Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

ScienceDirect
Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20
http://www.keaipublishing.com/jnggs

Original research paper

Petrographic characterization and diagenetic evaluation of reservoir

sandstones from Smørbukk and Heidrun fields, offshore Norway
Anwar Hossain Bhuiyan*, Shakhawat Hossain
Department of Geology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
Received 31 December 2018; revised 1 December 2019; accepted 9 December 2019
Available online 27 January 2020

Abstract

A detail qualitative and quantitative analysis based on thin section petrographic analyses of sandstone samples from the reservoir horizons of
Smørbukk and Heidrun fields have been carried out to characterize the textural and mineralogical properties, and to evaluate the post depo-
sitional diagenetic changes. Smørbukk samples are medium-coarse grained, moderately sorted, tightly packed, submatureemature subarkosic
and quartz arenites. Heidrun samples, on the other hand, are fine-medium grained, moderate-well sorted, moderate-loosely packed, mature-
submature subarkosic and quartz arenites. Despite the detrital components (quartz, feldspar, lithic grains, mica, etc.) of both the fields are
similar, silica cementation is more common in Smørbukk samples whereas early carbonate is the predominant cement in Heidrun samples.
Smørbukk sediments are comparatively more compacted than those of the Heidrun fields. Overall reservoir quality in Heidrun field (8%e18%) is
slightly better than that of Smørbukk field (5%e15%). The findings of this study will be helpful in the development phase of these fields and/or
fields from similar geological setting.
Copyright © 2020, Lanzhou Literature and Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences AND Langfang Branch of Research Institute of
Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is
an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Petrography; Diagenesis; Quartz arenite; Mineralogy; Porosity

1. Introduction developed as a rhomb-shaped pull-apart basin due to dextral

strike-slip movements during the Late Jurassic - Early Creta-
Haltenbanken Terrace is one of the major platforms in the ceous and became downfaulted during the Late Cretaceous
Mid-Norwegian Continental Shelf (Fig. 1a). With approxi- time [27,38]. It comprises two different types of structural
mately 336
106 Sm3 oil and 316
109 Sm3 gas reserves, the hydrocarbon traps: the NeS trending fault-bounded horsts,
Haltenbanken area has proved to be a prolific petroleum grabens and tilted fault blocks and differential subsidence due
province and includes Smørbukk and Heidrun discoveries to Cimmerian extensional tectonics [44]. The NNE-SSW
[1,16,19,36,39], (Fig. 1b). trending blocks are often westerly subsiding listric faults and
The terrace lies at the south-western end of the Nordland their intensity increases towards the western margin of the
Ridge within the Kristiansund-Bodø-Fault-Complex, repre- Trøndelag platform [8].
senting the transition between the Trøndelag Platform to the The Haltenbanken area hosts the rocks from Triassic to
east and the Vøring-Møre-Basin to the west (Fig. 1a) [40]. The Recent age. The Jurassic reservoir rock, the regressive sand-
entire area is block faulted and uplifted to the north. It was stone of Fangst Group and the fluviodeltaic Tilje and Are
Formations, were deposited on the southeastern flank of the
developing northeastern Atlantic Rift [16,20,25,28,34,36,42].
* Corresponding author.
These sandstones are separated by transgressive shale units,
E-mail address: ahb@du.ac.bd (A.H. Bhuiyan).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial office of Journal of Natural Gas which possibly exerted vertical pressure barriers [16]. Despite
Geoscience. an overall transgressive regime, the reservoir interval was

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnggs.2019.12.001
2468-256X/Copyright © 2020, Lanzhou Literature and Information Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences AND Langfang Branch of Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina.
Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
12 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20

Fig. 1. (a) Main tectonic elements of the Norwegian Margin. Modified from Brekke et al. [37]. (b) Map showing the location of Smørbukk and Heidrun field in red
rectangle (modified from NPD fact maps, 2016)).

characterized by a coarse clastic influx from the elevated rift billion Sm3 of associated gas [36] within the reservoir zones at
shoulders. The relatively shallow burial depth has limited depth of 2000e3000 m below sea level. The Heidrun structure
compaction effects, and reservoir quality is enhanced with is a south-west-dipping triangular horst block on the southwest
permeabilities up to 10 Darcy and porosities in excess of 30% flank of the Nordland Ridge (Fig. 1b) [44].
in the cleaner sands of the Fangst Group. The Fangst reservoirs Since the reservoir horizons of the Smørbukk and the
are heavily eroded in the crestal areas and are directly overlain Heidrun fields are at different depths there must be some
by mudstones of the Upper Cretaceous Shetland Group, which differences in petrographic characteristics and diagenetic
serve as a seal in this area [2,42]. The primary source for properties between the two fields. Identifying the differences
petroleum is the Upper Jurassic Spekk Formation, which is in texture, mineralogy and diagenetic changes between the
mature in the downdip areas [42]. reservoir horizons of these two fields as well as determining
The Smørbukk, a gas/condensate field, lies approximately the controlling factors of reservoir quality are key for
190 km west of the Norwegian Mainland (license block 6506/ reservoir characterization and field development.
12), where the water depth is about 250e300 m and was The present research work aims at the characterization and
discovered in 1984. The estimated reserve in this field is 90 comparison of the reservoir horizons between these two fields in
million Sm3 of condensate and oil and 106 billion Sm3 of gas terms of petrography and diagenesis. Sandstone samples from
[16]. It is located at the crest of a south-east dipping fault the Smørbukk and the Heidrun fields have been subjected to
block in the northwestern part of the Haltenbanken area [41]. petrographic, diagenetic and statistical evaluation in order to:
Reservoirs are at the depth of 3800e4000 m below sea level.
The Heidrun Oil Field (license block 6507/7 and 6507/8;  Characterize the textural and mineralogical properties
discovered in 1985 [36], covering an area of 37 km2 [20], is  Define and classify the sandstones and
located in the north/northeast of the Smørbukk Field. This  Identify post depositional diagenetic changes and their
field contains 119 million Sm3 of recoverable oil and 135 effect on reservoir properties.
 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20 13

2. Method of study and samples microscopic study indicates that the sandstone samples of the
study area are fine to coarse grained in texture.
The petrographic studies were based solely on the micro- The sandstones of the Smørbukk field are dominated by
scopic analyses of sandstone thin sections. A detail qualitative medium to coarse-grained sediments, 50% samples are me-
and quantitative analysis was carried out by using the dium and medium to coarse grained. The Heidrun samples, on
Research Petrographic Microscope. The mode of occurrence the other hand, are dominated by medium to fine grained
of each individual detrital and authigenic components and particles (about 50% samples are medium to fine grained). The
their relative abundance were carefully examined from stan- change in grain size of Smørbukk samples is gradual, whereas
dard thin sections. Proportions of various rock components in the change in grain size of Heidrun samples is sharp (Fig. 2a).
each slide were estimated by using point counter with 300 It, therefore, appears that the reservoir sandstones of the
counts being made per slide. “SWIFT” Automatic Point Smørbukk field are generally coarser in size compared to those
Counter model F415C was used for this purpose. Textural of the Heidrun field. It is important to note that the samples of
parameters of rocks especially grain size, grain shape, sorting the Smørbukk field have been taken only from the Tilje For-
and grain contacts were studied quantitatively as well as with mation whereas the samples of the Heidrun field are repre-
visual comparators. The diagenetic study includes the exam- sentatives of reservoir Formations of both the Fangst and Båt
ination of diagenetic processes, growth of minerals, their types Groups. Comparison, therefore, between the two fields
and mutual textural relationships, etc. depending on the present study has some obvious limitations.
The Smorbukk and Heidrun fields’ samples were available Visual comparison chart for estimating roundness and
as epoxy-embedded thin sections. The epoxy was dyed blue to sphericity [30] has been used in the present work. Most of the
facilitate the estimation of porosities. A total of 83 samples grains in the studied sandstone samples are sub angular to
have been chosen from Upper Triassic to Late Cretaceous subrounded and subspherical to sub prismoidal in dimension.
sandstone. The Smørbukk samples are all from Tilje Forma- The microscopic sections indicate that the studied grains are
tion whereas the Heidrun samples are from several Formations either rectangular, triangular, oval, elliptical, prismatic, dis-
of the Fangst and Båt Groups. A number was given to each coidal or irregular in shape. Few grains in almost all the
sample such as 4486.55 (depth of the sample in m). samples appear to be very angular or rounded in appearance
but these are not always the representatives of overall shape of
3. Results and discussion the studied samples.
Reference photographs for estimating sorting from thin
3.1. Texture sections as provided by Beard and Weyl [3] has been used as
visual comparators. Thin section study indicates that the
Wentworth's grade scale [18,35] has been used as the Smørbukk samples range from poor to well sorted, dominated
reference scale for overall grain size estimation. Thin section by moderate-well sorted sediments (Fig. 2b). From the figure it

Fig. 2. (a) Grain size distribution of the sandstone samples of Smørbukk and Heidrun fields. (b) Comparison of grain sorting of Smørbukk and Heidrun fields. (c)
Comparison of packing between Smørbukk and Heidrun samples.
14 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20

could be concluded that the samples of the Smørbukk field are Fig. 3a represents the relative abundance of the average
bimodal. The sandstones of the Heidrun field, on the other hand, value of grain contacts in the sandstones of the Smørbukk and
are dominated by moderate-well sorted sediments and are the Heidrun fields. All the values of grain contact have been
unimodal (Fig. 2b). From the analyses it could be mentioned that recalculated to construct Fig. 3a for comparison between
there is no clear dominance of any type of sorting in sandstones Smørbukk and Heidrun samples. The types of contact are the
of both the fields. results of corresponding packing varieties. Loosely packed
Textural analysis also reveals that the sandstones of the samples are generally dominated by no and/or point contacts
Smørbukk field are dominated by tightly packed sediments. whereas tight packing shows more concavo-convex and suture
Framework grains in most of the samples of both the fields are contacts (Fig. 3a and b).
randomly oriented but, in a few samples (5021.48 and Most of the samples contain 1%e12% matrixes and only a
5211.03) detrital grains show preferred orientation. Majority few are totally matrix free. Three samples represent a matrix
samples of the Heidrun field are loosely packed. percentage more than 15%. However, the grain size and
Early poikilotopic cementation in some sandstone samples sorting along with the percentage of matrix of the total rock
of the Heidrun field (mainly the carbonate cement) probably components suggest that the sandstone samples are mostly
arrested the compactional diagenesis of the sediments and as a textually mature to sub mature.
result detrital framework grains remained apart from each
other. The depth of the reservoir horizons of Heidrun field is 3.2. Porosity
much less than those of the Smørbukk field. The effect of
depth variation causes differences in packing and contacts in Thin section porosity was measured by point counting for
the samples of these two fields (Fig. 2c). each sample. Stanton (1977) has shown, from the study of the
The nature of grain contacts is one of the important pa- U.S. Gulf Coast Eocene sandstones that thin section porosity is
rameters, which indicate the effect of the post depositional consistently lower than the porosity determined by poros-
diagenetic changes in clastic sedimentary rocks. Special imeter, with an average difference of 13.5 percent. Thus, the
emphasis has therefore been given in observing the grain measured porosity of the studied sandstone samples may be
contacts of the studied sandstone samples. The sandstone of less than that of the true porosity. The results of the present
the Smørbukk field shows all types of grain contacts, but study show that thin section porosity of the samples of the
concavo-convex and long contacts are the dominating types. Smørbukk field mostly ranges from 5% to 15%, whereas the
Many detrital grains in sandstone samples of the Heidrun field porosity of the majority of the samples of the Heidrun field
have no contacts. Heidrun samples also show all types of ranges from 8 to 18%. Both primary and secondary porosities
contacts, but point contact is the dominating type. have been observed in the studied sandstone samples.

Fig. 3. (a) Loose packing showing floating grains (green arrow) and point contacts (blue arrow). Length of photo, L ¼ 1.3 mm. (b) Tight packing showing concavo-
convex (blue arrow) and sutured (green arrow) contacts. Length of photo, L ¼ 1.3 mm. (c) 10 Figure showing dissolution (d) of grain leaving only remnant part
(arrow) indicates secondary porosity. L ¼ 1.3 mm. (d) Comparison of average grain contacts between Smørbukk and Heidrun samples.
 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20 15

Secondary porosity is developed mainly by the dissolution 3.3.1. Detrital components

of detrital framework grains and authigenic cement. Fracture The studied sandstone samples of the reservoir of both the
porosities have also been noticed. Secondary porosity is fields with few exceptions composed of quartz, feldspars,
mainly intergranular, intragranular and intra-cement types. lithic grains with subordinate mica, chlorite and other minor
Feldspars are the principal detrital components, which are accessories. Quartz is the most abundant constituent of the
subjected to dissolution. sandstone samples predominantly occurs as monocrystalline
Plagioclase feldspars are dissolved more frequently than either strained or unstrained and polycrystalline grains. Point
the other varieties of feldspar due to their crystallization count data indicate that quartz constitutes 52%e70% and
comparatively at low temperatures. Other detrital grains 41%e57% of the total rock components of the Smørbukk and
prone to dissolution are lithic grains, chlorite, and mica. the Heidrun fields respectively. Unstrained monocrystalline
Carbonate cement are dissolved by the percolating meteoric quartz grain is a single crystal that extinguishes as a unit under
water or acidic pore water enriched in acidity by the matu- crossed polarized light (XPL) when the stage of the micro-
ration of kerogen. Feldspar grains are dissolved either scope is rotated.
partially or completely. In Smørbukk field feldspar dissolu- Strained monocrystalline grain, termed as undulose quartz,
tion is more pronounced (Fig. 3c) whereas in the Heidrun is the single crystal that never wholly extinguish under XPL,
field carbonate cement dissolution phenomenon is more but an irregular band of extinction merges across the crystal as
frequent (Fig. 7c). the stage is rotated. The crystal boundary of polycrystalline
quartz may often be obscured due to recrystallization, but
3.3. Mineralogy extinction characteristics generally indicate the polycrystalline
nature. The boundary between the crystals of polycrystalline
Although a total of 83 samples were included in the textural quartz may be straight or sutured (Fig. 4a). Next of quartz
study, only 12 samples (6 from each field) have been taken for feldspars are important among the detrital framework grains of
mineralogical analyses. A minor variation has been found sandstone. Point count data indicate that feldspars constitute
between the detrital mineralogy of the Smørbukk and the 1%e7.6% and 0.3%e4.3% of the sandstones of Smørbukk
Heidrun fields whereas a considerable difference has been and Heidrun fields respectively. Both potash and plagioclase
observed in context of authigenic mineralogy. feldspars are present in the sandstone samples studied. The

Fig. 4. (a) Photograph showing polycrystalline (p), monocrystalline (m) quartz, shale lithic grain (Sh) and sutured crystal boundary in poly quartz (arrow).
L ¼ 2 mm. (b) Figure showing mica (arrow for muscovite and b for biotite) dominated sandstone from Smørbukk field. L ¼ 1.3 mm. (c) Figure showing matrix
(green arrow), shale lithic grain (blue arrow) and organic matter (purple arrow). L ¼ 2 mm. (d) Photograph showing delicate form of glauconite cement (arrow) and
pore filling chlorites (blue arrow). L ¼ 2 mm.
16 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20

Fig. 5. (a) Photograph showing euhedral quartz overgrowth with sharp edges (arrow). L ¼ 1.3 mm. (b) Photograph showing poiklotopic calcite cement (red) and
dissolution of calcite cement (arrow). L ¼ 2 mm. (c) Photograph showing delicate nature of formation of siderite cement (arrow). L ¼ 1.3 mm.

former varieties are more common including orthoclase and Matrix is fine clastic mineral matters (Fig. 4c), interstitial to
microcline. framework grains that penecontemporaneously deposited with
Lithic grains are not so important rock components of the the supporting grains. The size limit ranges from silt to clay
studied samples. Point count data indicate that lithic grains grade. Point count data indicate that the matrix content ranges
constitute >1%e2% and 0.3%e3% in the sandstones of the from >1% to 12% of the total rock components. Because of
Smørbukk and Heidrun fields. From thin section petrographic the very fine-grained nature, mineralogy of matrix is difficult
study identified lithic grains include argillite-shale fragments to identify. However, they are recognized as to be quartz, mica
(Fig. 4c), siltstone fragments, schist fragments, and indeter- and clay minerals including kaolinite, illite, and chlorite.
minant grains.
Minor components including muscovite and biotite occur
as detrital flakes, often with splayed out ends. These generally
occur along partings, laminae or bedding planes and
frequently show bending due to compaction (Fig. 4b). Biotite
commonly shows varying degrees of alterations to chlorite.
Muscovite is generally more abundant than biotite. They
constitute 1.3%e7% (exceptional) of Smørbukk samples and
1 to 8%of the Heidrun samples. In a few sample micas are so
abundant that these resemble as major component of the rock
(Fig. 4b). Detrital chlorites and carbonate fragments also occur
in some samples.
Different types of heavy minerals occur as minor detrital
grains and together constitute trace to 4% of the total rock
components. Heavy minerals include garnet, zircon, tourmaline,
epidote, rutile, Kyanite sillimanite, hornblende, augite, and
some black opaque grains. Detrital organic matters present as
minor accessory components in many samples. These occur as
dark reddish brown to black material with brown translucent Fig. 6. Triangular plot showing that the samples of both the fields are quartz
edges, commonly as isolated grains or grain clusters (Fig. 4c). arenites and subarkosic in composition.
 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20 17

Fig. 7. (a) Photograph showing mica bending due to compactional effect. L ¼ 1.3 mm. (b) Showing sutured contact due to secondary silica cementation. Quartz
cement is shown by arrow. L ¼ 1.3 mm. (c) Photograph showing replacement of quartz by calcite cement (arrow). L ¼ 1.3 mm. (d) Photograph showing formation
of secondary porosity by dissolution of feldspar leaving only remnant parts (arrow). L ¼ 1.3 mm. (e) Photograph showing formation of secondary porosity by
dissolution of calcite cement (ca) evidenced from oversized pores (arrow). L ¼ 1.3 mm.

3.3.2. Authigenic components have been recognized. Pore filling kaolinites are not associated
Authigenic minerals of studied sandstone samples with any precursor minerals and fill individual pore spaces in
including chlorite, kaolinite and illite and non-clay minerals well-sorted sandstones. In situ alteration of feldspar is repre-
including quartz, calcite, siderite, and pyrite usually occur as sented by kaolinite masses enclosing relic feldspar grain or by
pore filling, grain coating and as replacing materials. Authi- kaolinites along the edges of partially decomposed feldspars.
genic chlorite is common in most of the sandstone samples. Authigenic illites are common diagenetic clay minerals but
They occur in three different modes. Grain coating or chlorite these are very difficult to identify from thin sections. Illites
rims are observed as thin discontinuous coatings around the occur as a thin discontinuous coating on detrital grains. It has
detrital grains but occasionally these are thick and continuous. been observed that there is a relationship between pressure
These rims line the pores and are absent where the grains solution and illite coating. Detrital quartz grains coated with
touch each other. Pore filling chlorites are commonly associ- illite are more susceptible to pressure solution. Illites appar-
ated with chlorite rims. Chlorite clay associated with authi- ently act as a catalyst in the process of pressure solution. Clay
genic glauconite has been observed (Fig. 4d) in a sample of minerals are more common in Smørbukk samples than Hei-
Heidrun field (sample no. 2348.75). drun samples.
Authigenic kaolinite is found only in the upper part of the Authigenic quartz cement has been observed mainly in the
Smørbukk sequence. Two modes of occurrence of kaolinite sandstones of the Smørbukk field but comparatively less
18 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20

common in the samples of the Heidrun field. Quartz overgrowth and secondary porosity, on the other hand, indicate physical,
cement constitute <1%e7.6% and trace to 1% of the sandstones physicochemical and chemical processes have all been
of Smørbukk and Heidrun fields of the total rock components. involved in diagenesis of the sandstones of Smørbukk and
Quartz overgrowths in thin sections under the normal Heidrun fields. Major diagenetic processes and their responses
polarizing microscope are recognized either by the presence of observed in thin section petrographic study of the sandstone
a dust line between the detrital grain nuclei and the over- samples have been described below.
growths (Fig. 5a) or by the presence of distinctive well-
developed crystal faces of overgrowths (Fig. 7c). The growth 3.5.1. Compaction
of euhedral quartz could only be formed when enough spaces The initial diagenetic process that affects sands immedi-
are available for the crystal to develop freely into the pores. ately after deposition and burial below the sediment water
When neither of these two criteria is present, it is not possible interface is compaction, which involves packing readjustment,
to distinguish the overgrowth from the detrital grain in normal plastic deformation of soft lithic grains and grain bending and
petrographic thin sections. fracturing. Packing readjustment of detrital grains is the first
Calcite cement is common authigenic minerals in sand- response of compaction. Packing readjustment involves grain
stones of the Heidrun field and also noticeable in some sam- slipping past each other and grain rotation, resulting in closed
ples of the Smørbukk field. Thin section study indicates that packing (Fig. 7a). Tight packing is evidenced from the
calcite cement constitutes 0e10.3% of the sandstone samples changes in grain contacts; point contacts at shallow depth
of the Smørbukk field and 6.6%e20.3% of the sandstone (Fig. 3a) gradually change to long, concavo-convex and su-
samples of the Heidrun field. The amount of carbonate cement tured contacts at greater depth (Fig. 3b). In samples of the
could be a distinguishing factor between these two fields. Smørbukk field, the number of points and long contacts de-
Calcite cement occurs either as isolated pore filling and creases with increasing depth of burial resulting in increasing
replacive cement or as poikilotopic cement. concavo-convex and sutured contacts among grains. Ductile or
Poikilotopic calcite cement presents only in a few samples of labile grains (shale, claystone, siltstone, phyllite, schist frag-
the Heidrun field, where these occupy the total pore spaces ments, etc.) are deformed permanently as adjacent rigid grains
(Fig. 5b). Point count data indicate that poikilotopic calcite in response to squeezing them overburden stress and some-
cement constitutes 35%e41% percent of the total rock compo- times resemble as matrix, usually termed as the pseudo matrix.
nents. These samples are not representatives of overall sequence. Depending on the degree of overburden stress, mica bending
These cement are pervasive and within the cement detrital ranges from gentle curving (Fig. 5a) of long flakes into more
grains are embedded with few or no grain contacts, resembling extreme cases where mica is bent into a zigzag shape with
as floating grains in grain supporting framework, which would some fracturing. Feldspars are susceptible to fracturing which
have been established during deposition (Fig. 5b). takes place along their cleavage planes.
Authigenic siderite is a very minor diagenetic mineral in
the studied samples. Siderite occurs as minute euhedral to 3.5.2. Pressure solution
subhedral rhombic crystals either singly or as aggregates. Pressure solution involves the solution of grains at point of
Well-developed cubic pyrites have been observed associated their contacts due to stress, resulting in tight packing of grains
with siderites in one or two samples of the Heidrun field. In a and increased compaction of the rocks. The solution of grains
Smørbukk sample (sample no. 4995.03) siderites occur as increases the ionic concentration of pore water with respective
ooids in the pore space (Fig. 5c). elements and often leads to authigenic precipitation of mineral
phase. In samples of the Smørbukk field, where quartz is the
3.4. Classification of sandstones principal mineral involved in pressure solution, secondarily
quartz has been precipitated from the pore fluid as quartz
Studied sandstone samples have been classified according overgrowths. The effect of pressure solution is comparatively
to the classification scheme of Pettijohn et al. [29]. As almost less important in the samples of Heidrun field. Mica-rich
all the samples contain less than 15% matrix, these have firstly sandstones are more susceptible to involve in pressure solu-
been classified as mature to sub mature arenites. tion. Mica may act as a catalyst in pressure solution.
Quartz, feldspars and lithic grains are recalculated to 100% Only pressure solution is not responsible for the develop-
and plotted on the triangular diagram. The subdivision of the ment of sutured contact. Secondary silica precipitation in the
QFL triangle is largely arbitrary. The class limits are selected pore space around the corroded grains may also show the
along boundaries that are easy to remember and they delineate sutured contact between detrital and authigenic quartz
fields, which can be simply, and meaningfully named (Fig. 6). (Fig. 7b). If the authigenic silica cement could not be identi-
From the plots, it has been observed that the sandstones are fied this type of contact may misguide the diagenetic events.
Quartz arenites and subarkosic arenites.
3.5.3. Cementation
3.5. Diagenesis Quartz cement is generally precipitated from the pore water
supersaturated with dissolved silica. More advanced termi-
The changes in grain contacts and deformation of soft lithic nated type of quartz overgrowths (Fig. 7c), observed in the
grains in one hand and the development of authigenic minerals samples of the Smørbukk field. The loose packing and floating
 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20 19

nature of detrital grains and absence of most of the diagenetic intracement pores. Corroded grain boundaries may also be
minerals within the poikilotopic calcite cement indicate their suggestive of partial dissolution. Imam [23] has pointed that
early generation. Late calcite cement (Fig. 5b) partially infilled corroded grain boundaries would result from the dissolution of
the isolated pore spaces and replaced the detrital grains. soluble calcite cement which replaced and corroded the mar-
Textural relationships with other diagenetic minerals suggest gins of the grains and filled the adjacent pores prior to
their late generation. dissolution (Fig. 5b). The dissolution of grains or cement has
From the mutual textural relationship with other minerals, also been noticed from oversized pores with some floating
it could be suggested that siderite was generated early in the grains. From Fig. 7e (sample from Heidrun field) it could be
diagenetic phase. It has also been noticed from the study that clearly indicated that the oversized pores have been formed by
siderites occur mainly in the primary pore spaces and pore dissolution of calcite cement. The patches of remnant calcite
cannels (Fig. 5c). cement are visible within the pore spaces.
Grain coating and pore filling chlorites (Fig. 4d) are com-
4. Conclusion
mon diagenetic minerals, observed in almost all the sandstone
samples studied. Their textural relationships with other
The petrographic analyses have been done quantitatively
authigenic minerals are suggestive of the early generation in
and qualitatively on thin sections of the sandstone samples of
the diagenetic phases.
Kaolinite cementation is observed in sandstones of the the Smørbukk and the Heidrun fields. Medium-coarse grained,
Heidrun field particularly at shallower part of the sequence. subangular-subrounded, poor-well sorted, submatureemature,
tightly packed sediments characterize Smørbukk samples.
Pore filling and in situ alteration kaolinites have been
Heidrun samples, on the other hand, are fine-medium grained,
observed. Authigenic illite is a common but minor diagenetic
subangular-subrounded, moderate-well sorted, mature-sub
mineral in the sandstone samples of Smørbukk field.
mature, moderate-loosely packed sediments. Sandstones of
both the fields are subarkosic and quartz arenites, predomi-
3.5.4. Replacement
nantly composed of quartz, feldspar, mica, lithic grains and
Replacements occur in quartz, feldspars and in lithic grains.
The replacive agents are calcite and chlorite. Chlorites clay and non-clay authigenic minerals.
replaced feldspar grains partially along the cleavage plains, Smørbukk sediments are comparatively more compacted
than those of the Heidrun fields. Silica cementation is more
fractures or cracks. The replacements were observed as
common in Smørbukk samples (particularly at the upper part)
corroded grains (quartz and feldspars replaced by calcite),
whereas early carbonate cementation is comparatively more
skeletal grains (feldspars and lithic grains generally replaced
common in Heidrun samples. Overall porosity (including
by calcite) and remnant grains (a tiny portion of detrital grains
primary and secondary) ranges from 5% to 15% in Smørbukk
like quartz or feldspars found to be left, Fig. 7d).
samples whereas porosity ranges from 8% to 18% in Heidrun
3.5.5. Alteration samples. Grain (particularly feldspar) dissolution is the
Alteration is the most general kind of chemical reaction and observable mechanism for secondary porosity development in
Smørbukk samples. Carbonate cement (particularly calcite)
therefore the most complex [29]. The petrographic evidence of
dissolution is the main mechanism of secondary porosity
alteration is equivocal when a grain that has all the geometry
development in Heidrun samples. Heidrun samples are
of precursor mineral, feldspar, for instance, is seen to be
texturally more mature than the samples of the Smørbukk
composed of new minerals like small books or warms of
field. Smørbukk samples are tight due to compaction but
kaolinite. Both partial and complete alterations have been
Heidrun samples become stiffer due to huge carbonate
observed in the studied samples. Three types of feldspar al-
terations are observed such as vacuolization, sericitization and cementation in some regions.
in situ alteration to kaolinite. Biotite is also altered to chlorite, Conflicts of interest
generally termed as chloritized biotite.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
3.5.6. Dissolution
Feldspar grains are more susceptible to dissolution (either Acknowledgments
completely or partially) amongst the rock components.
Dissolution of feldspars sometimes is so pronounced that The work was performed at the Department of Petroleum
60%e70% of the individual grain may have been removed, Engineering and Applied Geophysics and at the Department of
leaving only remnant grains termed as honeycomb or skeletal Geology, NTNU under the supervision of Professor Ståle
grains (Fig. 7e). Partial dissolution of calcite cement is found Johansen, Department of Petroleum Engineering and Applied
in most samples of the Heidrun field (Fig. 5b). These features Geophysics and Eirik Vik, Statoil Research Center.
are usually absent in some early poikilotopic calcite cement
because the pore fluid responsible for dissolution could not References
percolate into the rock due to complete destruction of porosity.
Schmidt and Mcdonald [43] suggested that partial disso- [1] A.W. Martinius, P. Ringrose, C. Brostrom & C. Elfenbein, Reservior
lution of calcite cement be ascertained from the evidence of challenges of heterolithic tidal sandstone reservoirs in the Halten Terrace,
20 A.H. Bhuiyan, S. Hossain / Journal of Natural Gas Geoscience 5 (2020) 11e20

mid-Norway, Petrol. Geosci. 11 (1) (2005) 3e16, https://doi.org/10.1144/ [30] M.C. Powers, Comparison chart for estimating roundness and sphericity:
1354-079304-629. AGI data sheet 18, Amer. Geol. Inst, 1982.
[2] Anja Sundal, Helge Hellevang, Using reservoir geology and petrographic [34] C. Thrana, A. Næss, S. Leary, S. Gowland, M. Brekken, A. Taylor,
observations to improve CO2 mineralization estimates; examples from Updated depositional and stratigraphic model of the lower Jurassic Å re
the Johansen formation, north sea, Norway, Minerals 9 (11) (2019) 671, Formation, Heidrun field, Norway, in: A.W. Martinius, R. Ravnas,
https://doi.org/10.3390/min9110671. J. Howell, R.J. Steel, J. Wonham (Eds.), From depositional systems to
[3] D.C. Beard, P.K. Weyl, Influence of texture on porosity and permeability sedimentary successions on the Norwegian continental margin, 46, IAS
of unconsolidated sand, Bull. AAPG 57 (1973) 349e369. Special Publication, 2014, pp. 253e290.
[8] C. Bukovics, E.G. Cartier, N.D. Shaw, P.A. Ziegler, Structure and [35] C.K. Wentworth, A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments,
development of the mid-Norway continental margin, in: A.M. Spencer J. Geol. 30 (1922) 377e392.
(Ed.), Petroleum geology of the north European margin, Nor. Pet. Soc, [36] P.K. Whitley, The geology of Heidrun - a giant oil and gas field on
1984, pp. 407e423. the mid- Norwegian shelf, in: M. Halbouty (Ed.), Giant oil and gas
[16] S.N. Ehrenberg, H.M. Gjerstad, F. Hadler-Jakobsen, Smorbukk field - a fields of the decade 1978-1988, 54, Memoir, AAPG, 1992,
gas condensate fault trap in the Haltenbanken province, offshore mid- pp. 383e406.
Norway, in: M. Halbouty (Ed.), Giant oil and gas fields of the decade [37] H. Brekke, S. Dahlgren, B. Nyland, C. Magnus, The prospectivity of the
1978-1988, 54, Memoir, AAPG, 1992, pp. 323e348. Voring and More basins on the Norwegian Sea continental margin, in:
[18] R.L. Folk, The distinction between grain size and mineral composition A.J. Fleet, S.A.R. Boldy (Eds.), Petroleum Geology of Northwest
in sedimentary-rock nomenclature, J. Geol. 62 (4) (1954) 344e359 (17 Europe: Proceedings of the 5th Conference, Geological Society, London,
pages). 1999, pp. 261e274.
[19] N.B. Harris, Reservoir geology of Fangst Group (middle Jurassic), Heidrun [38] F. Caselli, Oblique-slip tectonics Mid-Norway shelf, in: J. Brooks,
field, offshore mid-Norway, Bull. AAPG 73/11 (1989) 1415e1435. K. Glennie (Eds.), Petroleum Geology of North West Europe, Graham
[20] P.D. Hemmens, A. Hole, B.E. Reid, P.R.L. Leach, W.R. Landrum, The and Trotman, London, 1987, pp. 1049e1063.
Heidrun field, in: J.O. Aasen, et al. (Eds.), North Sea oil and gas res- [39] O.F. Ekern, Midgard Field Norway, southwest Central Graben, North
ervoirs, 3, 1994, pp. 1e23. Sea, in: A. Beaumont, N.H. Foster (Eds.), Structural Traps IV, Tectonic
[23] M.B. Imam, Scanning electron microscopy study of quartz overgrowths and Non-Tectonic Fold Traps. Treatise of Pet. Geol., Atlas of Oil and Gas
within Neogene sandstones of Bengal Basin, Bangladesh, J. Geol. Soc. Fields,, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK, 1990,
India 28 (1986) 407e413. pp. 141e171.
[25] A.A. Karoline, Controls on hydrocarbon column-heights in the Eastern [40] F. Jørgensen, T. Navrestad, The geology of the Norwegian Shelf between
province of Haltenbanken, the Norwegian Sea, University of Bergen, 62 N and the Lofoten Islands, in: L.V. Illing, G.D. Hobson (Eds.), Pe-
Norway, 2016. MS thesis. troleum Geology of the Continental Shelf of Northwest Europe, Institute
[27] N. Marsh, J. Imber, R.E. Holdsworth, P. Brockbank, P. Ringrose, The of Petroleum, London, 1981, pp. 407e413.
structural evolution of the Halten Terrace, offshore Mid-Norway: [41] J.S. Jackson, D.S. Hastings, Hydrocarbon trapping styles in Mid-Norway,
extensional fault growth and strain localisation in a multi-layer brittle- in: J. Brooks, K. Glennie (Eds.), Petroleum Geology of North West
ductile system, Basin Res. 22 (2010) 195e214, https://doi.org/10.1111/ Europe, Graham and Trotman, London, 1987, pp. 1079e1090.
j.1365-2117.2009.00404.x. [42] T. Pedersen, J.C. Harms, N.B. Harris, R.W. Mitchell, K.M. Tooby, The
[28] A.W. Martinius, I. Kaas, A. Næss, G. Helgesen, J.M. Kjærefjord, role of correlation in generating the Heidrun Field geological model, in:
D.A. Leith, Sedimentology of the heterolithic and tide-dominated Tilje J.D. Collinson (Ed.), Correlation in Hydrocarbon Exploration, Norwe-
Formation (early Jurassic, Halten terrace, offshore mid-Norway), in: gian Petroleum Society (NPF), Graham and Trotman, London, 1989,
Sedimentary environments offshore Norway e paleozoic to recent, in: pp. 327e338.
O.J. Martinsen, T. Dreyer (Eds.) 10, Norwegian Petroleum Society [43] V. Schmidt, D.A. McDonald, The role of secondary porosity in the course
Special Publication, Oslo, Norway, 2001, pp. 103e144, https://doi.org/ of sandstone diagenesis, SEPM Spec. Publ. 26 (1979) 175e207.
10.1016/S0928-8937(01)80011-4. [44] P.A. Ziegler, Compressional Irma plate deformation in the Alpine fore-
[29] F.J. Pettijohn, P.E. Potter, R. Siever, Sand and sandstone, Springer-Ver- land, Tectonophysics 137 (1987) 420.
lag, Berlin, 1972, p. 618p.