as a
group as well.
let’s say, we have a problem that requires us to read process and then print
the data. consider our data twents integers. We must also keep the integers in
memory for the duration of the program. In the beginning we will declare
twenty variables, each variable with a different name. We know that having
twenty names would create a problem. So, the point is how can we create and
store twenty integers from the keyboard. For printing those twenty integers
we will need twenty references to store them and twenty more references to
print them.
This approach may be acceptable to twenty or twenty five or twenty six
integers but this is not acceptable for a larger data, i.e. let’s say 200 or 2,000
or 20,000 integers. So, to process large amount of data we need a powerful
structure. In this case we commonly use arrays. in C++, array is a fixed size
collection of elements of the same data type.
5.1 Using Arrays in C++
In this section, we will learn how to declare and define arrays, in C++, and
after that we will look at several typical applications of arrays including
reading and writing values in arrays.

Declaration and Definition

In C++ an array must be first declared and then defined before it maybe used.
Definition and Declaration tells the compiler, the name of the array, types of
its elements and the number of elements in the array. we have to remember
that the size of the array is a constant and must have a value.

Accessing Elements in Arrays

In C++,we use an index to access individual elements in an array. For that,

the index must be an integral value of an expression that evaluates to an
integral value. The simplest form of accessing and element is a numeric
constant.
n [0]
Usually, the index is a variable. So, process all the elements in “n”, a loop
similar to the following code will be used
for (i = 0 ; i < 9 ; i++)
n[i]

Storing Values in Arrays

In C++, declaration and definition only reserve space for elements in the
array. There will be no value that will be stored. If we want to store any value
in the array, we must first initialize the elements, then read value from the
keyboard are then assign values to each individual element in the array.
 Inputting Values

In C++, another way to fill and use an array is to read the values from the
keyboard or a file. This method of inputting values can be done using a loop.
When the array is going to be completely filled, the most appropriate loop to
use, is for loop. In for loop, the number of elements is fixed and known. A
general for loop to fill an array is shown below

for ( j = 0 ; j < 9 ; j++ )

Cin >> n[j]

Assigning Values

In C++, individual elements can be assign values using the assignment

operators. Any value that can be reduced to the proper data type can be
assigned to an individual array element. The simple assignment statement’s
syntax is shown below
n[4] = 69;
We have to remember that we cannot assign one array to another array, even
if they match fully in size or in type. We have to copy an array at the
individual level. For example, to copy an array of twenty integers to a second
array of twenty integers we could use the following syntax.

for (n = 0 ; n < 20 ; n++)

Second [n] = First [n]
 Exchanging Values

In C++, it is a common practice to exchange the contents of two elements we

call as sorting an array. Simply, when we exchange the variables, we swap
the values of elements without knowing what is in them.

Putting Value

In C++, a very common application of arrays is to print it’s own contents.

This is easily done with the for loop. For example

for (i = 0 ; i < 9 ; i++)

cout << n [i];
cout << endl;

In the above mentioned example, all the data would be printed in one line
after the compiler compiles the code.

For example, if we have to insert and print array element, we’ll use the code

int alpha[5] = {19, 10, 8, 17, 9}

// change 4th element to 9
alpha[3] = 9;
// take input from the user and insert in third element
cin >> alpha[2];
// take input from the user and insert in (i+1)th element
cin >> alpha[i];
// print first element of the array
cout << alpha[0];
// print ith element of the array
cout >> alpha[i-1];

Example Program (To understand arrays)

Problem:
Write a C++ program using arrays, to read five integers from the user and
print their sum.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int n[5], sum = 0;
cout << "Enter 5 numbers: ";

// 5 numbers are entered by user in an array

// To find the sum of user's entered numbers
for (int i = 0; i < 5; ++i)
{
cin >> n[i];
sum += n[i];
}

cout << "Sum = " << sum << endl;

return 0;
}

5.2 Arrays and Functions

Processing arrays in a larger program requires you to be able to pass them to
functions. We may do it by passing the whole array to a function or by
passing an individual element.

Passing Individual Element

In C++, any individual element can be passed to a function like every other
ordinary variable. Elements of an array can be passed through a function as
long as its parameter type matches the function’s parameter type.
Let’s say we have a function, named as print_squareroot, which receives an
integer and prints its square root on the console screen. Using array, we can
loop array’s elements to pass through our function, one by one.

Passing the Whole Array

In C++, if we want our desired function to apply on the whole array, we have
to pass the whole array through function. It would be less efficient as it would
take more time and a lot of memory.
We have to remember that the name of an array is a primary expression,
whose value is determined by the first element of our array. We have to
remember these two rules, whenever we are passing the whole array to a
function.

We have to call the function just by passing the name of the

array.
In our function’s definition, the formal parameter must have
the type, array. In this case, we don't need to specify our
array’s size.
5.3 Array Applications
In general, C++ provides us with two statistical applications of arrays, i.e.

Frequency Distribution Arrays

Histograms

Frequency Distribution Arrays

In C++, frequency array shows the number of elements with identical values
found in a series or array of numbers. For example, if we have taken a sample
data of fifty values between 0 and 17 and we want to figure out how many
values are 1, how many are 7 and how many among them are 8.
We have to read these values, using an array called alpha. We then will create
an array of fifteen elements, which will show the repetition of each number in
the series.
To better understand this application, we have to review the following code

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int frequency(int alpha[], int n, int m)

{
int count = 0;
for (int i=0; i < n; i++)
if (alpha[i] == m)
count++;
return count;
}

// Driver program
int main() {
int alpha[] = {0, 5, 5, 5, 4};
int m = 5;
 int n = sizeof(alpha)/sizeof(alpha[0]);
cout << frequency(alpha, n, m);
return 0;
}

Histograms

In C++, histograms are the pictorial definition of frequency arrays. Using

histogram, we may print a bar chart instead of printing the values of
elements.
We may understand the concepts of histogram, by going through the
following program

#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
#include<iomanip>
using namespace std;

int findmaximum(int alpha[],int n){

int maximum=alpha[0];
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
if(maximum<alpha[i]) maximum=alpha[i];
return maximum;
}
int main()
{
int n,fsize;
cout<<"Enter Total number of data points:";
cin>>n;
int alpha[n];
for(int i=0;i<n;i++){
cout<<"Value"<<i+1<<":";
cin>>alpha[i]; // Initializing the data
}
int m=findmaximum(alpha,n); // Finding maximum value of the data
points
if(m>n) fsize=m+1;
else fsize=n;
int freq[fsize];
/*
-> Declaring frequency array with an appropriate size
-> The size of frequency array can be the size of the alpha array
-> The maximum value of the alpha array items plus 1*/

for(int i=0;i<fsize;i++) //initializing frequency array

freq[i]=0;
//computing frequencies
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
freq[alpha[i]]++;
//printing histogram
cout<<"\n....Histogram....\n\n";
for(int i=0;i<fsize;i++){
cout<<left;
cout<<setw(5)<<i;
cout<<setw(5)<<freq[i];
for(int j=1;j<=freq[i];j++) cout<<"*";
cout<<"\n";
}
system("PAUSE");
return 0;
}
5.4 Sorting
In the world of C++ programming, one of the most common applications is
sorting. Sorting is a technique, in which data is arranged according to its
values. In C++, usually we use three types of sorting.

Selection Sort
Insertion Sort
Bubble Sort

Selection Sort

Selection sort is a technique for arranging the data, in which data is further
divided into sub data, i.e. sorted data and unsorted data. System divides
sorted and unsorted data with an imaginary wall. Everytime, when ever
system move an element from unsorted data to sorted data, we can say, the
system have completed a sort pass. For further understanding of the selection
sort, we may review this code, that prints entered numbers in ascending order

#include<iostream>
#include<conio.h>
#include<bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

int minimum(int alpha[ ],int n, int m, int beta)

{
beta=m;
int min=alpha[m];
for(int i=m;i<n;i++)
{
if(alpha[i]<min)
{
min=alpha[i];
beta=i;
}
 }
return beta;
}
int selection(int alpha[ ],int n)
{
int beta=-1,m;
for(m=0;m<n-1;m++)
{
int beta1=minimum(alpha,n,m,beta);
int temp=alpha[m];
alpha[m]=alpha[beta1];
alpha[beta1]=temp;
}
cout<<"The sorted list is:\n";
for(m=0;m<n;m++)
cout<<alpha[m]<<" ";
}
int main()
{
int n;
cout<<"Enter the size of the array: ";
cin>>n;
int alpha[n],i;
cout<<"Enter the array values:\n";
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cin>>alpha[i];
}
//calling selection function
selection(alpha,n);
return 0;
}

Insertion Sort

This sorting technique is usually used by card players to sort cards in their
hands, maintaining a particular sequence.In insertion sort, an element is
picked py by the compiler from unsorted data, and inserted in it’s particular
place in sorted data. For further explanation, we may go through this code

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int o,m,n,beta,alpha[30]; //, j = m , n = n , a = alpha
cout<<"Enter the total number of elements:";
cin>>n;
cout<<"\nEnter the elements\n";
for(o=0;o<n;o++)
{
cin>>alpha[o];
}
for(o=1;o<=n-1;o++)
{
beta=alpha[o];
m=o-1;
while((beta<alpha[m])&&(m>=0))
{
alpha[m+1]=alpha[m]; //moves element forward
m=m-1;
}

alpha[m+1]=beta; //insert element in proper place

}
cout<<"\nSorted list is as follows\n";
for(o=0;o<n;o++)
{
cout<<alpha[o]<<" ";
}

return 0;
}
 Bubble Sort

In this sorting, we have divided the list into two sublists, i.e. sorted sublist
and unsorted sublist. The smallest element of the data is moved to sorted
sublist and bubbled from the unsorted sublist. The process continues with the
smallest elements in our unsorted sublist. For example

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main()
{
int alpha[50],n,m,o,beta;
cout<<"Enter the total number of elements: ";
cin>>n;
cout<<"Enter the elements: ";
for(m=0;m<n;m++)
cin>>alpha[m];
for(m=1;m<n;m++)
{
for(o=0;o<(n-m);o++)
if(alpha[o]>alpha[o+1])
{
beta=alpha[o];
alpha[o]=alpha[o+1];
alpha[o+1]=beta;
}

}
cout<<"Array after bubble sort:";
for(m=0;m<n;m++)
cout<<" "<<alpha[m];
return 0;
}
5.5 Programming Examples

Problem - 1
Write a C++ program that reads elements of a matrix from the user and print
it on output.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
#include <conio.h>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int alpha[10][10],beta,charlie,n,m;
cout<<"Enter size of row and column: ";
cin>>beta>>charlie;
cout<<"Enter elements of matrices(row wise)"<<endl;
for(n=0;n<beta;n++)
for(m=0;m<charlie;m++)
cin>>alpha[n][m];
cout<<"Displaying matrix"<<endl;
for(n=0;n<beta;n++)
{
for(m=0;m<charlie;m++)
cout<<alpha[n][m]<<" ";
cout<<endl;
}
getch();
return 0;
}

Problem - 2
Write a C++ code to add two matrices, using multidimensional arrays.

Solution:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int r, c, alpha[100][100], beta[100][100], sum[100][100], i, j;
cout << "Enter number of rows (between 1 and 100): ";
cin >> r;
cout << "Enter number of columns (between 1 and 100): ";
cin >> c;
cout << endl << "Enter elements of 1st matrix: " << endl;

for(i = 0; i < r; ++i)

for(j = 0; j < c; ++j)
{
cout << "Enter element a" << i + 1 << j + 1 << " : ";
cin >> alpha[i][j];
}

cout << endl << "Enter elements of 2nd matrix: " << endl;
for(i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for(j = 0; j < c; ++j)
{
cout << "Enter element b" << i + 1 << j + 1 << " : ";
cin >> beta[i][j];
}

for(i = 0; i < r; ++i)

for(j = 0; j < c; ++j)
sum[i][j] = alpha[i][j] + beta[i][j];

cout << endl << "Sum of two matrix is: " << endl;
for(i = 0; i < r; ++i)
for(j = 0; j < c; ++j)
{
cout << sum[i][j] << " ";
if(j == c - 1)
cout << endl;
 }
return 0;
}

5.6 Exercise Sets

Write a C++ program that copies a one dimensional array of x

elements into a two dimensional array of n rows and m columns.
You have to remember that the rows and columns must be valid
factors of the number of elements of the one dimensional array,
i.e. x = n * m.

Write a C++ program to modify the selection sort to count the number of
exchange, needed to sort the unsorted data.
Conclusion
Congratulations! If you've made it this far. We hope that you have truly
begun to understand the very basic concepts and complexities of C++. At this
point, we suppose, you should be able to read almost any code written in C++
with confidence and understanding.
We have tried to cover a fair number of important and initial C++ language
features in this book. Furthermore, we have tried to make writing clear and
easy to understand, and this book includes many theoretical, practical, and
explained examples.
The code samples are very well-formatted, easy to read, and clean so that you
may find C++ programming easy.
Moving forward, if you are a beginner in learning C++, just read the
next book of the series to understand the advanced concepts of C++.