439 - Ok Engl 40013 Special Topics in English Across The Professions

INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIAL
FOR
SPECIAL TOPICS
IN ENGLISH
ACROSS THE
PROFESSIONS
COMPILED BY:
RAFAEL MICHAEL O. PAZ
No part of this publication may be reproduced or copied by recording or other electronic/mechanical methods,
without the prior written permission of the publisher/compiler via pupenglishdepartment@gmail.com. Faculty
members whose names are printed on the cover are only compilers who collected materials from different
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Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Arts and Letters
Department of English and Foreign Languages and Linguistics
Sta. Mesa, Manila
Bachelor of Arts in English Language Studies

Year 3, Semester 1, School Year 2020-2021
ENGL 40013 Special Topics in

English Across Professions
Rafael Michael O. Paz

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Paz, 2020
Table of Contents
Page
Introduction 4
Module 1. Sociolinguistics: Definitions and Approaches 5
Brainstorming Session 5
Lesson 1. Defining Sociolinguistics 7
Lesson 2. The Task of the Sociolinguist 11
Lesson 3. Sociolinguistic Research 12
Lesson 4. The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City
Department Stores (Labov, 1966) 14
Final Paper Mechanics Overview 15
Final Task 15
Module 2. Language and Social Class 18

Brainstorming Session 18
Lesson 1. Early Works on Linguistic and Social Variation 20
Lesson 2. Challenges in Describing Linguistic Variation Against Social Class 22
Lesson 3. Sociolectal Variation 24
Final Task 25
Module 3. Language and Gender 26

Brainstorming 26
Lesson 1. Sex and Gender 28
Lesson 2. Linguistic Sex Differentiation 29
Lesson 3. Queer Linguistics 32
Final Task 33
Module 4. Language and the Nation 34
The Annotated Bibliography 35
Module 5. Sociolinguistics in the Philippines 37

Lesson 1. The Development of Sociolinguistics in the Philippines 38
Lesson 2. Trends and Gaps in Sociolinguistic Research 39
Lesson 3. Looking Forward into the Future 40
Final Task 40
Pointers for the Final Presentation and Paper 42

Rubrics for the Final Presentation 45
Rubrics for the Final Paper 46
Key to Corrections 47
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Distribution is free and exclusive for the students of Polytechnic University of the Philippines enrolled in the above-specified course offering in
the Department of English and Foreign Languages and Linguistics, College of Arts and Letters.
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without the knowledge and approval of the writer and/or publisher. For questions, send your messages to pupenglishdepartment@gmail.com
3
ENGL 40013 Special Topics in English Across Professions
References 50
Appendices
Appendix A. The Social Stratification of (r) in New York
Department Stores (Labov, 1966/1972) 52
Appendix B. Dialect Differences and Social Stratification
in a North Indian Village (Gumperz, 1958) 63
Appendix C. Time to Move Beyond “Gender is Socially
Constructed” (Mascolo, 2019) 78
Appendix D. Gay Language: Defining the Structural Limits
of English Language Studies in the Philippines
(Casabal, 2008) 82
Appendix E. Philippine English Revisited (Martin, 2014) 110
Appendix F. Some Philippine sociolinguistic concerns:
1967-1992 (Sibayan, 1984) 120
Appendix G. Sociolinguistics in the Philippines (Gonzalez, 1985) 131
Appendix H. Agenda for Sociolinguistics in the Philippines
for the 21st century (Borlongan, 2018) 140
Appendix I. Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines (Wee, 2010) 143
Appendix J. Course Syllabus 152
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Introduction
Welcome to a new semester! I hope that you are well with your family despite the
continuing threats of the pandemic that have been affecting almost everyone in the world.
Reading this printed module means that you were able to enroll and continue your education in
our Sintang Paaralan, and this, your presence in our class, our shelter, our good health, among
many other things, should give us enough hope for a better tomorrow.
This module was created to help fulfill PUP’s commitment to providing quality education
to its students. The current program implemented by the University called Flexible Technology-
Enhanced Learning (FlexTEL) aims to address the Commission on Higher Education’s call for
inclusive education that provides not only for students who have Internet connectivity and
necessary gadgets for online learning at home but likewise for students who do not have the
capacity to continue their education using online resources. Thus, while students who have the
capacity to go online may choose both the synchronous and asynchronous mode of learning,
others shall never be left behind with their choice to take their courses asynchronously using
printed modules such as this sent to you by the University via courier free of charge in the
beginning of the semester.
There are five total modules in this compilation. Each module is to be taken at a specific
schedule presented in the course syllabus located at the end of the compilation (Appendix J,
page 152). I suggest that you read the course syllabus, including the fine prints intended for
students who are using printed modules before proceeding to exploring the rest of the lessons.
All the activities are marked with clear instructions. Our activities during the semester
includes individual phone calls for assessment and consultations. You will find specific
instructions about these special sessions on page 15. I suggest that you make a list of all the
things that you need to tell me before we begin our phone call sessions so you can take full
advantage of the opportunity to consult me regarding the lessons and requirements.
I request that you keep this module neat since I will retrieve this from you at the end of
the semester. The schedule and means of retrieval are all explained within the succeeding
pages.
I hope that this module helps you develop your knowledge and skills no matter our
special learning setup this semester. Always remember that you are not alone in facing your
academic (and even personal) challenges. Your teachers are here available to lend their ears
and time to listen to you. Keep your hopes up and always stay safe.
5
Module 1: Sociolinguistics: Definitions and Approaches

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, students should have:
1. reviewed some basic concepts in linguistics: language, sociolinguistics, sociology of

language, etc.
2. presented and analyzed multiple perspectives on sociolinguistics; and
3. read some foundational works that begin the study of the relationship between language
and society.
Brainstorming Activity
In first year (if you were my student in Introduction to English Language

Systems), we tried to disambiguate some important myths about language:
we talked about language change, dialects, and value judgments about
language (I invite you to go back and read Daniels ‘ Nine Ideas About
Language that you will find in your course pack in first year; you may also
visit this link https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/start_new/5ed9b7f59d05
de001d42ee23 to access an interactive game about the same topic). This
time, we will talk about more language myths that are important in shaping our cognition about
language and society. These items are taken from Bauer and Trudgill’s dedicated book to the
topic at hand, Language Myths, published in 1998. An interactive version of this activity is found
via the link posted after item 10. Key to corrections and explanations are found at the end of the
module.
Instructions: Choose between true or false after reading and analyzing each statement. Mark
your answers by underlining your choice.
1. The meanings of words should not be allowed to vary or change.
True False
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2. Some languages are not just good enough.
True False
3. Mass media is ruining English.
True False
4. English spelling is kattastroffik.
True False
5. Women talk too much.
True False
6. Children can’t speak or write anymore.
True False
7. Some languages have no grammar.
True False
8. Bad grammar is slovenly
True False
9. TV makes people sound the same.
True False
10. Everyone has an accent except me.
True False
Link to interactive version: https://forms.gle/zKxkUZ9cgZVCCko38
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Lesson 1. Defining Sociolinguistics
I n first year, you were oriented to the figure below taken from David Crystal’s course diagram
for his video recordings Introduction to Language: A Complete Course distributed by
Routledge in 2011. The course diagram shows some of the branches of linguistics distributed
between the structure and use of communication. Structure allows you to study the sound
system of languages (phonetics and phonology), their grammar and semantics. Use on the
others hand allows scholars to determine how the variations of languages figure out across
temporal, regional, social, and personal spaces. In this course, our focus is on social variation:
the relationship between language and society in particular.
Look at the diagram below and try to recall the facts that you have learned from your
previous major courses in phonology, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Retrieved http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415602679/dc-diagram.asp
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Language and Society
Again, from first year’s Introduction to English Language Systems, we defined language
as “a system of arbitrary conventionalized oral, written, and gestured symbols used for human
communication.” An important aspect of this definition is Edward Sapir’s emphasis that
“language is purely human and non-instinctive” (1921). Trudgill (2000) explains that language is
“a very important means of establishing and maintaining relationships with other people” (p. 1).
Without language, it may nearly be impossible to interpret what we mean when we say things as
well understand the world around us. Thus, the creation of a society is beholden to language.
“… A society is any group of people who are drawn together for a certain purpose or purposes”
(Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 1; Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2015, p. 2). The purposes that people aim to
determine and achieve are all interpreted and encoded using language.
The relationship between language and society is grounded on four possibilities:
1. Social structure influences language structure. Merriam-Webster offers two related

definitions of social structure: (a) the internal institutionalized relationships built up by
persons living within a group (such as a family or community) especially with regard to
the hierarchical organization of status and to the rules and principles regulating behavior,
and a simplified version of the previous definition, (b) the social organization of a society
constituting an integrated whole. Linguistic structure, on the other hand, refers to
phonology, networks of semantics, and the overall grammar of a language. Let us take
one type of social structure as an example: social class. People who belong to different
social classes differ in their deployment of language. A family who belongs to the upper
class in the Philippine society does not only differ in terms of economic advantages, i.e.
income, compared with those who belong to the middle and lower classes, but likewise
differ in their use of language. English as language of the home is more common among
people who belong to the upper class, the elites, and to some extent, some upper
middle-class families, but is rare for people who are found in the lower-class category.
We will discuss more about social class in the second module.
2. Linguistic structure influences social structure. Linguistic determinism espouses that
differences among languages influence how and what people think (Comrie, 2020). This
is presented in the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (from the mentor Edward Sapir and his
student Benjamin Lee Whorf, both American linguists and anthropologists) that argue for
the primacy of language in the organization of social structures. For instance, the ‘he’
and ‘she’ dichotomy in speech organizes the relationship between men and women. At
the same time, languages that assign gender to objects versus languages that do not
assign gender to things interpret the world differently (i.e., French versus Filipino).
Language and gender is further discussed in Module 3.
3. Linguistic structure and social structure share a symbiotic relationship. Some linguists
argue that it is not only one that influences the other, or one that leads while the other
follows, but language and society are interdependent. This means that the structures of
languages influence society, but the same structures are likewise influenced by social
norms and behaviors of language users.
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4. Asocial linguistics, or no relationship exists between language and society. Some

linguists, Noam Chomsky and some versions of his Universal Grammar Theory for
instance, prefer to look at language and society as two separate objects of study that are
independent from each other, and that studies that conclude the relationship between
the two are still “premature” (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 10) given our limited knowledge of
these matters.
From among these varying perspectives on the relationship of language and society, we
subscribe to the third: that language and society share a symbiotic relationship. Such a
perspective allows us to navigate smoothly across the discipline called sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistics
“Sociolinguistics … is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a

social and cultural phenomenon” (Trudgill, 2000, p. 21). Sociolinguistics, as one of the
significant branches of linguistics based on its prominence in course offerings in linguistics
courses in the Philippine and abroad, as well as research publications of local and international
scholars of language, is an interdisciplinary endeavor that investigates phenomena that
overlaps with social psychology, human geography, and anthropology. Trudgill (2000, p. 21)
provides the following examples:
The study of attitudes to forms of language, such as the use of non-

prevocalic /r/, is an example of the sort of work carried out under the
heading of the social psychology of language. The study of Njamal
kinship terms, on the other hand, is a good example of anthropological
linguistics, …
The non-prevocalic /r/ is a topic that we will discuss later in Labov’s “The Social Stratification of
(r) in New York City Department Stores” (that appeared in Coupland and Jaworski’s 1997
reader), while anthropological linguistics is a course offered in third year, second semester.
Some scholars of sociolinguistics (or micro-linguistics) necessarily differentiate it from

sociology of language (or macro-linguistics). The table below shows a compilation of the varying
descriptions between sociolinguistics and sociology of language (all from Wardhaugh, 2006).
Sociolinguistics Sociology of Language
- “… Sociolinguistics is concerned with - “… Sociology of language [tries] to discover

investigating the relationships between how social structure can be better understood
language and society with the goal being a through the study of language, e.g., how
better understanding of the structure of certain linguistic features serve to
language and of how languages function in characterize particular social arrangements”
communication” (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 13) (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 13).
- “… Sociolinguistics is ‘the study of language - “… Sociology of language is ‘the study of
in relation to society’ (Hudson, 1996, p. 4 in society in relation to language’ (Hudson,
Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 13) 1996, p. 4 in Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 13)
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- “… ‘Micro-sociolinguistics investigates how - “‘Macro-sociolinguistics, on the other hand,

social structure influences the way people studies what societies do with their
talk and how language varieties and patterns languages, that is, attitudes and attachments
of use correlate with social attributes such as that account for the functional distribution of
class, sex, and age’” (Coulmas, 1997, p. 2 in speech forms in society, language shift,
Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 13) maintenance, and replacement, the
delimitation and interaction of speech
communities’” (Coulmas, 1997, p. 2 in
Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 13)
After reading these descriptions, notice how sociolinguistics seem to perpetuate item two
from the list of four possibilities in the relationship of language and society discussed previously
(linguistic structure influences social structure) whereas sociology of language aligns with the
first item (social structure influences linguistic structure).
Coulmas (1997, p. 3 in Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 14) leaves an important caveat with regard
to this attempt of some sociolinguists to make their discipline rigid with clearly-defined
boundaries:
There is no sharp dividing line between the two, but a large area of
common concern. Although sociolinguistic research centers about a
number of different key issues, any rigid micro-macro
compartmentalization seems quite contrived and unnecessary in the
present state of knowledge about the complex interrelationships between
linguistic and social structures. Contributions to a better understanding of
language as a necessary condition and product of social life will continue
to come from both quarters.
How about you? Do you think it is necessary that we clearly define the boundaries of
sociolinguistics? Why or why not? Write your thoughts below.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Lesson 2. The Task of the Sociolinguist
ardhaugh (2006, p. 6) describes the task of the sociolinguist, “Our task will be one of
W trying to specify the norms of linguistic behavior that exist in particular groups and then
trying to account for individual behavior in terms of these norms … Why does speaker X
behave this way but speaker Y behave that way? To answer that question[,] we must look at
such issues as identity, group membership, power, and socialization.” In other words, the
sociolinguist’s foremost concern is to find variations in language use.
From our discussions during the previous semester, we learned that there are variations
to the use of the English language. These variations may be temporal, such as the variations
among Old, Middle, and Modern English that you learned ahead in your History of the English
Language in first year; or regional, such as the variations between American English and British
English, or the linguistic features of Philippine English (phonological, morphological, syntactic,
and discourse) that sets it apart from other Englishes in the world that we tried to disambiguate
in our Varieties of English class in second year. However, apart from these two, variations may
likewise appear in the social and personal uses of English. One of the main differences between
the former (temporal and geographical) to the latter (social and personal) is the size of
population or sample needed to describe the levels and types of variation. While temporal and
regional accounts for variation in large amounts of data, social variation, especially personal
variation, focuses on more manageable sizes of samples to conduct linguistic description.
However, sociolinguistics is not merely accounting for linguistic variations (that was our
task last semester in Varieties of English). This time, we need to look at how these variations
create nuances in terms of power, solidarity, identity, among others. For example, if you can still
remember our discussion about the lectal variation in Philippine English: acrolect, mesolect, and
basilect, Tayao’s (2008) study described the phonological differences in terms of vowel and
consonant sounds among the three categories of speakers. Acrolect variety speakers, based on
Tayao’s (2008) study, can produce more vowel sounds that appear in the General American
English (GAE) inventory, whereas mesolect and basilect variety speakers tend to conflate or
reduce some sounds in speech, such as /e/ and /i/ setting them apart from other speakers of the
Philippine variety of English. A sociolinguistic approach to the same study will continue the
analysis from linguistic variation to, perhaps, group membership, identity formation, or solidarity
among participants who speak the different varieties of English. Thus, linguistic variation in
sociolinguistic is not the mean to an end, but an entryway to the more complex understanding of
how language works in a given society. Chambers (2003, p. 226, in Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 12)
posted a significant question that a sociolinguist should answer, “Upon observing variability, we
seek its social correlates. What is the purpose of the variation? How is it evaluated in the
community? What do its variants symbolize?”
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Lesson 3. Sociolinguistic Research
A llow me to begin this lesson by quoting heavily from Wardhaugh (2006) who clearly
explains what sociolinguistic research is and what it is exactly for:
Whatever sociolinguistics is, it must be oriented toward both data and

theory: that is, any conclusions we come to must be solidly based on
evidence. Above all, our research must be motivated by questions that
can be answered in an approved scientific way. Data collected for the
sake of collecting data are of little interest, since without some kind of
focus – that is, without some kind of non-trivial motive for collection –
they can tell us little or nothing. A set of random observations about how
a few people we happen to observe use language cannot lead us to any
useful generalizations about behavior, either linguistic or social. We
cannot be content with ‘butterfly collecting,’ no matter how beautiful the
specimens are! We must collect data for a purpose and that purpose
should be to find an answer, or answers, to an interesting question.
Questions phrased in ways that do not allow for some kind of empirical
testing have no more than a speculative interest (p.17).
Here, Wardhaugh (2006) emphasizes the importance of a (1) good question, (2) equally
good data to bear the quality of the question posted in the project (Wardhaugh and Fuller,
2015), and (3) sound intention in conducting a sociolinguistic research. This means that
conducting a sociolinguistic research must be geared towards contributing significant knowledge
to the field and not simply doing a project because the researcher thinks the topic is interesting.
More than this, data gathering and analysis in sociolinguistic projects is difficult and sensitive,
thus Wardhaugh (2006) advised against “butterfly collecting.”
Of course, we must contextualize Wardhaugh (2006) when he said these things. This
description primarily applies to experts and researchers in the field and less to practicing
students like you. As much as you want to contribute significant knowledge to the discipline, you
have to remember your limitations as students. This includes your maturity, your available
resources, as well as the mode of learning that we employ in the midst of the pandemic. So, do
not worry, because my expectations to your project shall be adjusted to our current situation.
However, this does not mean that you may just do whatever is easy for you. There must still be
a challenge in conducting your project, otherwise it will not be a meaningful learning experience.
Types of Sociolinguistic Research
Wardhaugh and Fuller (2015, p. 17) enumerate some of the types of sociolinguistic
research that you may employ in your own projects:
1. Correlational studies. This type attempts to compare how two or more variables compare
when they are related to each other. Let us go back to a previous example that relates
the pronunciation of /e/ and /i/ (linguistic structure) among people from different social
classes: acrolect, mesolect, and basilect variety speakers (social structure). Here,
linguistic structure is the dependent variable while the lectal category is the independent
13
variable. These two types are significant in correlation studies. Correlational studies are
often quantitative and uses sophisticated statistical formula such as t-test. You will learn
more about correlational studies in your research class (taken this same semester).
2. Microlinguistic studies. This type attempts to study a very specific phenomenon among a
particular group of language users. For instance, Labov’s study on prevocalic /r/ is a
microlinguistic study. Similarly, the example previously given on /e/ and /i/ is likewise a
microlinguistic study since it conducts a specific study on the variation in the production
of two linguistic units among three specific categories of speakers in the Philippines.
3. Discourse analysis. Unlike microlinguistic studies, discourse analysis looks at larger
chunks of texts, i.e. conversations, paragraphs, narratives, and how particular discourse
structures serve social purposes. For instance, rhetorical patterns employed by selected
administration and opposition politicians in their political speeches is a discourse
analysis project. Discourse analysis is a course offered to you alongside sociolinguistics.
4. Macrolinguistic studies. This type attempts to cover large amounts of data to describe a
social phenomenon. For example, reasons for Filipino students’ failure to secure a
decent spot in international tests of performance. This study draws from the assessment
of the implementation of various language policies alongside students’ performance for a
considerable period of time.
5. Critical analysis. This type focuses specifically on disambiguating power structures
perpetuated by the deployment of a particular linguistic structure. For instance, my
previous example about the varying rhetorical patterns in political speeches shows the
power relations attempted by two groups: administration and (or versus) opposition, and
how these influences social change.
There are many other types of sociolinguistic research methods that you can apply to
your project. Some types will appear in our discussion in the succeeding module, others you
may encounter through your private readings especially once you start building your annotated
bibliography.
What you should prioritize at this point is the creation of your datasets for analysis. A
dataset may be composed of “censuses, documents, surveys, interviews, and recordings of
interactions in both public and private spheres” (Wardhaugh & Fuller, 2011, 18). These may be
naturally-occurring text-and-talk (a word that you will often encounter in your Discourse Analysis
course) or may be induced using various elicitation techniques such as interview guides or
writing prompts. What is crucial in your data gathering and analysis is the strict adherence to
ethical procedures especially when dealing with human subjects (in case you will choose to
work on naturally-occurring linguistic events that involve live participants). In other institutions, a
rigid evaluation by a dedicated ethics committee is conducted before researchers are allowed to
interact with human participants. This is to ensure that research will be conducted following
ethical protocols that will not influence people to suddenly change perspectives (data
contamination), or that no harm will happen to either the researchers or human subjects. On the
other hand, research may be expedited if data is less sensitive compared with live human
participants. This category includes publicly-available data such as videos or images that are
unlicensed (such as YouTube videos).
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Lesson 4. The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City

Department Stores (Labov, 1966)
R ead Appendix A The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City Department Stores
(Labov, 1966/1972, in Coupland and Jaworski, 1997) and identify the following sections
from the paper: the problem, methodology, results and discussion, and conclusions. Write
your answers in the worksheet below.
The problem
Methodology
Relevant results
Conclusions
15
Final Paper Mechanics Review/Overview
1. Choose an item (linguistic structure) in Philippine English that exhibits variability (refer to
lessons in the previous semester).
2. Gather tokens from online sources (linguistic data + demographic information).
3. Once you have collected enough tokens (about 50), analyze the variation.
This means that you will look at, for example, how often different
social groups (for example, groups by age or gender) used each
of the variants and then compare groups to each other (for
example, men to women). You might find, for example, that only
women use “whom” and that men rarely do. You should also look
at other variables such as settings or regions of origin. You might
find, for example, that “whom” only occurs in print and never (or
rarely) in spoken language. Your data probably won’t fall into
discrete categories, but you will notice tendencies for there to be
factors that condition the occurrence of specific variants
(Lindemann, “AL8470”).
4. Write your paper.
Final Task
Review the expected final output and schedule in the syllabus found in the preliminary
section of this module. Create an action plan towards the fulfillment of the final output. Fill-out
the guide below using a pencil. This will allow you to change some of the tasks and deadlines
that you will set for yourself beginning today. We will return to this action plan many times within
the semester so keep it updated.
Since your resources in terms of hardware (i.e., computer) and software (i.e. Office,
browser, and Internet connectivity) are limited (this is based on your choice in the preliminary
survey conducted during the enrollment), instead of the group performance and output you are
expected for this course in the face-to-face and/or online setup, you are allowed to work
independently. This is to minimize your interaction with peers using online channels that may
require you to consume additional resources. In terms of the guidance I can give you while
writing your paper, refer to the syllabus for the phone call sessions that you may avail in the
duration of the semester (I will call you; do not call me, or if you will for emergency
purposes related to your research paper, practice usual phone call etiquette).
Communicate with your class officers who will be in charge of sending to me the phone
numbers of students who exclusively work on printed modules.
Important note: We have been warned against students who will change their preference
within the semester, i.e. from online to offline and vice versa. This will not be allowed according
to the Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs.
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Research Action Plan
Name of student: ____________________

Course, year and section: ______________
Tentative revised topic: _______________
Schedule Suggested tasks Student’s remarks Teacher’s

remarks
These are Identify your activities (i.e. thinking Write your notes for yourself This space is
the dates of of topic, preparing the annotated or for me here. It may help to dedicated for my
the bibliography, data gathering, data write your questions and comments and
semester. analysis, writing the paper, editing comments here so it will be suggestions. You
This is pre- the paper, etc.) that will lead to the easy to find them during our may write here the
filled out. final activities that are found pre- phone call sessions. Write comments and
filled towards the end of the form. updates once your questions suggestions that I
are resolved during the phone will tell you during
call sessions. the phone call
sessions.
September
28-October
3
October
05-10
October
12-17
October
19-24
October
26-31
November 2 – Holiday; November 3-8 – Midterm Examinations

November
09-14
17
November
16-21
We may schedule the final presentation/consultations anytime beyond this date. Send me an
SMS with the date and time of your preference.
November
23-28
December
01-05
December
07-12
December
14-19
January
04-09
January
11-16
January
18-23
January 25-30 Submission of the Final Paper (Note: This shall be done via courier. Let me
know your address and the date when you plan to submit your module and the final paper so I
can have the documents retrieved.)
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Module 2: Language and Social Class

Learning Outcomes
1. defined concepts significant to the topic: social stratification, idiolect, sociolect, etc.; and
2. determined how language creates social divisions among people and from here, think of
possible ways to soften social class divisions enacted by people’s deployment and
consumption of language.
Brainstorming Session
Analyze the table below from Wordpress. The table presents the different socioeconomic
classes in the Philippines (x-axis) and [some of] the determinants to the stratification (y-axis).
After reading the contents of the table, answer the following activity.
1. Mark the items that you think do not appropriately apply to the Philippine society based
on your observation of your immediate community and your personal experiences.
2. From the items that remain, identify the social structures (i.e., age, sex, education) that
you think you can use in writing a sociolinguistic survey of a group of language users.
Write your answers in the space provided below.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. Based on your observation of and experiences in the larger Philippine community, what
linguistic markers in English differentiate each of the socioeconomic classes? Use the
table below to curate your answers.
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Class AB
Upper C
Broad C
4. There is an inherent injustice in the ways people are divided in socioeconomic classes.
The table is in fact a model of the unequal and unfair distribution of resources among
people. Today, we witness the augmentation of the gap among the social classes: the
rich continues to amass more wealth and power, while the poor remain exploited and
marginalized. Your answers in item 3 show how English facilitates socioeconomic class
divisions. The AB are marked by their unique uses of English that separates them from
D and E. As a language student, what do you think you can do to soften, if not mitigate,
the divisive tendency of English among the different social classes?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
20
Paz, 2020
Retrieved https://asintunado.files.wordpress.com/2018/02/socio-economic-class.png
Disclaimer: The website where I copied the table claims its origin from the National Economic Development Authority
(NEDA). However, I did not find the same illustration in the NEDA official website. Nonetheless, the table contains
relatively good representation of how socioeconomic stratification may be imagined in the country. Still, practice
critical thinking in your analysis since there are highly contentious items in the table, i.e. descriptors to ‘education of
the household’ that does not accurately depict the reality.
Lesson 1. Early Works on Linguistic and Social

Variation
ne of the earliest works that attempted to describe the

O linguistic variation that exists in a society that practices
rigid social grouping is Gumperz’s (1958) work on the
village of Khalapur in India. In your history class in Senior
High School, you learned about the caste system in India.
Indians are largely classified into the touchables and the
untouchables. Touchables include the three topmost castes:
Brahmans (the highest caste; usually includes the ‘priestly’),
21
Rajpuls (warrior-rulers), and Vaishyas (merchants). The large middle class, mostly laborers and
artisans likewise below to this category. On the other hand, the Chamars, or landless laborers,
comprise the untouchables. They are the Jati Chamars or leatherworkers, and Bhangis or
sweepers. There is likewise the minority of Muslims who are categorized into the untouchables.
Gumperz (1958) work primarily focuses on the phonological features of the village dialect of
Hindu. Such an endeavor was able to reveal the composition of subgroups in the society and
their linguistic similarities and differences.
Here are some of the important details from Gumperz (1958) study:
The problem The present analysis deals with the village dialect only. Differences occur on
the phonological and lexical level, but only phonological variants are used in
the grouping of subdialects. This has not been the practice in the past.
Previous studies employ lexical as well as phonological and morphological
criteria and do little in the way of structural analysis. There are a number of
reasons in favor of the present approach. Phonological features lend
themselves to classification according to the degree of structural relevance
and thus provide a reliable tool for estimating the importance of a particular
difference. They are automatic and more closely imbedded in our habit
pattern than lexical items, and are therefore less subject to change when in
contact with variant dialect forms. Furthermore[,] they present less difficulty in
obtaining reliable responses, since forms can be elicited without the
informant being aware of which features interest the linguist (pp. 669-670).
Methodology As a first step, the phonemic structure of the village dialect was determined
from the speech of one informant. The statements were checked for
completeness with several other informants, and notes were kept on any
dialect differences found. These notes were expanded by observations made
in informal conversations with a wide variety of villagers on topics not
connected with the linguistic study. A questionnaire was then prepared on the
basis of the notes. The information obtained from this questionnaire was
analyzed and a series of hypotheses was drawn up regarding dialect
distribution. These hypotheses were again tested over a period of several
months through informal observation of the speech of all caste groups
concerned. A number of tape recordings of village speech were also made.
The linguistic data were supplemented by a series of interviews with a cross-

section of informants for the purpose of determining the extent to which
villagers are aware of the caste differences in speech and the function of the
differences in determining caste status. Information from these interviews is
presented along with the list of differences (p. 670).
Relevant results (From Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 147) So far as language is concerned, certain
characteristics of the Khalapur village dialect are clear markers of social-
group membership. For example, Bhangis do not make certain phonological
contrasts that speakers of all the other castes make. Chamars and Jatia
Chamars also lack certain phonological contrasts made by all others, and
some, in attempting to make such a contrast, actually hypercorrect; that is,
they over-extend a particular usage in trying to emulate others. Jatia
22
Paz, 2020
Chamars have a characteristic pronunciation of words that end in [æ] in all

other village varieties. Each of the three untouchable castes therefore has
speech characteristics that clearly set it off both from the other two
untouchable castes and from the touchable castes in the village. Muslim
speech resembles that of the touchable classes.
Conclusions The above data should be sufficient for some preliminary conclusions. It is
clear that the linguistic differences represent social and not geographical
groupings, since members of the same caste living in different sections of the
village speak the same dialect. There is some correlation between the
linguistic groupings and ritual status. Both agree in setting off the
untouchables from the majority group and from each other. The distinction
between high and middle castes, however, is not reflected in village speech,
and on the other hand the differences between C and G patti, old fashioned
speech and the Standard, have no relation to ritual status (p. 681).
Note: Refer to Appendix B for the full copy of Gumperz’ (1958) research.
Lesson 2. Challenges in Describing Linguistic Variation Against Social Class
R eading Gumperz’ (1958) research may seem to make linguistic description correlated
against social class easy. After all, Gumperz (1958) used a society that distinctly
measures people’s worth based on the caste they were born – a “sharp social
stratification” according to Wardhaugh (2006, p. 147). This means that the determination of
social groupings is as easy as going around a village and asking people the caste where they
belong. However, imagine other societies, such as our own Philippine context, where “social
class” carries a very loose definition. While some are quantifiable such as sex, age, level of
education, monthly income, professional or religious group membership, and occupation, there
are sensitive areas such as gender, lifestyle, and race and ethnicity that are difficult, if not
impossible, to scale. By ‘scale,’ Wardhaugh (2006, p. 148) provides several great examples that
you can use in your project in case you choose to write about social class variation:
An occupational scale may divide people into a number of categories as

follows: major professionals and executives of large businesses; lesser
professionals and executives of medium-sized businesses; semi-
professionals; technicians and owners of small businesses; skilled
workers; semi-skilled workers; and unskilled workers. An educational
scale may employ the following categories: graduate or professional
education; college or university degree; attendance at college or
university but no degree; high school graduation; some high school
education; and less than seven years of formal education. Income level
as well as source of income are important factors in any classification
system that focuses on how much money people have. Likewise, in
considering where people live, investigators must concern themselves
with both the type of housing and its location.
These scales maybe used alongside one another or may be discussed in separate projects.
These scales also vary from community to community, so it is important to thoroughly study the
context of the project so that nuances to selected social scale (or scales) are clearly specified.
23
Again, the thorough analysis of the context that goes alongside the preparation of your
annotated bibliography is a difficult process, so consider your limitations as researcher
(discussed previously in Lesson 1). I suggest that you replicate scales used previously by other
researchers rather than make and describe your own, although the latter will make a better
project – one that is more authentic to your chosen context, rather than importing a foreign scale
from another context. Take what Labov (1997, p. 172) did in his study in New York department
stores,
A socioeconomic index which ranked New Yorkers on occupation would

show the employees of the three stores at the same level; an income
scale would probably find Macy's employees somewhat higher than the
others; education is the only objective scale which might differentiate the
groups in the same order as the prestige of the stores, though there is no
evidence on this point. However, the working conditions of sales jobs in
the three stores stratify them in the order: Saks, Macy's, Kleins; the
prestige of the stores leads to a social evaluation of these jobs in the
same order. Thus the two aspects of social stratification - differentiation
and evaluation- are to be seen in the relations of the three stores and
their employees.
Here, we see the three scales used by Labov (1958): education, occupation, and income. In a
much longer work (a full book of the same topic and title), Labov (1958) presents a more
specific description of his scale:
Social Descriptive Education Occupation Income

Class category
0 Lower class Had grade school Laborers Difficulty in making
education or less ends meet
1 Working class Had some high Blue-collar workers Earn enough to
2 school education own such things as
3 cars
4
5
6 Lower middle class High school Semi-professional Can send their
7 graduates and white-collar children to college
8 workers
9 Upper middle class Not included in the study
10 Upper class Not included in the study
24
Paz, 2020
Lesson 3. Sociolectal Variation
I n the previous semester, we talked about the sociolectal variation committed by speakers of
Philippine English in the level of phonology from the work of Tayao (2008). Tayao (2008)
adapted the terms used in the much earlier work of Llamzon (1969), acrolect, mesolect, and
basilect variety speakers. Here’s a table from my own project that organizes the definitions of
the sociolectal categories from the works of both Llamzon and Tayao:
For more information regarding the results of Tayao’s research, I invite you to go back to
the actual copy of her project provided to you last semester. Analyze the way Tayao (2008)
phrased her problem, methodology, results, and discussion as reference to your own research.
25
Idiolect vs. Sociolect
Idiolect refers to linguistic variation in the levels of phonology, lexis, grammar, and
style performed by an individual speaker of a language or dialect of a language. On the other
hand, sociolect refers to linguistic variation in the level of phonology, lexis, grammar, and
style performed by people who belong to a social group or sector of the society, i.e. media
personalities, teachers, laymen (religious group), political leaders, etc.
Final Task
For your final activity this week, you will return to the table you previously filled out.
Notice the changes in the header of the table and provide the necessary information. You may
adjust the tasks that you wrote last week to suit your new timeframe. Use a pen with blue ink
this time.
Research Accomplishment Report
Name of student: ____________________

Schedule Tasks Accomplishments Student’s remarks

These are The tasks you have set out Write your accomplishments Write your notes for yourself
the dates of for yourself to accomplish for the specified dates, i.e. or for me here. It may help
the per week. Refer to your searching, collating, and to write your questions and
semester. action plan and simply copy reading relevant literature; comments here so it will be
This is pre- or adjust your weekly tasks. preparing the annotated easy to find them during our
filled out. bibliography; setting out phone call sessions. Write
data gathering prompts; updates once your
data gathering; data questions are resolved
analyzing; writing the during the phone call
introduction; etc. sessions.
September
28-October
3
October
05-10
26
Paz, 2020
Module 3: Language and Gender

Learning Outcomes
1. defined concepts significant to the topic: sex and gender, sexuality, queer linguistics,
etc.; and
2. determine ways to deploy language more as an equalizing tool rather than an instrument
for division among genders.
Read the following poem from the widely-acclaimed American poet e.e. cummings.
While some significant portions of the text are deliberately removed, the voices created by the
poet are still very much audible to the ears (and to the mind). Your task after reading the poem
is to answer the following activity.
1. Determine the number of speakers in the poem. The number of speakers will be
reflected by the number of colored markers that you will use to identify each speaker.
2. Highlight the lines uttered by one speaker using a colored marker. Use other colors to
highlight the lines uttered by other speakers.
3. Finally, determine the gender of each speaker. Point out clues that help you answer this
question by underlining words or lines from the poem.
4. The full copy of the poem is found at the end of this learning material.
27
may i feel
by e.e. cummings
may i feel
(i’ll squeal
just once)
it’s fun
(may i touch
how much
a lot)
why not
(let’s go
not too far
what’s too far
where you are)
may i stay
(which way
like this
if you kiss
may i move
is it love)
if you’re willing
(but you’re killing
but it’s life

but your wife
now)
ow
(tiptop
don’t stop
oh no)
go slow
(cccome?
ummm)
you’re divine!
(you are Mine)
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Paz, 2020
Lesson 1. Sex and Gender
O ne topic that gained significant attention among sociolinguists in at least the last decade is
the variation that exists in the deployment of language between men and women. Such
reduction may come as a surprise to you since the title of the module specifically states
‘gender’ and not ‘sex.’ If you feel this way, then your previous education have successfully
ingrained upon you the semantics of gender and sex: the former as an object of society, while
the other of science. However, a quick review of relevant literature (digested from Wardhaugh
and then presented in the succeeding section for easy reading) reveals that often,
sociolinguistic inquiry focuses on sex rather than the gender that the umbrella term employs.
Over the years, scholars have more comfortable with the title “Language and Gender” rather
than “Language and Sex.” To be fair, issues on representation, to some extent, have been
resolved with the arrival of queer linguistics or lavender linguistics (Wardhaugh, 2006) that we
will discuss much later in the module.
I will no longer construe the terminological differences between gender and sex in this
lesson. I am sure you have had a lot of similar discussions in the past (if not, the American
Psychological Association offers a comprehensive set of FAQs that discuss these matters).
What I would like to focus on in this lesson is the direction that such dichotomy makes,
especially when we try to understand (position, maybe?) where a person belongs the spectrum
of gender identities.
Mascolo (2019) writes about the contradictions that exist in the concept of gender as a
product of social interactions that people make. Here are the salient points of his essay:
1. gender cannot simultaneously be socially constructed and inherent to the individual;

2. gender identity cannot be simultaneously self-chosen and the product of socialization;
3. gender identity cannot simultaneously be invisible and socially verifiable;
4. gender cannot be both independent of sex and defined with reference to sex;
5. the human experience is not divided into separate biological and socially constructed
parts; and
6. the mere difference between gender and sex doesn't mean that one replaces the other.
Mascolo’s (2019) resolution is presented in his final statement, “Persons are not fixed beings
with fixed natures. If we want to understand persons, we must look at them as individuals who
develop over time as products of complex relations between their biology and their cultures.”
Thus, while sex categorization, i.e., male, female, and intersex, is incontestable primarily for
reasons related to “physical attributes such as chromosomes, hormone prevalence, and
external and internal anatomy” (“Transgender People,” APA, 2014), gender is more complex
than the usual “gender is socially constructed” notion. Gender is not a static, stable concept
confined into standard categories of the mainstream lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer
(LGBTQ+), but rather it is fluid, sometimes even volatile, and often negotiated intra and
interpersonally as it develops in the course of a person’s lifetime. You can read more of
Mascolo’s (2019) essay in Appendix C.
29
Do you agree with Mascolo that we need to “move beyond” the concept of gender as
product of social construction? What do you think lies beyond this movement?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Lesson 2. Linguistic Sex Differentiation
T rudgill (2000, p. 61) explains the reason for the primacy of sex among topics in the field of
sociolinguistics,
You might perhaps think that the first thing you notice about someone
when you meet them for the first time is their clothes, or their voice, or
their eyes, or their smile. If you did think this, however, you would be
quite wrong. Actually, the first thing you notice about somebody when
you first meet them is what sex they are. This is so obvious that we do
not even think about it. The division of the human race into male and
female is so fundamental and obvious that we take it for granted.
These differences are often “signaled grammatically” (Trudgill, 2000, p. 62) or encoded in the
grammars of different languages. For example,
1. In German, … you have to specify whether a friend is male, Freund, or

female, Freundin (Trudgill, 2000, p. 61).
2. [In] French, … you have to specify whether you are talking about a
cousin or a cousine (Trudgill, 2000, p. 61).
3. Some languages, like Hungarian and Finnish, have no sex-marking on
pronouns at all. In Finnish, the word hän can be equivalent to either he or
she, and in Hungarian on also means both 'he' and 'she' (Trudgill, 2000,
p. 62).
4. English have sex-marking but only in the third-person singular – he
versus she – while others, such as French, have it also in the third
person plural: ils 'they masculine' as opposed to elles 'they feminine'
(Trudgill, 2000, p. 62).
5. In French: une étudiante très intelligente (feminine) versus un étudiant
très intelligent (masculine) 'a very clever student' (Trudgill, 2000, p. 62).
6. In Gros Ventre, for example, an American Indian language from the
north-eastern USA, palatalized dental stops in men's speech correspond
30
Paz, 2020
to palatalized velar stops in the speech of women – men: /djatsa/;

women: /kjatsa/ 'bread' (Trudgill, 2000, p. 64; Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 318).
7. In Yukaghir, a north-east Asian language, /tj/ and /dj/ in male speech
correspond to /ts/ and /dz/ in the speech of women (Trudgill, 2000, p. 64;
Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 318).
8. In a Siberian language, Chukchi, men, but not women, often drop /n/ and
/t/ when they occur between vowels, e.g., female nitvaqenat and male
nitvaqaat (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 318).
9. In Montreal many more men than women do not pronounce the l in the
pronouns il and elle (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 318).
10. Japanese women show they are women when they speak, for example,
by the use of a sentence-final particle ne or another particle wa. In
Japanese, too, a male speaker refers to himself as boku or ore whereas
a female uses watasi or atasi. Whereas a man says boku kaeru ‘I will go
back’ in plain or informal speech, a woman says watasi kaeru wa
(Takahara, 1991 in Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 320).
11. In polite conversation a female speaker of Thai refers to herself as
dìchan whereas a man uses phoˇm. In Thai, too, women emphasize a
repeated action through reduplication, i.e., by repeating the verb,
whereas men place a descriptive verb, mak, after the verb instead
(Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 320).
12. Men ‘gossip’ just as much as women do (Pilkington, 1998 in Wardhaugh,
2006); men’s gossip is just different. Men indulge in a kind of phatic small
talk that involves insults, challenges, and various kinds of negative
behavior to do exactly what women do by their use of nurturing, polite,
feedback-laden, cooperative talk. In doing this, they achieve the kind of
solidarity they prize. It is the norms of behavior that are different
(Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 317).
13. Women are more likely than men to be addressed by their first names
when everything else is equal, or, if not by first names, by such terms as
lady, miss, or dear, and even baby or babe (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 322).
14. Women are … said not to employ the profanities and obscenities men
use, or, if they do, use them in different circumstances or are judged
differently for using them (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 322).
In this lesson, I will present a list the examples that Trudgill (2000) and Wardhaugh
(2006) presented in their books. These examples show some of the research on English
language and gender (or language and sex) investigated by sociolinguists.
1. In Detroit, higher-class speakers use fewer instances of nonstandard

multiple negation (e.g. I don't want none) than lower-class speakers.
Allowing for social class, however, women on average use fewer such
forms than men do (Trudgill, 2000, p. 70).
2. In the speech of Detroit Blacks, … women use a far higher percentage of
non-prevocalic /r/ (a prestige feature here as in New York) than men,
allowing for social class (Trudgill, 2000, p. 71).
3. Lakoff (1973 in Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 318-319), claims that women use
color words like mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, and magenta but
31
most men do not. She also maintains that adjectives such as adorable,
charming, divine, lovely, and sweet are also commonly used by women
but only very rarely by men. Women are also said to have their own
vocabulary for emphasizing certain effects on them, words and
expressions such as so good, such fun, exquisite, lovely, divine,
precious, adorable, darling, and fantastic.
4. Brend (1975 in Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 321) claims that the intonation
patterns of men and women vary somewhat, women using certain
patterns associated with surprise and politeness more often than men.
5. Lakoff says that women may answer a question with a statement that
employs the rising intonation pattern usually associated with a question
rather than the falling intonation pattern associated with making a firm
statement. According to Lakoff, women do this because they are less
sure about themselves and their opinions than are men. For the same
reason, she says that women often add tag questions to statements,
e.g., ‘They caught the robber last week, didn’t they?’ (Wardhaugh, 2006,
p. 321).
6. One analysis of how women are presented in a set of cartoons produced
some interesting findings (Kramer, 1974). The cartoons were taken from
thirteen issues of The New Yorker magazine published between
February 17 and May 12, 1973. The analysis showed that, when both
genders were represented in the cartoon, men spoke twice as much as
women. In the cartoons men and women also spoke on different topics,
with men holding forth on such topics as business, politics, legal matters,
taxes, and sports, and women on social life, books, food and drink, life’s
troubles, and lifestyle. Women spoke less forcefully than men, and men
swore much more than women. Men were also more blunt and to the
point in their speaking (in Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 324).
7. The mhmm a woman uses quite frequently means only ‘I’m listening,’
whereas the mhmm a man uses, but much less frequently, tends to
mean ‘I’m agreeing.’ Consequently, men often believe that ‘women are
always agreeing with them and then conclude that it’s impossible to tell
what a woman really thinks,’ whereas ‘women . . . get upset with men
who never seem to be listening’ (Maltz and Borker, 1982, p. 202 in
Wardhaugh, 2006, pp. 327-328).
What accounts for differences in the linguistic behavior of men and women as
observed in the abovementioned research? Trudgill (2000, p. 73) reports two
speculations of sociolinguists:
1. working-class speech, like certain other aspects of working-class culture in our

society, seems to have connotations of or associations with masculinity; and
2. many societies seem to expect a higher level of adherence to social norms
better behavior-from women than they do from men.
32
Paz, 2020
Lesson 3. Queer Linguistics
W ardhaugh (2006, p. 332) defines queer linguistics, or sometimes even

called lavender linguistics, as studies that deal with the language
deployed by the LGBTQ+. The focus of such projects are towards
‘sexuality’ rather than gender and sex, or, in other words, the performance of
gender identities that encompasses the medical (including psychological) and
physiological characteristics of sexual behavior.
An example of a work on queer linguistics performed by a Filipino scholar is Casabal’s

(2008) work on ‘gay language.’ I invite you to read Casabal (2008) in Appendix D. After reading
the text, identify the following sections of his research. Take note of Casabal’s presentation of
his problem, methodology, results and discussion, and conclusion. Use the worksheet below.
The problem
Methodology
Relevant results
Conclusions
33
Final Task
For your final activity this week, again, you will return and update the table you
previously filled out. Remember to use a pen with blue ink in filling out the worksheet below.
Name of student: ____________________


September
28-October
3
October
05-10
October
12-17
October
19-24
Note: Wait for my advice for your activities for Week 6 October 19-24. You may use the last row
in the worksheet above to update your accomplishment report.
34
Paz, 2020
Module 4: Language and the Nation

Learning Outcomes
1. defined concepts significant to the topic: bilingualism, multilingualism, language

planning, etc.; and
2. determine language-related issues to law and order, nationalism, and identity formation.
Wait for my advice for this

week.
35
The Annotated Bibliography
A great way to organize your notes while you are reading your review of related literature
(RRL) entries is through an annotated bibliography (AB). The AB may be structured in any
way that you find your sources in an orderly fashion, however it will greatly help if we
agree to follow one format that will help us easily track where significant sections are found.
During the previous semester, we discussed the format of the AB that I expect you to follow.
Therefore, this lesson shall only serve as a review of the procedure in preparing your AB.
The APA Handbook 7th Edition
The American Psychological Association released its 7th edition of its handbook in
October 2019. If you have used the earlier versions of the APA handbook, you will find that the
7th edition was made simpler to only include the bare essentials in the preparation of the
bibliography. For instance, the basic format for books is as follows:
Surname, Initials & Surname, Initials. (Year of publication). Title of work: Subtitle of work in
sentence case. Name of publisher.
Editions and volumes, if they apply to the book, appear in parentheses. On the hand, a chapter
in an edited book appears as follows:
Surname, Initials & Surname, Initials. (Year of publication). Title of chapter in sentence case.
In Initials Surname & Initials Surname (Eds.), Title of book: Subtitle of book in
sentence case (pp. page numbers). Name of publisher.
Unlike in the earlier editions of the handbook that only prescribe citing the first six names
in a work authored my multiple writers, APA 7th edition allows up to 19 names with the last
truncated using an ellipsis. However, for in-text citations, you may start using et al. after the
name of the first author for works with at least three authors.
For electronic sources, the basic format is,
Surname, Initials. (Year, Month Date). Title of page in sentence case. Name of website. URL
36
Paz, 2020
Take note that the unlike in the previous versions, the ‘retrieved on’ and then date is no longer
required. However, if you think the website is likely to change content, include the retrieval
date. Also, the month and date when the material is made available online are included in the
7th edition. However, if the information are not available online, the year shall remain, or if no
date is available, put ‘n.d.’
The resource available at the website of Purdue University shall guide you with the rest
of the citation styles: journal articles with and without DOI, print and online newspapers, among
other print and nonprint resources. It is important to check the accuracy of your citation so there
will be no need for you to return to all of your readings towards the end of writing your paper just
so you will find the relevant information needed in your bibliography.
Knowing and following the correct citation format, both in text and bibliography, is
important in preparing your AB.
The Annotated Bibliography
The AB provides space for the organization of the details of your readings, your
assessment of these details (whether they are relevant to your current project or you plan to use
them for your future projects), your explanation, as well as your summary and synthesis of
relevant sources. My format of the AB consists of three columns:
References Quotations Paraphrase, summary, synthesis

This is where you This is where you will copy and paste This is where your analysis,
will write your biblio- relevant sections from your readings. paraphrase, summary, or your own
graphic entries in Remember that not all of the entries thoughts will appear. You may write
APA; write them that appear in this column shall these as you are progressing through
here before, halfway automatically appear on your paper. your readings. Once you finish a
through, or before Sometimes, the quoted sections are considerable number of texts, you may
you end with a meant for later analysis, say you do not start writing your synthesis. A synthesis
reading so that you have the energy to think about a is a comparison of several texts, i.e.
will not forget to relevant section of your readings the results of research A is similar with
efficiently curate anymore, you may copy the section that of research B, or the results of
your sources. here and return to it after a while. Some research A contradicts research B, etc.
quoted statements are also meant for
future projects and not for the current If you write on this section well, the
project. Remember to copy the page contents of this column shall compose
number (books, journals) or paragraph your paper. Just remember to add
number (websites, e-newspapers) of transitional words and phrases to
the statement you are copying. achieve cohesion in your composition.
The AB is usually formatted in horizontal view (landscape) so that ample space may be
used for the content of each column.
37
Module 5: Sociolinguistics in the Philippines

Learning Outcomes
1. traced the origins and development of sociolinguistic research in the Philippines; and
2. determine trends and gaps in local sociolinguistic research.
Read Appendix E Philippine English Revisited (Martin, 2014) and fill-out the table below.
Put + under the domains that Martin (2014) considers stratifying/differentiating and – under the
domains that Martin (2014) does not consider stratifying/differentiating. After this, answer the
question that immediately follows.
Stratification of Philippine English Speakers (Martin, 2014)
Education Affluence Influence Awareness Accessibility Attitude*

Inner
circle
Philippine
English
Outer
circle
Philippine
English
Expanding
circle
Philippine
English
*Towards Philippine English, including acceptance
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Do you agree with Martin’s (2014) stratification of Philippine English speaker? Write a short
paragraph to support your answer.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Instructions: Read Appendices F Some Philippine sociolinguistic concerns: 1967-1992

(Sibayan, 1984), G Sociolinguistics in the Philippines (Gonzalez, 1985), H Agenda for
Sociolinguistics in the Philippines for the 21st century (Borlongan, 2018), and I Malaysia,
Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines (Wee, 2010) before you continue into the lessons. The
module is divided into three themes: sociolinguistics in the Philippines in the past, the present,
and the future. Supply the content of the module by answering the questions in each lesson.
Lesson 1. The Development of Sociolinguistics in the Philippines
Read the following questions and supply your answers in the spaces provided. Use a separate
sheet that you will attach to this page when necessary.
1. What projects initially launched linguistics in the Philippines? What factors allowed
linguistics to develop into a professional career in the Philippines?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Sibayan (1984) writes that one major concern of sociolinguistics in the future (his future
perspective) is the possible “deterioration” of English. Do you think Sibayan, in 1984,
held a legitimate concern? Do you think this dilemma still holds true today?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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3. Sibayan (1984) observes that in terms of language policy in schools, the will of people’s
representatives (politicians) apply without much resistance from the public. Do you think
this still holds true today? Provide examples to your answer. Cite relevant laws and
house bills if you can.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Lesson 2. Trends and Gaps in Sociolinguistic Research
Read the following questions and supply your answers in the spaces provided. Use a separate
1. Based on the articles that you have read (Sibayan, 1984; Gonzalez, 1985; Wee, 2010;
and Borlongan, 2018) what are the general trends in sociolinguistic research in the
country? Provide at least an example for each trend based on your readings in your
major courses from first year up to your junior year.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Wee (2010, p. 110) writes that even today, English is treated in the Philippines (as in
Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore) as a non-Asian ‘other.’ What are your personal
views about this?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
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Lesson 3. Looking Forward into the Future
Read the following question and supply your answers in the spaces provided. Use a separate
Based on your answers in lesson 2, what remains for you, our young scholars, into the future?
What do you think will be the trend(s) of sociolinguistic research in the future?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Final Task
Update the worksheet below. Use a pen with blue ink in writing your responses.
Name of student: ____________________


September
28-October
3
October
05-10
41
October
12-17
October
19-24
October
26-31
November
09-14
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Pointers for the Final Presentation and Paper
1. The rubrics for the oral presentation is provided in the succeeding pages. Use the
rubrics in your preparation for your oral presentation. Note that since you will be
assessed without any visual aids, points dedicated for the PowerPoint presentation and
nonverbals shall all apply to the clarity of your presentation and your responses to my
questions.
2. Presentations via phone call shall be limited to ten minutes: five minutes for the actual
presentation and five minutes for the Q&A/consultations. Rehearse well before your
schedule so you can take advantage of the time allotted to you.
3. The phone call may be scheduled after the reading break scheduled between November
16 to 21. Send an SMS to me with details of your preferred date and time. I will let you
know if I am amenable to your proposed schedule or if I will give you other options.
Preferably, your request should be any time before or after my synchronous sessions
with my other classes. The deadline of the oral presentations is on January 16, 2021. I
suggest that you finish your oral presentations early so you will have more time
dedicated to writing your final paper.
4. You may continue writing the paper after the phone call. (I expect that you have started
writing early on the semester.) If you will have any questions along the way, send me an
SMS and I will either reply via SMS or phone call.
5. The final paper is structured this way: introduction, RRL, methodology, results and
discussion (may be one or separate sections), and conclusion(s). I hope that all the
readings, some of which are research papers (see again Labov, 1997; Gumperz, 1958;
Casabal, 2018), gave you an idea about the content of each section as well as the
requisite writing style. Return to you notes in your quantitative and qualitative research
courses in the Senior High School, as well as to your major courses in the freshman and
sophomore years. However, for the sake of clarity, here is my own explanation of each
section.
5.1. Introduction. This presents some background information about your project
arranged from the macro to the micro, or from the general ideas to the specific (or
deductive order – from big ideas down to the small ideas or details). You may also
write your investment, your relationship, or the reason(s) why you chose your topic.
The significance of doing your project, as well as its limitations, are likewise
discussed in this section. (Though you may also write your limitations in the
methodology.) You cannot write this section without accomplishing your RRL, so
better begin with your AB and RRL before you attempt writing your introduction.
Most of the time, if you begin your writing procedure with the introduction, you will
just end up revising the whole thing, if not scraping it clean, because of the things
you will discover in your RRL. Remember to end this section with your research
questions (some journal require the research questions after the RRL, but better
follow my advice since I am your most significant audience). Remember to have
your research questions approved during the phone call consultations.
5.2. Review of Related Literature. Some journals conflate this with the introduction (that
means, there is no more separate section for the RRL), but I prefer that you still
43
write this separately in preparation for your thesis and for some other journals who
require this. The RRL is an important section of your paper because it shows the
breadth and depth of your “research.” Missing important names and papers related
to your topic may be one of the reasons why your paper will earn a disappointing
mark (or rejection from the journal). Of course, no one expects you to conduct a
complete survey, but there are names you should drop on your paper to earn
credibility. However, it is not all about simply citing names, but more about knowing
and reporting what they did, and eventually, comparing what they said to your own
findings in the results and discussion section (explanation down below). Another
reason for the significance of the RRL is the gap that it reveals in the scholarship.
Your RRL shows what have been done, especially by the important people in the
field, and tells your audience (that is me!) where you are entering into the picture.
5.3. Methodology. This section is a narrative of the methods you will apply and the
procedure you will undergo in choosing, gathering, and analyzing your data.
Provide specific details to your data. Do not let your audience wonder what or who
supplies data to your research. It is also important to discuss the theory or concept
that you follow in your data analysis (your theoretical framework – not always a
theory; may be a concept) in this section.
5.4. Results and discussion. After you gather your data, you need to collate them in an
orderly manner – tables, charts, and other graphic materials help you organize
your data effectively (though it is possible that you will not need any illustration for
some qualitative inquiries). However, apart from your graphic materials, you also
need to present your interpretation. Thus, the results section is composed of two
parts: your presentation of your data and your interpretation. When you interpret,
begin by presenting your data in the graphic material in nonprose form (paragraph)
– not all of the small details, just the overarching or the most important details (i.e.
highest, largest, most …). Now, some journals allow that your results are conflated
with your discussion, but others don’t, so you need to know the conventions, if let
us say you plan to submit your paper for publication. For me, I will allow that you
conflate the two. So, this means that after your presentation and interpretation of
your data, you readily proceed to your discussion, a.k.a. your analysis. When you
analyze, you need return to your RRL and compare your results to what others
have previously found. Remember as well that you have a theory that you are
following, possibly even from data selection down to data analysis, so return to
your theory and allow it to guide your analysis. In terms of organization, your
results and discussion are your responses to your research questions, so follow
the arrangement of your research questions in the introduction (or RRL) in this
section. The table below after 5.5. may help you arrange your results and
conclusion well.
5.5. Conclusions. Again, this should be organized based on your research questions.
However, this applies if you have multiple questions and several conclusions. It is
possible that you will have only one research question and one conclusion, but it is
also possible to have one question and several conclusions, or several questions
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but only one conclusion. It really depends on your project. Your conclusions should
be, naturally, based on your results and discussion. Do not introduce new details
that are not found elsewhere in the paper in this section. Some researchers as well
as some journals require that you end with possible future directions or
recommendations. This last point is optional for me, though will greatly help other
researchers, or even yourself in case you want to extend your research into
another project. The table below may help you organize your research questions,
your data, and your conclusions so you can track if you are really addressing the
concerns you laid out early in the project.
Research Findings Conclusions Recommendations
questions (Optional)
RQ1 F1 C1 R1
RQ2 F2 C2 R2
Or, another possible presentation may be:
Research Findings Conclusions Recommendations
questions (Optional)
RQ1 F1 C1 R1
RQ2 F2 C2 R2
RQ3 F3
Notice that for RQ2 and RQ3, there are two separate sets of findings but only one
conclusion.
6. Remember to cite your sources properly. Use APA 7th edition.
7. Edit your paper, once, twice, three times or more before it leaves your workstation. A
special consideration that I will allow for you is the handwritten form of your final paper
(though the encoded and printed version will be highly appreciated). You may write your
paper following the technical conventions (at least the spacing and the margins) on 8.5”
x 11” bond papers. The same expected word count shall apply to all students regardless
of their chosen mode of learning. The deadline in submitting the final paper is between
January 25 to 30, 2021, although an earlier submission is expected since the semester
officially ends on January 23, 2021 and the second semester immediately begins on
February 4, 2021.
8. For any questions, do not hesitate to contact me via SMS. Good luck!
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Rubrics for the Final Presentation and Paper
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Key to Corrections
Module 1, Brainstorming Session
1. FALSE. “All languages change all the time. It is not very well understood why this is the
case, but it is a universal characteristic of human languages. The only languages which
do not change are those, like Latin, which nobody speaks” (Trudgill, 1998, p. 1).
2. FALSE. Some language may be deemed inadequate when judged based on (1)
structure vis-à-vis their intended functions, (2) logical structure, again vis-à-vis their
intended functions, and (3) varying development of vocabulary intended for science,
technology, etc., with deficiency occurring more often with languages with minority status
[link to Ted video: Don’t Insist on English] (Harlow, 1998, pp. 11-14). However, these
perspectives are based on personal ‘taste’ (see Daniels, 1987) since a number of
languages have demonstrated that they can develop using internal practices, making
them sufficient for the intended purposes of their speakers.
3. FALSE. While a lot of people complain about the “health of English” pointing fingers at
the media as main culprits, Crystal (in Aitchison, 1998) commented that many of the
complains have actually been around for a long time (remember, irregardless). Aitchison
(1998, pp. 17-22) dirty fingers fallacy and garbage heap fallacy in media language.
4. FALSE. Carney (1998) writes that ‘catastrophic’ is a harsh word to describe English
spelling. In contrast, there are a number of ways to understand and remember the
consistency of English spelling that we have been taught since basic education.
5. FALSE. “Despite the widespread belief that women talk more than men, most of the
available evidence suggests just the opposite. When women and men are together, it is
the men who talk most. Two Canadian researchers, Deborah James and Janice Drakich,
reviewed sixty-three studies which examined the amount of talk used by American
women and men in different contexts. Women talked more than men in only two studies”
(Holmes, 1998, p. 42).
6. FALSE. “… There is in reality nothing to suggest that today's youngsters are less
competent at speaking and writing their native language than older generations of
children were. Their ability to speak the language is just as good, and their ability to read
and write it is, almost certainly, a great deal better on average” (Milroy, 1998, p. 58).
7. FALSE. “A language without any grammar is a contradiction in terms” (Bauer, 1998, p.
84).
8. FALSE. “All are perfectly grammatical, providing evidence of a complex body of rules
which constitute mental grammars, the unconscious knowledge which speakers have of
their own language. In comparison, the prescriptions which are recommended as 'good
grammar' are revealed as at best marginal and frequently as unrealistic and trivial”
(Milroy, 1998, p. 101).
9. FALSE. “… There is no evidence for television or the other popular media disseminating
or influencing sound changes or grammatical innovations. The evidence against it, to be
sure, is indirect. Mostly it consists of a lack of evidence where we would expect to find
strong positive effects” (Chambers, 1998, p. 126).
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10. FALSE. “The fact is that everyone has an accent. It tells other people who we are
because it reflects the places we have been and the things we have done. But the
construct of accent, like so many other things, is relative. We may only realize that
others think we have an accent when we leave the place we came from and find
ourselves among people who share a different background from our own, or when a
newcomer to our local area stands out as having a distinctly different pronunciation from
most of those in our group - that is, relative to us” (Esling, 1998, p. 169).
Module 3. Brainstorming Session
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Module 5. Brainstorming Session
Module 5. Lesson 1, item 1
The Spanish missionary linguists launched the first linguistic projects in the Philippines
through their lexicographical work on Philippine languages (Gonzalez, 1985). Their intention,
however, is not entirely for the development of the linguistic scholarship in the country. Apart
from missionary linguists, there were also travelers, anthropologists, and explorers who wrote
about the Philippines.
Sibayan (1984) identifies some factors that allowed the professionalization of linguistics
in the Philippines:
1. professional education offered to aspiring local scholars;

2. the creation of professional organizations (i.e., the Linguistic Society of the
Philippines/LSP);
3. the research conducted and published by local scholars in language planning,
bilingualism and bilingual education, code-switching, maintenance of English,
development of Filipino, nationalism, and identity. (Gonzalez [1985] also mentioned
occupational needs for language, language and socio-economic needs, dialect mapping,
and language teaching. He also mentioned one of the first research on linguistic
variation of the Philippine English, Baustista’s yaya English. Borlongan [2018] writes
about language attitudes); and
4. Networking with international organizations (i.e., the Southeast Asian Ministers of
Education Organization/SEAMEO).
Module 5. Lesson 2, item 1
[See item 3 in previous set of answers]

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References
Bauer, L. & Trudgill, P. (Eds.). (1998). Language myths. Penguin Books.
Borlongan, A. M. (2018). Agenda for sociolinguistics in the Philippines for the 21st century.
Philippine Journal of Linguistics, 49. 68-74. Retrieved
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330823376_Agenda_for_sociolinguistic
s_in_the_Philippines_for_the_21st_century
Casabal, N.V. (2008). Gay Language: Defining the Structural Limits of English Language
Studies in the Philippines. Kritika Kultura, 11. 74-101. Ateneo De Manila
University. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.13185/1503
Crystal, D. (2011). “David Crystal’s Introduction to Language: A Complete Course.” The

Routledge David Crystal Lectures. [DVD]. Routledge.
Comrie, B. (2020). Language and Thought. Linguistic Society of America.

https://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/language-and-thought
cummings, e.e. (2005). may i feel said he. Poetry.org. http://www.poetry.org/cummings.htm
Daniels, H. (1985). Nine Ideas About Language. In Clark, Escholz, and Rosa, (Eds.), Language:
Introductory Reading, 4th ed. St. Martin’s Press. Retrieved
https://web.stanford.edu/class/linguist1/Rdgs/Daniels.pdf
Gonzalez, A. (1985). Sociolinguistics in the Philippines. Southeast Asian Journal of Social

Science, 13(1), 52-60. Retrieved https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/brill/
sociolinguistics-in-the-philippines-F1eJB5rTXa
Gumperz, J. J. (1958). Dialect differences and social stratification in a north Indian village.
American Anthropologist, 60, 688-682. Retrieved http://web.stanford.edu/~eckert/
Courses/ParisPapers/Gumperz1958.pdf
Labov, W. (1997). The social stratification of (r) in New York City department stores. In N.
Coupland & A. Jaworski, (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: A reader (168-178). Macmillan
Education. Retrieved http://www.danielezrajohnson.com/labov_1972_nyc_r.pdf
Lindemann, S. (n.d.). “AL8470 – Sociolinguistics.” Syllabus Database. Retrieved August 3,

2020, from http://syll.linguisticanthropology.org/syllabus/sociolinguistics/
Martin, I.P. (2014). Philippine English Revisited. World Englishes 33(1). 50-59. John Wiley &
Sons Ltd. Retrieved https://www.academia.edu/6179642/Philippine_English_
Revisited_2014_
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Mascolo, M. (2019, July 31). “Time to move beyond "Gender is socially constructed”.”
Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/old-school-
parenting-modern-day-families/201907/time-move-beyond-gender-is-socially-
constructed
Myers, M., Paiz, J., Angeli, E., Wagner, J., Lawrick, E., Moore, K., Anderson, M.,…Keck, R.
(2019, December 20). General format. Purdue Online Writing Lab.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and
_style_guide/general_format.html
Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech.

https://www.bartleby.com/186/pages/page7.html
Sibayan, B. P. (1984). Some Philippine sociolinguistic concerns: 1967-1973. International

Journal of the Sociology of Language, 45, 127-137. Retrieved
https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/2005121148-Bonifacio-P-
Sibayan
“Social structure.” Merriam-Webster. Retrieved August 3, 2020, from https://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/social%20structure
Tayao, M. L. G. (2008). A lectal description of the phonological features of Philippine English. In

M.L.S. Bautista & K. Bolton (Eds.), Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary
Perspectives (157-174). Hong Kong University Press. DOI:
10.5790/hongkong/9789622099470.003.0009
“Transgender People, Gender Identity and Gender Expression.” (2014, December). American
Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/transgender
Trudgill, P. (2000). Sociolinguistics: An introduction to language and society, 4th ed. Penguin
Group.
Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics, 5th ed. Blackwell Publishing.
Wardhaugh, R. & Fuller, J.M. (2015). An introduction to sociolinguistics, 7th ed. Wiley Blackwell.
Wee, L. (2010). “Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines.” In M.J. Ball, (Ed.), The Routledge
handbook of sociolinguistics around the world. 108-116. Routledge.
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Appendix A. The Social Stratification of (r) in New York

Department Stores (Labov, 1966/1972)
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Appendix B. Dialect Differences and Social Stratification in

a North Indian Village (Gumperz, 1958)
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Appendix C. Time to Move Beyond “Gender is

Socially Constructed” (Mascolo, 2019)
e often hear that “gender is socially constructed.” What does that mean? Is it true?
W The popular idea that gender is socially constructed might be summed up as follows:
There is a difference between “sex” and “gender.” Sex is “biological” while gender is
“psychological,” “social,” or “cultural.” A person’s gender can be different from a person’s sex.
Gender is thus “socially constructed” in the sense that, unlike biological sex, gender is a product
of society. If society determines what is masculine or feminine, then society can change what is
considered masculine, feminine, or anything in between. No one needs to be locked into fixed
gender categories. Any individual is free to identify their gender as they see fit.
Although it is important, the concept of gender is

an imprecise one. Depending on how it is used,
the concept of gender can be illuminating,
clarifying, confusing, contradictory, or downright
incoherent. To illustrate, let us begin by
examining some typical definitions of the
concepts of sex, gender, and gender identity.
The American Psychological Association (APA)

defines sex as “a person’s biological status ...
typically categorized as male, female, or intersex (i.e., atypical combinations of features that
usually distinguish male from female.” It defines gender as “the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors
that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex.”
Gender identity refers to:
[a] person’s deeply-felt, inherent sense of being a boy, a man, or male; a girl, a woman, or
female; or an alternative gender (e.g., genderqueer, gender non-conforming, boygirl, ladyboy)
which may or may not correspond to a person’s sex assigned at birth or to a person’s primary or
secondary sex characteristics. Since gender identity is internal, a person’s gender identity is not
necessarily visible to others.
On the surface, these definitions appear quite reasonable. However, they mask a series of deep
contradictions that tend to occur when people talk about gender as a social construction. If we
are going to be able to have constructive conversations about gender and society, it is important
to unmask these contradictions. Here are but a few:
Gender cannot simultaneously be socially constructed and inherent to the individual.
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In the APA definition, sex refers to the biological reproductive apparatus, while gender refers to
cultural expectations and norms. Drawing on this distinction, when people say that gender is
socially constructed, they tend to assert that sex is independent of gender.
However, if gender is an arbitrary creation of society, how is it possible for gender identity to be
an “internal” and “inherent” sense of self? It is not possible for gender to simultaneously be an
arbitrary product of culture and an inherent experience of the individual. If gender comes from
the culture, how can it also be an inherent property of the individual person?
Gender identity cannot be simultaneously self-chosen and the product of socialization.
The idea that gender is socially constructed is often taken to mean that gender identities are the
product of socialization. This statement stands in contradiction to the idea that gender identities
arise from the process of self-identification—that it is the individual who decides upon gender
identity.
What is the source of one’s gender identity? Is it an experience that resides within the self? If so,
then it cannot be a mere result of socialization. If one’s sense of gender is merely socialized,
what role does the person play in self-identification? If there is no personal basis for identifying
one’s gender, gender identification would itself become an arbitrary process.
Gender identity cannot simultaneously be invisible and socially verifiable.
If, as the APA definition maintains, gender identity is something that is not necessarily visible to
others, how can we ever verify a person’s claim to a given gender identity? A social identity is
not the kind of thing that can be determined by a solitary self. Social identities are verified and
validated in social relations. If this were not the case, we would be compelled to accept any
identity claim made by any individual exclusively on the basis of self-assertion alone.
This is not how the construction of identity works. In order to gain credibility with others (and to
the self), any identity claim must be accompanied by some sort of public expression that can be
shared with others. This is not to say that people cannot and do not identify themselves in terms
of prevailing gender categories; it only means that societies do not accept identity claims on the
basis of self-identification alone. Identity claims are created and validated in social exchanges
where people express their identities not simply in words, but also in deeds and actions.
Gender cannot be both independent of sex and defined with reference to sex.
The APA defines gender identity as one’s sense of being a boy, a man, or male; a girl, a woman,
or female; or an alternative gender. To say that one’s experience of self may not comport with
one’s assigned sex is to make a distinction between sex and gender. However, the capacity to
discriminate sex from gender does not make one independent of the other.
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Terms like male, female, boy, girl, man, and woman have their historical origins in social roles
that have been organized with reference to sex. The meanings of boy and girl, masculine,
feminine, and androgyny, while not fixed by sex, are nonetheless defined with reference to sex.
It follows to the extent that sex-linked biological processes contribute to the development of
psychological differences between people; those psychological processes play a role in the social
meanings that define gender.
The human experience is not divided into separate biological and socially constructed
parts.
The problem with the popular concept that “sex is biological” and “gender is cultural” is the idea
that sex and gender reflect independent aspects of the person. However, there are no separable
biological and cultural aspects of a person.
Acting and experiencing do not have separate biological and cultural components. Biology and
culture influence each other; they make each other up. For example, the act of writing is a
historically and culturally constructed process; however, it is made possible by the biology of the
opposable thumb. In all things, biology and culture make each other up. The same is true for the
relation between biology and culture as they relate to the construction of gender.
The mere difference between gender and sex doesn't mean that one replaces the other.
Sex is the biological apparatus. The construction of gender identity is a psychological process. (It
is also a biological process; all psychological processes are biological processes—but not all
biological processes are psychological processes.)
So, we have two categories here—not one. To identify myself in terms of a particular gender
category does not take away my sex. One is not simply one's sex—but then again, one is not
simply one's gender identity either. If sex and gender are different, then one doesn't replace the
other. Self-identification is but one form of identification. It doesn't replace identification by
other means.
Gender politics
People are confused and divided in political discussions about sex and gender. Much of the
debate over gender is ideological in nature. Some fear that if gender is not “socially constructed,”
the political goals of gender equality will lose traction and credibility. Others argue that saying
that gender is “socially constructed” is to deny the contributions of biological “nature.” Neither
ideological extreme is supported by psychological research.
Are there psychological differences between and among sexes (or genders)? Phrased in this way,
these are not interesting questions. It makes no sense to ask about the “psychological nature” of
males, females, intersex individuals, or of individuals who identify themselves in terms of
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prevailing gender categories. That is because there is no “nature” that is independent of social
context; there is no social organization that is independent of biology.
Persons are not fixed beings with fixed natures. If we want to understand persons, we must look
at them as individuals who develop over time as products of complex relations between their
biology and their cultures.
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Appendix D. Gay Language: Defining the Structural Limits of

English Language Studies in the Philippines (Casabal, 2008)
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99
100
Paz, 2020
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102
Paz, 2020
103
104
Paz, 2020
105
106
Paz, 2020
107
108
Paz, 2020
109
110
Paz, 2020
Appendix E. Philippine English Revisited (Martin, 2014)
111
112
Paz, 2020
113
114
Paz, 2020
115
116
Paz, 2020
117
118
Paz, 2020
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120
Paz, 2020
Appendix F. Some Philippine sociolinguistic concerns: 1967-1992 (Sibayan, 1984)
121
122
Paz, 2020
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124
Paz, 2020
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126
Paz, 2020
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128
Paz, 2020
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130
Paz, 2020
131
Appendix G. Sociolinguistics in the Philippines (Gonzalez, 1985)
132
Paz, 2020
133
134
Paz, 2020
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136
Paz, 2020
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138
Paz, 2020
139
140
Paz, 2020
Appendix H. Agenda for Sociolinguistics in the Philippines for

the 21st century (Borlongan, 2018)
141
142
Paz, 2020
143
Appendix I. Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Philippines (Wee, 2010)
144
Paz, 2020
145
146
Paz, 2020
147
148
Paz, 2020
149
150
Paz, 2020
151
152
Paz, 2020
Appendix J. Course Syllabus
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Paz, 2020
155
156
Paz, 2020
157

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INSTRUCTIONAL

Bachelor of Arts in English Language Studies

ENGL 40013 Special Topics in

Rafael Michael O. Paz

Module 2. Language and Social Class 18

Module 3. Language and Gender 26

Module 4. Language and the Nation 34

The Annotated Bibliography 35

Module 5. Sociolinguistics in the Philippines 37

Pointers for the Final Presentation and Paper 42

Module 1: Sociolinguistics: Definitions and Approaches

At the end of this module, students should have:

1. reviewed some basic concepts in linguistics: language, sociolinguistics, sociology of

In first year (if you were my student in Introduction to English Language

1. The meanings of words should not be allowed to vary or change.

2. Some languages are not just good enough.

3. Mass media is ruining English.

4. English spelling is kattastroffik.

5. Women talk too much.

6. Children can’t speak or write anymore.

7. Some languages have no grammar.

8. Bad grammar is slovenly

9. TV makes people sound the same.

10. Everyone has an accent except me.

Link to interactive version: https://forms.gle/zKxkUZ9cgZVCCko38

Lesson 1. Defining Sociolinguistics

Language and Society

The relationship between language and society is grounded on four possibilities:

1. Social structure influences language structure. Merriam-Webster offers two related

4. Asocial linguistics, or no relationship exists between language and society. Some

“Sociolinguistics … is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a

The study of attitudes to forms of language, such as the use of non-

Some scholars of sociolinguistics (or micro-linguistics) necessarily differentiate it from

Sociolinguistics Sociology of Language

- “… Sociolinguistics is concerned with - “… Sociology of language [tries] to discover

- “… ‘Micro-sociolinguistics investigates how - “‘Macro-sociolinguistics, on the other hand,

Lesson 2. The Task of the Sociolinguist

Lesson 3. Sociolinguistic Research

Whatever sociolinguistics is, it must be oriented toward both data and

Types of Sociolinguistic Research

Lesson 4. The Social Stratification of (r) in New York City

Final Paper Mechanics Review/Overview

4. Write your paper.

Research Action Plan

Name of student: ____________________

Schedule Suggested tasks Student’s remarks Teacher’s

November 2 – Holiday; November 3-8 – Midterm Examinations

Module 2: Language and Social Class

At the end of this module, students should have:

Lesson 1. Early Works on Linguistic and Social

ne of the earliest works that attempted to describe the

The linguistic data were supplemented by a series of interviews with a cross-

Chamars have a characteristic pronunciation of words that end in [æ] in all

Lesson 2. Challenges in Describing Linguistic Variation Against Social Class

An occupational scale may divide people into a number of categories as

A socioeconomic index which ranked New Yorkers on occupation would

Social Descriptive Education Occupation Income

Lesson 3. Sociolectal Variation

Idiolect vs. Sociolect