Supernova

A supernova (pl: supernovae or supernovas) is a

powerful and luminous explosion of a star. A supernova
occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive
star or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway
nuclear fusion. The original object, called the progenitor,
either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is
completely destroyed to form a diffuse nebula. The peak
optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to
that of an entire galaxy before fading over several weeks
or months.

The last supernova directly observed in the Milky Way

was Kepler's Supernova in 1604, appearing not long
after Tycho's Supernova in 1572, both of which were
visible to the naked eye. The remnants of more recent
supernovae have been found, and observations of
supernovae in other galaxies suggest they occur in the SN 1994D (bright spot on the lower left), a type
Milky Way on average about three times every century. Ia supernova within its host galaxy, NGC 4526
A supernova in the Milky Way would almost certainly
be observable through modern astronomical telescopes.
The most recent naked-eye supernova was SN 1987A, which was the explosion of a blue supergiant star in
the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite of the Milky Way.

Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden
re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a white dwarf, or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core.

In the re-ignition of a white dwarf, the object's temperature is raised enough to trigger
runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. Possible causes are an
accumulation of material from a binary companion through accretion, or by a stellar merger.
In the case of a massive star's sudden implosion, the core of a massive star will undergo
sudden collapse once it is unable to produce sufficient energy from fusion to counteract the
star's own gravity, which must happen once the star begins fusing iron, but may happen
during an earlier stage of metal fusion.

Supernovae can expel several solar masses of material at velocities up to several percent of the speed of
light. This drives an expanding shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium, sweeping up an
expanding shell of gas and dust observed as a supernova remnant. Supernovae are a major source of
elements in the interstellar medium from oxygen to rubidium. The expanding shock waves of supernovae
can trigger the formation of new stars. Supernovae are a major source of cosmic rays. They might also
produce gravitational waves, though thus far gravitational waves have been detected only from the mergers
of black holes and neutron stars.

Etymology
The word supernova has the plural form supernovae /-viː/ or supernovas and is often abbreviated as SN or
SNe. It is derived from the Latin word nova, meaning "new", which refers to what appears to be a
temporary new bright star. Adding the prefix "super-" distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae,
which are far less luminous. The word supernova was coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky, who
began using it in astrophysics lectures in 1931.[1] Its first use in a journal article came the following year in
a publication by Knut Lundmark, who may have coined it independently.[2]

Observation history
Compared to a star's entire history, the visual appearance of a supernova is very brief, sometimes spanning
several months, so that the chances of observing one with the naked eye is roughly once in a lifetime. Only
a tiny fraction of the 100 billion stars in a typical galaxy have the capacity to become a supernova, being
restricted to those having high mass and rare kinds of binary stars containing white dwarfs.[3]

Early discoveries

The earliest possible recorded supernova, known as HB9, could have been viewed by unknown prehistoric
people of the Indian subcontinent and then recorded on a rock carving, since found in Burzahama region in
Kashmir and dated to 4500 ± 1000 BC.[4] Later, SN 185 was documented by Chinese astronomers in AD
185. The brightest recorded supernova was SN 1006, which occurred in AD 1006 in the constellation of
Lupus. This event was described by observers in China, Japan, Iraq, Egypt, and Europe.[5][6][7] The
widely observed supernova SN 1054 produced the Crab Nebula.[8]

Supernovae SN 1572 and SN 1604, the latest Milky Way supernovae to be observed with the naked eye,
had a notable influence on the development of astronomy in Europe because they were used to argue
against the Aristotelian idea that the universe beyond the Moon and planets was static and unchanging.[9]
Johannes Kepler began observing SN 1604 at its peak on 17 October 1604, and continued to make
estimates of its brightness until it faded from naked eye view a year later.[10] It was the second supernova to
be observed in a generation, after Tycho Brahe observed SN 1572 in Cassiopeia.[11]

There is some evidence that the youngest galactic supernova, G1.9+0.3, occurred in the late 19th century,
considerably more recently than Cassiopeia A from around 1680.[12] Neither supernova was noted at the
time. In the case of G1.9+0.3, high extinction from dust along the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy could
have dimmed the event sufficiently for it to go unnoticed. The situation for Cassiopeia A is less clear;
infrared light echos have been detected showing that it was not in a region of especially high extinction.[13]
 Historical supernovae in the local group

certainty[15] of the
maximum
year observed in apparent
brightness SN's identification

constellation possible SN, but may be a

185 −6m
of Centaurus comet[16][17]

constellation uncertain whether SN or

386 +1.5m[18]
of Sagittarius classical nova[19]
constellation
393
of Scorpius −3m possible SN[19]
The Crab Nebula is a pulsar wind
constellation nebula associated with the 1054
1006
of Lupus −7.5 ± 0.4m[20] certain: SNR known supernova.

constellation certain: SNR and pulsar

1054
of Taurus −6m known

constellation likely type Iax SN associated

1181 −2m
of Cassiopeia with the remnant Pa30[21]
constellation
1572
of Cassiopeia −4m certain: SNR known

constellation
1604
of Ophiuchus −2m certain: SNR known
A 1414 text cites a 1055 report:
constellation SNR known, unclear whether since "the baleful star appeared,
1680?
of Cassiopeia +6m the SN was observed a full year has passed and until
1800– constellation now its brilliance has not
1900 of Sagittarius ?m SNR known, but not observed
faded".[14]
Andromeda
1885
Galaxy +6m certain

Large
1987 Magellanic +3m certain
Cloud

Telescope findings

With the development of the astronomical telescope, observation and discovery of fainter and more distant
supernovae became possible. The first such observation was of SN 1885A in the Andromeda Galaxy. A
second supernova, SN 1895B, was discovered in NGC 5253 a decade later.[22] Early work on what was
originally believed to be simply a new category of novae was performed during the 1920s. These were
variously called "upper-class Novae", "Hauptnovae", or "giant novae".[23] The name "supernovae" is
thought to have been coined by Walter Baade and Zwicky in lectures at Caltech during 1931. It was used,
as "super-Novae", in a journal paper published by Knut Lundmark in 1933,[24] and in a 1934 paper by
Baade and Zwicky.[25] By 1938, the hyphen was no longer used and the modern name was in use.[26]

American astronomers Rudolph Minkowski and Fritz Zwicky developed the modern supernova
classification scheme beginning in 1941.[27] During the 1960s, astronomers found that the maximum
intensities of supernovae could be used as standard candles, hence indicators of astronomical distances.[28]
Some of the most distant supernovae observed in 2003 appeared dimmer than expected. This supports the
view that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.[29] Techniques were developed for reconstructing
supernovae events that have no written records of being observed. The date of the Cassiopeia A supernova
event was determined from light echoes off nebulae,[30] while the age of supernova remnant RX J0852.0-
4622 was estimated from temperature measurements[31] and the gamma ray emissions from the radioactive
decay of titanium-44.[32]

The most luminous supernova ever recorded is ASASSN-15lh, at a

distance of 3.82 gigalight-years. It was first detected in June 2015
and peaked at 570 billion L☉ , which is twice the bolometric
luminosity of any other known supernova.[34] The nature of this
supernova is debated and several alternative explanations, such as
tidal disruption of a star by a black hole, have been suggested.[35]

SN 2013fs was recorded three hours after the supernova event on 6

October 2013, by the Intermediate Palomar Transient Factory. This
is among the earliest supernovae caught after detonation, and it is
the earliest for which spectra have been obtained, beginning at six
2015 supernova in galaxy cluster
RXC J0949.8+1707. In 2011, two
hours after the actual explosion. The star is located in a spiral
supernovae were observed in the
galaxy named NGC 7610, 160 million light-years away in the
constellation of Pegasus.[36][37]
same face-on spiral galaxy.[33]

The supernova SN 2016gkg was detected by amateur astronomer

Victor Buso from Rosario, Argentina, on 20 September
2016.[38][39] It was the first time that the initial "shock breakout" from an optical supernova had been
observed.[38] The progenitor star has been identified in Hubble Space Telescope images from before its
collapse. Astronomer Alex Filippenko noted: "Observations of stars in the first moments they begin
exploding provide information that cannot be directly obtained in any other way."[38]

Discovery programs

Because supernovae are relatively rare events within a galaxy,

occurring about three times a century in the Milky Way,[40]
obtaining a good sample of supernovae to study requires regular
monitoring of many galaxies. Today, amateur and professional
astronomers are finding several hundred every year, some when
near maximum brightness, others on old astronomical photographs
or plates. Supernovae in other galaxies cannot be predicted with
any meaningful accuracy. Normally, when they are discovered, they
are already in progress.[41] To use supernovae as standard candles
for measuring distance, observation of their peak luminosity is
required. It is therefore important to discover them well before they
reach their maximum. Amateur astronomers, who greatly Supernova remnant SNR E0519-69.0
outnumber professional astronomers, have played an important role in the Large Magellanic Cloud
in finding supernovae, typically by looking at some of the closer
galaxies through an optical telescope and comparing them to earlier
photographs.[42]

Toward the end of the 20th century, astronomers increasingly turned to computer-controlled telescopes and
CCDs for hunting supernovae. While such systems are popular with amateurs, there are also professional
installations such as the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope.[43] The Supernova Early Warning System
(SNEWS) project uses a network of neutrino detectors to give early warning of a supernova in the Milky
Way galaxy.[44][45] Neutrinos are particles that are produced in great quantities by a supernova, and they
are not significantly absorbed by the interstellar gas and dust of the galactic disk.[46]

Supernova searches fall into two classes: those focused on

relatively nearby events and those looking farther away.
Because of the expansion of the universe, the distance to a
remote object with a known emission spectrum can be
estimated by measuring its Doppler shift (or redshift); on
average, more-distant objects recede with greater velocity
than those nearby, and so have a higher redshift. Thus the
search is split between high redshift and low redshift, with
"A star set to explode", the SBW1 nebula
the boundary falling around a redshift range of z=0.1–0.3,
surrounds a massive blue supergiant in the
where z is a dimensionless measure of the spectrum's
Carina Nebula.
frequency shift.[47]

High redshift searches for supernovae usually involve the

observation of supernova light curves. These are useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate
Hubble diagrams and make cosmological predictions. Supernova spectroscopy, used to study the physics
and environments of supernovae, is more practical at low than at high redshift.[48][49] Low redshift
observations also anchor the low-distance end of the Hubble curve, which is a plot of distance versus
redshift for visible galaxies.[50][51]

As survey programmes rapidly increase the number of detected supernovae, collated collections of
observations (light decay curves, astrometry, pre-supernova observations, spectroscopy) have been
assembled. The Pantheon data set, assembled in 2018, detailed 1048 supernovae.[52] In 2021, this data set
was expanded to 1701 light curves for 1550 supernovae taken from 18 different surveys, a 50% increase in
under 3 years.[53]

Naming convention
Supernova discoveries are reported to the International
Astronomical Union's Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams,
which sends out a circular with the name it assigns to that
supernova.[54] The name is formed from the prefix SN, followed by
the year of discovery, suffixed with a one or two-letter designation.
The first 26 supernovae of the year are designated with a capital
letter from A to Z. Next, pairs of lower-case letters are used: aa, ab,
and so on. Hence, for example, SN 2003C designates the third
supernova reported in the year 2003.[55] The last supernova of
2005, SN 2005nc, was the 367th (14 × 26 + 3 = 367). Since 2000,
professional and amateur astronomers have been finding several
hundred supernovae each year (572 in 2007, 261 in 2008, 390 in Multi-wavelength X-ray, infrared, and
2009; 231 in 2013).[56][57] optical compilation image of Kepler's
supernova remnant, SN 1604
Historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred:
SN 185, SN 1006, SN 1054, SN 1572 (called Tycho's Nova) and
SN 1604 (Kepler's Star).[58] Since 1885 the additional letter notation has been used, even if there was only
one supernova discovered that year (for example, SN 1885A, SN 1907A, etc.); this last happened with SN
1947A. SN, for SuperNova, is a standard prefix. Until 1987, two-letter designations were rarely needed;
since 1988, they have been needed every year. Since 2016, the increasing number of discoveries has
regularly led to the additional use of three-digit designations.[59]

Classification
Astronomers classify supernovae according to their light curves and the absorption lines of different
chemical elements that appear in their spectra. If a supernova's spectrum contains lines of hydrogen (known
as the Balmer series in the visual portion of the spectrum) it is classified Type II; otherwise it is Type I. In
each of these two types there are subdivisions according to the presence of lines from other elements or the
shape of the light curve (a graph of the supernova's apparent magnitude as a function of time).[60][61]

Supernova taxonomy[60][61]
Type Ia
Thermal
Presents a singly ionised silicon (Si II) line at 615.0 nm (nanometers), near peak
runaway
light
Type I
Type Ib
No hydrogen Type Ib/c Shows a non-ionised helium (He I) line at 587.6 nm
Weak or no silicon
absorption feature Type Ic
Weak or no helium

Type II-P
Type II- Reaches a "plateau" in its light curve
P/L Core
Type II-P/-L/n No narrow Type II-L collapse
Type II spectrum lines Displays a "linear" decrease in its light
Type II
Shows throughout curve (linear in magnitude versus time)[62]
hydrogen
Type IIn
Some narrow lines
Type IIb
Spectrum changes to become like Type Ib

Type I

Type I supernovae are subdivided on the basis of

their spectra, with type Ia showing a strong
ionised silicon absorption line. Type I supernovae
without this strong line are classified as type Ib
and Ic, with type Ib showing strong neutral helium
lines and type Ic lacking them. Historically, the
light curves of type I supernovae were seen as all Light curve for type Ia SN 2018gv
broadly similar, too much so to make useful
distinctions.[62] While variations in light curves
have been studied, classification continues to be made on spectral grounds rather than light-curve shape.[61]

A small number of type Ia supernovae exhibit unusual features, such as non-standard luminosity or
broadened light curves, and these are typically categorized by referring to the earliest example showing
similar features. For example, the sub-luminous SN 2008ha is often referred to as SN 2002cx-like or class
Ia-2002cx.[63]
A small proportion of type Ic supernovae show highly broadened and blended emission lines which are
taken to indicate very high expansion velocities for the ejecta. These have been classified as type Ic-BL or
Ic-bl.[64]

Calcium-rich supernovae are a rare type of very fast supernova with unusually strong calcium lines in their
spectra.[65][66] Models suggest they occur when material is accreted from a helium-rich companion rather
than a hydrogen-rich star. Because of helium lines in their spectra, they can resemble type Ib supernovae,
but are thought to have very different progenitors.[67]

Type II

The supernovae of type II can also be sub-divided based on their

spectra. While most type II supernovae show very broad emission
lines which indicate expansion velocities of many thousands of
kilometres per second, some, such as SN 2005gl, have relatively
narrow features in their spectra. These are called type IIn, where the
"n" stands for "narrow".[61]

A few supernovae, such as SN 1987K[69] and SN 1993J, appear to

change types: they show lines of hydrogen at early times, but, over Light curves are used to classify
a period of weeks to months, become dominated by lines of helium. type II-P and type II-L
The term "type IIb" is used to describe the combination of features supernovae.[61][68]
normally associated with types II and Ib.[61]

Type II supernovae with normal spectra dominated by broad hydrogen lines that remain for the life of the
decline are classified on the basis of their light curves. The most common type shows a distinctive "plateau"
in the light curve shortly after peak brightness where the visual luminosity stays relatively constant for
several months before the decline resumes. These are called type II-P referring to the plateau. Less common
are type II-L supernovae that lack a distinct plateau. The "L" signifies "linear" although the light curve is
not actually a straight line.[61]

Supernovae that do not fit into the normal classifications are designated peculiar, or "pec".[61]

Types III, IV, and V

Zwicky defined additional supernovae types based on a very few examples that did not cleanly fit the
parameters for type I or type II supernovae. SN 1961i in NGC 4303 was the prototype and only member of
the type III supernova class, noted for its broad light curve maximum and broad hydrogen Balmer lines that
were slow to develop in the spectrum.[62] SN 1961f in NGC 3003 was the prototype and only member of
the type IV class, with a light curve similar to a type II-P supernova, with hydrogen absorption lines but
weak hydrogen emission lines.[62] The type V class was coined for SN 1961V in NGC 1058, an unusual
faint supernova or supernova impostor with a slow rise to brightness, a maximum lasting many months, and
an unusual emission spectrum. The similarity of SN 1961V to the Eta Carinae Great Outburst was
noted.[70] Supernovae in M101 (1909) and M83 (1923 and 1957) were also suggested as possible type IV
or type V supernovae.[71]
These types would now all be treated as peculiar type II supernovae (IIpec), of which many more examples
have been discovered, although it is still debated whether SN 1961V was a true supernova following an
LBV outburst or an impostor.[62][72]

Current models
Supernova type codes, as summarised in the
table above, are taxonomic: the type
number is based on the light observed from
the supernova, not necessarily its cause. For
example, type Ia supernovae are produced
by runaway fusion ignited on degenerate
white dwarf progenitors, while the
spectrally similar type Ib/c are produced
from massive stripped progenitor stars by In the galaxy NGC 1365 a supernova (the bright dot slightly
core collapse. above the galactic center) rapidly brightens, then fades more
slowly.[73]

Thermal runaway

A white dwarf star may accumulate

sufficient material from a stellar companion
to raise its core temperature enough to ignite
carbon fusion, at which point it undergoes
runaway nuclear fusion, completely
disrupting it. There are three avenues by
which this detonation is theorised to
happen: stable accretion of material from a
companion, the collision of two white
dwarfs, or accretion that causes ignition in a
shell that then ignites the core. The
dominant mechanism by which type Ia
supernovae are produced remains
unclear. [74] Despite this uncertainty in how
type Ia supernovae are produced, type Ia
supernovae have very uniform properties
and are useful standard candles over
intergalactic distances. Some calibrations
are required to compensate for the gradual
change in properties or different frequencies
Formation of a type Ia supernova
of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high
redshift, and for small variations in
brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.[75][76]

Normal Type Ia

There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form, but they share a common underlying
mechanism. If a carbon-oxygen white dwarf accreted enough matter to reach the Chandrasekhar limit of
about 1.44 solar masses[77] (for a non-rotating star), it would no longer be able to support the bulk of its
mass through electron degeneracy pressure[78][79] and would begin to collapse. However, the current view
is that this limit is not normally attained; increasing temperature and density inside the core ignite carbon
fusion as the star approaches the limit (to within about 1%)[80] before collapse is initiated.[77] In contrast,
for a core primarily composed of oxygen, neon and magnesium, the collapsing white dwarf will typically
form a neutron star. In this case, only a fraction of the star's mass will be ejected during the collapse.[79]

Within a few seconds of the collapse process, a substantial fraction

of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes nuclear fusion, releasing
enough energy (1–2 × 1044 J)[81] to unbind the star in a
supernova.[82] An outwardly expanding shock wave is generated,
with matter reaching velocities on the order of 5,000–20,000 km/s,
or roughly 3% of the speed of light. There is also a significant
increase in luminosity, reaching an absolute magnitude of −19.3 (or
5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little variation.[83]

The model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close

binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to evolve
off the main sequence, and it expands to form a red giant. The two
stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to The blue spot at the centre of the
shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass red ring is an isolated neutron star in
until it can no longer continue nuclear fusion. At this point, it the Small Magellanic Cloud.
becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and
oxygen.[84] Eventually, the secondary star also evolves off the main
sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to
increase in mass. The exact details of initiation and of the heavy elements produced in the catastrophic
event remain unclear.[85]

Type Ia supernovae produce a characteristic light curve—the graph of luminosity as a function of time—
after the event. This luminosity is generated by the radioactive decay of nickel-56 through cobalt-56 to iron-
56.[83] The peak luminosity of the light curve is extremely consistent across normal type Ia supernovae,
having a maximum absolute magnitude of about −19.3. This is because typical type Ia supernovae arise
from a consistent type of progenitor star by gradual mass acquisition, and explode when they acquire a
consistent typical mass, giving rise to very similar supernova conditions and behaviour. This allows them to
be used as a secondary[86] standard candle to measure the distance to their host galaxies.[87]

A second model for the formation of type Ia supernovae involves the merger of two white dwarf stars, with
the combined mass momentarily exceeding the Chandrasekhar limit.[88] This is sometimes referred to as the
double-degenerate model, as both stars are degenerate white dwarfs. Due to the possible combinations of
mass and chemical composition of the pair there is much variation in this type of event,[89] and, in many
cases, there may be no supernova at all, in which case they will have a less luminous light curve than the
more normal SN type Ia.[90]

Non-standard Type Ia

Abnormally bright type Ia supernovae occur when the white dwarf already has a mass higher than the
Chandrasekhar limit,[91] possibly enhanced further by asymmetry,[92] but the ejected material will have less
than normal kinetic energy. This super-Chandrasekhar-mass scenario can occur, for example, when the
extra mass is supported by differential rotation.[93]

There is no formal sub-classification for non-standard type Ia supernovae. It has been proposed that a group
of sub-luminous supernovae that occur when helium accretes onto a white dwarf should be classified as
type Iax.[94][95] This type of supernova may not always completely destroy the white dwarf progenitor and
could leave behind a zombie star.[96]

One specific type of supernova originates from exploding white dwarfs, like type Ia, but contains hydrogen
lines in their spectra, possibly because the white dwarf is surrounded by an envelope of hydrogen-rich
circumstellar material. These supernovae have been dubbed type Ia/IIn, type Ian, type IIa and type
IIan.[97]

The quadruple star HD 74438, belonging to the open cluster IC 2391 the Vela constellation, has been
predicted to become a non-standard type Ia supernova.[98][99]

Core collapse

Very massive stars can undergo core collapse when nuclear fusion
becomes unable to sustain the core against its own gravity; passing
this threshold is the cause of all types of supernova except type Ia.
The collapse may cause violent expulsion of the outer layers of the
star resulting in a supernova. However, if the release of gravitational
potential energy is insufficient, the star may instead collapse into a
black hole or neutron star with little radiated energy.[100]

Core collapse can be caused by several different mechanisms:

exceeding the Chandrasekhar limit; electron capture; pair-instability;
or photodisintegration.[100][101][102]
The layers of a massive, evolved
When a massive star develops an iron core larger than
star just before core collapse (not to
the Chandrasekhar mass it will no longer be able to scale)
support itself by electron degeneracy pressure and will
collapse further to a neutron star or black hole.
Electron capture by magnesium in a degenerate O/Ne/Mg core (8–10 solar mass progenitor
star) removes support and causes gravitational collapse followed by explosive oxygen
fusion, with very similar results.
Electron-positron pair production in a large post-helium burning core removes
thermodynamic support and causes initial collapse followed by runaway fusion, resulting in
a pair-instability supernova.
A sufficiently large and hot stellar core may generate gamma-rays energetic enough to
initiate photodisintegration directly, which will cause a complete collapse of the core.

The table below lists the known reasons for core collapse in massive stars, the types of stars in which they
occur, their associated supernova type, and the remnant produced. The metallicity is the proportion of
elements other than hydrogen or helium, as compared to the Sun. The initial mass is the mass of the star
prior to the supernova event, given in multiples of the Sun's mass, although the mass at the time of the
supernova may be much lower.[100]

Type IIn supernovae are not listed in the table. They can be produced by various types of core collapse in
different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will
be from iron core collapse in luminous supergiants or hypergiants (including LBVs). The narrow spectral
lines for which they are named occur because the supernova is expanding into a small dense cloud of
circumstellar material.[103] It appears that a significant proportion of supposed type IIn supernovae are
supernova impostors, massive eruptions of LBV-like stars similar to the Great Eruption of Eta Carinae. In
these events, material previously ejected from the star creates the narrow absorption lines and causes a
shock wave through interaction with the newly ejected material.[104]
 Core collapse scenarios by mass and metallicity[100]
Progenitor star
Cause of collapse approximate initial mass Supernova type Remnant
(solar masses)
Electron capture in a
9–10 Faint II-P Neutron star
degenerate O+Ne+Mg core

10–25 Faint II-P Neutron star

Black hole after fallback

25–40 with low or solar
Normal II-P of material onto an initial
metallicity
neutron star
25–40 with very high
II-L or II-b Neutron star
metallicity

Iron core collapse 40–90 with low metallicity None Black hole

Faint Ib/c, or hypernova Black hole after fallback

≥40 with near-solar
with gamma-ray burst of material onto an initial
metallicity
(GRB) neutron star
≥40 with very high
Ib/c Neutron star
metallicity

≥90 with low metallicity None, possible GRB Black hole

II-P, sometimes a
140–250 with low
Pair instability hypernova, possible No remnant
metallicity
GRB
None (or luminous
Photodisintegration ≥250 with low metallicity supernova?), possible Massive black hole
GRB

Detailed process

When a stellar core is no longer supported against gravity, it collapses in on itself with velocities reaching
70,000 km/s (0.23c),[106] resulting in a rapid increase in temperature and density. What follows depends on
the mass and structure of the collapsing core, with low-mass degenerate cores forming neutron stars,
higher-mass degenerate cores mostly collapsing completely to black holes, and non-degenerate cores
undergoing runaway fusion.[105][107]

The initial collapse of degenerate cores is accelerated by beta decay, photodisintegration and electron
capture, which causes a burst of electron neutrinos. As the density increases, neutrino emission is cut off as
they become trapped in the core. The inner core eventually reaches typically 30 km in diameter[108] with a
density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus, and neutron degeneracy pressure tries to halt the collapse.
If the core mass is more than about 15 solar masses then neutron degeneracy is insufficient to stop the
collapse and a black hole forms directly with no supernova.[101]

In lower mass cores the collapse is stopped and the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of
about 100 billion kelvin, 6,000 times the temperature of the Sun's core.[105] At this temperature, neutrino-
antineutrino pairs of all flavours are efficiently formed by thermal emission. These thermal neutrinos are
several times more abundant than the electron-capture neutrinos.[109] About 1046 joules, approximately
10% of the star's rest mass, is converted into a ten-second burst of neutrinos, which is the main output of the
event.[108][110] The suddenly halted core collapse rebounds and produces a shock wave that stalls in the
outer core within milliseconds[111] as energy is lost through the dissociation of heavy elements. A process
that is not clearly understood is necessary to allow the
outer layers of the core to reabsorb around 1044
joules[110] (1 foe) from the neutrino pulse, producing
the visible brightness, although there are other
theories that could power the explosion.[108]

Some material from the outer envelope falls back

onto the neutron star, and, for cores beyond about
8 M☉ , there is sufficient fallback to form a black
hole. This fallback will reduce the kinetic energy
created and the mass of expelled radioactive material,
but in some situations, it may also generate relativistic
jets that result in a gamma-ray burst or an
Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered
exceptionally luminous supernova.[112]
shells of elements undergo fusion, forming an iron
The collapse of a massive non-degenerate core will core (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass and
starts to collapse. The inner part of the core is
ignite further fusion.[107] When the core collapse is
compressed into neutrons (c), causing infalling
initiated by pair instability (photons turning into
material to bounce (d) and form an outward-
electron-positron pairs, thereby reducing the radiation
propagating shock front (red). The shock starts to
pressure) oxygen fusion begins and the collapse may
stall (e), but it is re-invigorated, likely by neutrino
be halted. For core masses of 40–60 M☉ , the collapse
heating. The surrounding material is blasted away
halts and the star remains intact, but collapse will (f), leaving only a degenerate remnant.[105]
occur again when a larger core has formed. For cores
of around 60–130 M☉ , the fusion of oxygen and
heavier elements is so energetic that the entire star is disrupted, causing a supernova. At the upper end of
the mass range, the supernova is unusually luminous and extremely long-lived due to many solar masses of
ejected 56 Ni. For even larger core masses, the core temperature becomes high enough to allow
photodisintegration and the core collapses completely into a black hole.[113][101]

Type II

Stars with initial masses less than about 8 M☉ never develop a core
large enough to collapse and they eventually lose their atmospheres
to become white dwarfs. Stars with at least 9 M☉ (possibly as much
as 12 M☉ [114]) evolve in a complex fashion, progressively burning
heavier elements at hotter temperatures in their cores.[108][115] The
star becomes layered like an onion, with the burning of more easily
fused elements occurring in larger shells.[100][116] Although
popularly described as an onion with an iron core, the least massive
supernova progenitors only have oxygen-neon(-magnesium) cores.
These super-AGB stars may form the majority of core collapse
supernovae, although less luminous and so less commonly observed
than those from more massive progenitors.[114]
The atypical subluminous type II SN
If core collapse occurs during a supergiant phase when the star still
1997D
has a hydrogen envelope, the result is a type II supernova.[117] The
rate of mass loss for luminous stars depends on the metallicity and
luminosity. Extremely luminous stars at near solar metallicity will lose all their hydrogen before they reach
core collapse and so will not form a supernova of type II.[117] At low metallicity, all stars will reach core
collapse with a hydrogen envelope but sufficiently massive stars collapse directly to a black hole without
producing a visible supernova.[100]

Stars with an initial mass up to about 90 times the Sun, or a little less at high metallicity, result in a type II-P
supernova, which is the most commonly observed type. At moderate to high metallicity, stars near the upper
end of that mass range will have lost most of their hydrogen when core collapse occurs and the result will
be a type II-L supernova.[118] At very low metallicity, stars of around 140–250 M☉ will reach core collapse
by pair instability while they still have a hydrogen atmosphere and an oxygen core and the result will be a
supernova with type II characteristics but a very large mass of ejected 56 Ni and high luminosity.[100][119]

Type Ib and Ic

These supernovae, like those of type II, are massive stars that
undergo core collapse. Unlike the progenitors of type II
supernovae, the stars which become types Ib and Ic
supernovae have lost most of their outer (hydrogen)
envelopes due to strong stellar winds or else from interaction
with a companion.[122] These stars are known as Wolf–Rayet
stars, and they occur at moderate to high metallicity where
Type Ib SN 2008D[120] at the far upper end
continuum driven winds cause sufficiently high mass-loss
of the galaxy, shown in X-ray (left) and
rates. Observations of type Ib/c supernova do not match the
visible light (right),[121] with the brighter SN
observed or expected occurrence of Wolf–Rayet stars.
2007uy closer to the centre
Alternate explanations for this type of core collapse
supernova involve stars stripped of their hydrogen by binary
interactions. Binary models provide a better match for the observed supernovae, with the proviso that no
suitable binary helium stars have ever been observed.[123]

Type Ib supernovae are the more common and result from Wolf–Rayet stars of type WC which still have
helium in their atmospheres. For a narrow range of masses, stars evolve further before reaching core
collapse to become WO stars with very little helium remaining, and these are the progenitors of type Ic
supernovae.[124]

A few percent of the type Ic supernovae are associated with gamma-ray bursts (GRB), though it is also
believed that any hydrogen-stripped type Ib or Ic supernova could produce a GRB, depending on the
circumstances of the geometry.[125] The mechanism for producing this type of GRB is the jets produced by
the magnetic field of the rapidly spinning magnetar formed at the collapsing core of the star. The jets would
also transfer energy into the expanding outer shell, producing a super-luminous supernova.[112][126][127]

Ultra-stripped supernovae occur when the exploding star has been stripped (almost) all the way to the metal
core, via mass transfer in a close binary.[128][129] As a result, very little material is ejected from the
exploding star (c. 0.1 M☉ ). In the most extreme cases, ultra-stripped supernovae can occur in naked metal
cores, barely above the Chandrasekhar mass limit. SN 2005ek[130] might be the first observational example
of an ultra-stripped supernova, giving rise to a relatively dim and fast decaying light curve. The nature of
ultra-stripped supernovae can be both iron core-collapse and electron capture supernovae, depending on the
mass of the collapsing core. Ultra-stripped supernovae are believed to be associated with the second
supernova explosion in a binary system, producing for example a tight double neutron star system.[131][132]
In 2022 a team of astronomers led by researchers from the Weizmann Institute of Science reported the first
supernova explosion showing direct evidence for a Wolf-Rayet progenitor star. SN 2019hgp was a type Icn
supernova and is also the first in which the element neon has been detected.[133][134]

Electron-capture supernovae

In 1980, a "third type" of supernova was predicted by Ken'ichi Nomoto of the University of Tokyo, called
an electron-capture supernova. It would arise when a star "in the transitional range (~8 to 10 solar masses)
between white dwarf formation and iron core-collapse supernovae", and with a degenerate O+Ne+Mg
core,[135] imploded after its core ran out of nuclear fuel, causing gravity to compress the electrons in the
star's core into their atomic nuclei,[136][137] leading to a supernova explosion and leaving behind a neutron
star.[100] In June 2021, a paper in the journal Nature Astronomy reported that the 2018 supernova SN
2018zd (in the galaxy NGC 2146, about 31 million light years from Earth) appeared to be the first
observation of an electron-capture supernova.[135][136][137] The 1054 supernova explosion that created the
Crab Nebula in our galaxy had been thought to be the best candidate for an electron-capture supernova,
and the 2021 paper makes it more likely that this was correct.[136][137]

Failed supernovae

The core collapse of some massive stars may not result in a visible supernova. This happens if the initial
core collapse cannot be reversed by the mechanism that produces an explosion, usually because the core is
too massive. These events are difficult to detect, but large surveys have detected possible
candidates.[138][139] The red supergiant N6946-BH1 in NGC 6946 underwent a modest outburst in March
2009, before fading from view. Only a faint infrared source remains at the star's location.[140]

Light curves

The ejecta gases would dim quickly

without some energy input to keep them
hot. The source of this energy—which
can maintain the optical supernova glow
for months—was, at first, a puzzle.
Some considered rotational energy from
the central pulsar as a source.[144]
Although the energy that initially powers
each type of supernovae is delivered
promptly, the light curves are dominated
by subsequent radioactive heating of the
rapidly expanding ejecta. The intensely
radioactive nature of the ejecta gases
was first calculated on sound Typical light curves for several types of supernovae; in practice,
nucleosynthesis grounds in the late magnitude and duration varies within each type. See Karttunen et
1960s, and this has since been al. for types Ia, Ib, II-L and II-P;[141] Modjaz et al. for types Ic and
demonstrated as correct for most IIb;[142] and Nyholm et al. for type IIn.[143]
supernovae. [145] It was not until SN
1987A that direct observation of gamma-
ray lines unambiguously identified the major radioactive nuclei.[146]
It is now known by direct observation that much of the light curve (the graph of luminosity as a function of
time) after the occurrence of a type II Supernova, such as SN 1987A, is explained by those predicted
radioactive decays.[8] Although the luminous emission consists of optical photons, it is the radioactive
power absorbed by the ejected gases that keeps the remnant hot enough to radiate light. The radioactive
decay of 56 Ni through its daughters 56 Co to 56 Fe produces gamma-ray photons, primarily with energies of
847 keV and 1,238 keV, that are absorbed and dominate the heating and thus the luminosity of the ejecta at
intermediate times (several weeks) to late times (several months).[147] Energy for the peak of the light curve
of SN1987A was provided by the decay of 56 Ni to 56 Co (half-life 6 days) while energy for the later light
curve in particular fit very closely with the 77.3-day half-life of 56 Co decaying to 56 Fe. Later
measurements by space gamma-ray telescopes of the small fraction of the 56 Co and 57 Co gamma rays that
escaped the SN 1987A remnant without absorption confirmed earlier predictions that those two radioactive
nuclei were the power sources.[146]

The late-time decay phase of visual light curves for different

supernova types all depend on radioactive heating, but they
vary in shape and amplitude because of the underlying
mechanisms, the way that visible radiation is produced, the
epoch of its observation, and the transparency of the ejected
material.[148] The light curves can be significantly different at
other wavelengths. For example, at ultraviolet wavelengths
there is an early extremely luminous peak lasting only a few
hours corresponding to the breakout of the shock launched
by the initial event, but that breakout is hardly detectable
optically.[149][150]

The light curves for type Ia are mostly very uniform, with a
Messier 61 with supernova SN2020jfo,
consistent maximum absolute magnitude and a relatively
taken by an amateur astronomer in 2020
steep decline in luminosity. Their optical energy output is
driven by radioactive decay of ejected nickel-56 (half-life 6
days), which then decays to radioactive cobalt-56 (half-life
77 days). These radioisotopes excite the surrounding material to incandescence.[83] Modern studies of
cosmology rely on 56 Ni radioactivity providing the energy for the optical brightness of supernovae of type
Ia, which are the "standard candles" of cosmology but whose diagnostic 847 keV and 1,238 keV gamma
rays were first detected only in 2014.[151] The initial phases of the light curve decline steeply as the
effective size of the photosphere decreases and trapped electromagnetic radiation is depleted. The light
curve continues to decline in the B band while it may show a small shoulder in the visual at about 40 days,
but this is only a hint of a secondary maximum that occurs in the infra-red as certain ionised heavy elements
recombine to produce infra-red radiation and the ejecta become transparent to it. The visual light curve
continues to decline at a rate slightly greater than the decay rate of the radioactive cobalt (which has the
longer half-life and controls the later curve), because the ejected material becomes more diffuse and less
able to convert the high energy radiation into visual radiation. After several months, the light curve changes
its decline rate again as positron emission from the remaining cobalt-56 becomes dominant, although this
portion of the light curve has been little-studied.[152]

Type Ib and Ic light curves are similar to type Ia although with a lower average peak luminosity. The visual
light output is again due to radioactive decay being converted into visual radiation, but there is a much
lower mass of the created nickel-56. The peak luminosity varies considerably and there are even occasional
type Ib/c supernovae orders of magnitude more and less luminous than the norm. The most luminous type
Ic supernovae are referred to as hypernovae and tend to have broadened light curves in addition to the
increased peak luminosity. The source of the extra energy is thought to be relativistic jets driven by the
formation of a rotating black hole, which also produce gamma-ray bursts.[153][154]
The light curves for type II supernovae are characterised by a much slower decline than type I, on the order
of 0.05 magnitudes per day,[68] excluding the plateau phase. The visual light output is dominated by kinetic
energy rather than radioactive decay for several months, due primarily to the existence of hydrogen in the
ejecta from the atmosphere of the supergiant progenitor star. In the initial destruction this hydrogen becomes
heated and ionised. The majority of type II supernovae show a prolonged plateau in their light curves as
this hydrogen recombines, emitting visible light and becoming more transparent. This is then followed by a
declining light curve driven by radioactive decay although slower than in type I supernovae, due to the
efficiency of conversion into light by all the hydrogen.[62]

In type II-L the plateau is absent because the progenitor had relatively little hydrogen left in its atmosphere,
sufficient to appear in the spectrum but insufficient to produce a noticeable plateau in the light output. In
type IIb supernovae the hydrogen atmosphere of the progenitor is so depleted (thought to be due to tidal
stripping by a companion star) that the light curve is closer to a type I supernova and the hydrogen even
disappears from the spectrum after several weeks.[62]

Type IIn supernovae are characterised by additional narrow spectral lines produced in a dense shell of
circumstellar material. Their light curves are generally very broad and extended, occasionally also
extremely luminous and referred to as a superluminous supernova. These light curves are produced by the
highly efficient conversion of kinetic energy of the ejecta into electromagnetic radiation by interaction with
the dense shell of material. This only occurs when the material is sufficiently dense and compact, indicating
that it has been produced by the progenitor star itself only shortly before the supernova occurs.[155][156]

Large numbers of supernovae have been catalogued and classified to provide distance candles and test
models.[157][158] Average characteristics vary somewhat with distance and type of host galaxy, but can
broadly be specified for each supernova type.

Physical properties of supernovae by type[159][160]

Average peak Approximate Days to peak Days from peak to
Typea
absolute magnitudeb energy (foe)c luminosity 10% luminosity

Ia −19 1 approx. 19 around 60

Ib/c
around −15 0.1 15–25 unknown
(faint)

Ib around −17 1 15–25 40–100

Ic around −16 1 15–25 40–100

Ic
to −22 above 5 roughly 25 roughly 100
(bright)

II-b around −17 1 around 20 around 100

II-L around −17 1 around 13 around 150

II-P
around −14 0.1 roughly 15 unknown
(faint)

Plateau then around

II-P around −16 1 around 15
50

IInd around −17 1 12–30 or more 50–150

IIn
to −22 above 5 above 50 above 100
(bright)

Notes:
a. ^ Faint types may be a distinct sub-class. Bright types may be a continuum from slightly over-
luminous to hypernovae.
b. ^ These magnitudes are measured in the R band. Measurements in V or B bands are
common and will be around half a magnitude brighter for supernovae.
c. ^ Order of magnitude kinetic energy. Total electromagnetic radiated energy is usually lower,
(theoretical) neutrino energy much higher.
d. ^ Probably a heterogeneous group, any of the other types embedded in nebulosity.

Asymmetry

A long-standing puzzle surrounding type II supernovae is why the

remaining compact object receives a large velocity away from the
epicentre;[162] pulsars, and thus neutron stars, are observed to have
high peculiar velocities, and black holes presumably do as well,
although they are far harder to observe in isolation. The initial
impetus can be substantial, propelling an object of more than a solar
mass at a velocity of 500 km/s or greater. This indicates an
expansion asymmetry, but the mechanism by which momentum is
transferred to the compact object remains a puzzle. Proposed
explanations for this kick include convection in the collapsing star,
asymmetric ejection of matter during neutron star formation, and
asymmetrical neutrino emissions.[162][163] The pulsar in the Crab Nebula is
travelling at 375 km/s relative to the
One possible explanation for this asymmetry is large-scale nebula.[161]
convection above the core. The convection can create variations in
the local abundances of elements, resulting in uneven nuclear
burning during the collapse, bounce and resulting expansion.[164] Another possible explanation is that
accretion of gas onto the central neutron star can create a disk that drives highly directional jets, propelling
matter at a high velocity out of the star, and driving transverse shocks that completely disrupt the star. These
jets might play a crucial role in the resulting supernova.[165][166] (A similar model is used for explaining
long gamma-ray bursts.) The dominant mechanism may depend upon the mass of the progenitor star.[163]

Initial asymmetries have also been confirmed in type Ia supernovae through observation. This result may
mean that the initial luminosity of this type of supernova depends on the viewing angle. However, the
expansion becomes more symmetrical with the passage of time. Early asymmetries are detectable by
measuring the polarization of the emitted light.[167]

Energy output

Although supernovae are primarily known as luminous events, the electromagnetic radiation they release is
almost a minor side-effect. Particularly in the case of core collapse supernovae, the emitted electromagnetic
radiation is a tiny fraction of the total energy released during the event.[169]

There is a fundamental difference between the balance of energy production in the different types of
supernova. In type Ia white dwarf detonations, most of the energy is directed into heavy element synthesis
and the kinetic energy of the ejecta.[170] In core collapse supernovae, the vast majority of the energy is
directed into neutrino emission, and while some of this apparently powers the observed destruction, 99%+
of the neutrinos escape the star in the first few minutes following the start of the collapse.[44]
Standard type Ia supernovae derive their energy from a runaway
nuclear fusion of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. The details of the
energetics are still not fully understood, but the result is the ejection
of the entire mass of the original star at high kinetic energy. Around
half a solar mass of that mass is 56 Ni generated from silicon
burning. 56 Ni is radioactive and decays into 56 Co by beta plus
decay (with a half life of six days) and gamma rays. 56 Co itself
decays by the beta plus (positron) path with a half life of 77 days
into stable 56 Fe. These two processes are responsible for the
The radioactive decays of nickel-56
electromagnetic radiation from type Ia supernovae. In combination
and cobalt-56 that produce a
with the changing transparency of the ejected material, they
supernova visible light curve[83][168]
produce the rapidly declining light curve.[168]

Core collapse supernovae are on average visually fainter than type

Ia supernovae,[141][142][143] but the total energy released is far higher, as outlined in the following table.

Energetics of supernovae
Approximate total Ejected Ni Neutrino Kinetic Electromagnetic
Supernova energy (solar energy energy radiation
x10 joules (foe)c
44 masses) (foe) (foe) (foe)

Type
1.5 0.4 – 0.8 0.1 1.3 – 1.4 ~0.01
Ia[168][171][172]
Core
100 (0.01) – 1 100 1 0.001 – 0.01
collapse[173][174]
Hypernova 100 ~1 1–100 1–100 ~0.1

Pair instability[113] 5–100 0.5 – 50 low? 1–100 0.01 – 0.1

In some core collapse supernovae, fallback onto a black hole drives relativistic jets which may produce a
brief energetic and directional burst of gamma rays and also transfers substantial further energy into the
ejected material. This is one scenario for producing high-luminosity supernovae and is thought to be the
cause of type Ic hypernovae and long-duration gamma-ray bursts.[175] If the relativistic jets are too brief
and fail to penetrate the stellar envelope then a low luminosity gamma-ray burst may be produced and the
supernova may be sub-luminous.[176]

When a supernova occurs inside a small dense cloud of circumstellar material, it will produce a shock wave
that can efficiently convert a high fraction of the kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation. Even though
the initial energy was entirely normal the resulting supernova will have high luminosity and extended
duration since it does not rely on exponential radioactive decay. This type of event may cause type IIn
hypernovae.[177][178]

Although pair-instability supernovae are core collapse supernovae with spectra and light curves similar to
type II-P, the nature after core collapse is more like that of a giant type Ia with runaway fusion of carbon,
oxygen, and silicon. The total energy released by the highest-mass events is comparable to other core
collapse supernovae but neutrino production is thought to be very low, hence the kinetic and
electromagnetic energy released is very high. The cores of these stars are much larger than any white dwarf
and the amount of radioactive nickel and other heavy elements ejected from their cores can be orders of
magnitude higher, with consequently high visual luminosity.[179]

Progenitor

The supernova classification type is closely tied to the type of star at

the time of the collapse. The occurrence of each type of supernova
depends on the progenitor star's metallicity, since this affects the
strength of the stellar wind and thereby the rate at which the star
loses mass.[180]
Occasional supernovae appear in
Type Ia supernovae are produced from white dwarf stars in binary
this sped-up artist's impression of
star systems and occur in all galaxy types.[181] Core collapse
distant galaxies. Each exploding star
supernovae are only found in galaxies undergoing current or very
briefly rivals the brightness of its
recent star formation, since they result from short-lived massive
host galaxy.
stars. They are most commonly found in type Sc spirals, but also in
the arms of other spiral galaxies and in irregular galaxies, especially
starburst galaxies.[182][183][184]

Type Ib and Ic supernovae are hypothesized to have been produced by core collapse of massive stars that
have lost their outer layer of hydrogen and helium, either via strong stellar winds or mass transfer to a
companion.[154] They normally occur in regions of new star formation, and are extremely rare in elliptical
galaxies.[67] The progenitors of type IIn supernovae also have high rates of mass loss in the period just
prior to their explosions.[185] Type Ic supernovae have been observed to occur in regions that are more
metal-rich and have higher star-formation rates than average for their host galaxies.[186] The table shows
the progenitor for the main types of core collapse supernova, and the approximate proportions that have
been observed in the local neighbourhood.

Fraction of core collapse supernovae types by progenitor[123]

Type Progenitor star Fraction

Ib WC Wolf–Rayet or helium star 9.0%

Ic WO Wolf–Rayet 17.0%
II-P Supergiant 55.5%

II-L Supergiant with a depleted hydrogen shell 3.0%

IIn Supergiant in a dense cloud of expelled material (such as LBV) 2.4%

IIb Supergiant with highly depleted hydrogen (stripped by companion?) 12.1%

IIpec Blue supergiant 1.0%

There are a number of difficulties reconciling modelled and observed stellar evolution leading up to core
collapse supernovae. Red supergiants are the progenitors for the vast majority of core collapse supernovae,
and these have been observed but only at relatively low masses and luminosities, below about 18 M☉ and
100,000 L☉ , respectively. Most progenitors of type II supernovae are not detected and must be
considerably fainter, and presumably less massive. This discrepancy has been referred to as the red
supergiant problem.[187] It was first described in 2009 by Stephen Smartt, who also coined the term.
After performing a volume-limited search for supernovae, Smartt et al. found the lower and upper mass
+1
limits for type II-P supernovae to form to be 8.5 −1.5 M☉ and 16.5 ± 1.5 M☉ respectively. The former is
consistent with the expected upper
mass limits for white dwarf progenitors
to form, but the latter is not consistent
with massive star populations in the
Local Group.[188] The upper limit for
red supergiants that produce a visible
supernova explosion has been
+4
calculated at 19 −2 M☉ .[187]

It is thought that higher mass red

supergiants do not explode as
supernovae, but instead evolve back
towards hotter temperatures. Several
progenitors of type IIb supernovae Supernova types by initial mass-metallicity
have been confirmed, and these were
K and G supergiants, plus one A
supergiant.[189] Yellow hypergiants or
LBVs are proposed progenitors for
type IIb supernovae, and almost all
type IIb supernovae near enough to
observe have shown such
progenitors. [190][191]

Blue supergiants form an unexpectedly

high proportion of confirmed
supernova progenitors, partly due to
their high luminosity and easy
detection, while not a single Wolf–
Rayet progenitor has yet been clearly
identified.[189][192] Models have had Remnants of single massive stars
difficulty showing how blue
supergiants lose enough mass to reach
supernova without progressing to a different evolutionary stage. One study has shown a possible route for
low-luminosity post-red supergiant luminous blue variables to collapse, most likely as a type IIn
supernova.[193] Several examples of hot luminous progenitors of type IIn supernovae have been detected:
SN 2005gy and SN 2010jl were both apparently massive luminous stars, but are very distant; and SN
2009ip had a highly luminous progenitor likely to have been an LBV, but is a peculiar supernova whose
exact nature is disputed.[189]

The progenitors of type Ib/c supernovae are not observed at all, and constraints on their possible luminosity
are often lower than those of known WC stars.[189] WO stars are extremely rare and visually relatively
faint, so it is difficult to say whether such progenitors are missing or just yet to be observed. Very luminous
progenitors have not been securely identified, despite numerous supernovae being observed near enough
that such progenitors would have been clearly imaged.[194] Population modelling shows that the observed
type Ib/c supernovae could be reproduced by a mixture of single massive stars and stripped-envelope stars
from interacting binary systems.[123] The continued lack of unambiguous detection of progenitors for
normal type Ib and Ic supernovae may be due to most massive stars collapsing directly to a black hole
without a supernova outburst. Most of these supernovae are then produced from lower-mass low-
luminosity helium stars in binary systems. A small number would be from rapidly rotating massive stars,
likely corresponding to the highly energetic type Ic-BL events that are associated with long-duration
gamma-ray bursts.[189]

External impact
Supernovae events generate heavier elements that are scattered throughout the surrounding interstellar
medium. The expanding shock wave from a supernova can trigger star formation. Galactic cosmic rays are
generated by supernova explosions.

Source of heavy elements

Supernovae are a major source

of elements in the interstellar
medium from oxygen through to
rubidium,[195][196][197] though
the theoretical abundances of the
elements produced or seen in the
spectra varies significantly
depending on the various
supernova types.[197] Type Ia
supernovae produce mainly
silicon and iron-peak elements,
metals such as nickel and Periodic table showing the source of each element in the interstellar
iron. [198][199] Core collapse medium
supernovae eject much smaller
quantities of the iron-peak
elements than type Ia supernovae, but larger masses of light alpha elements such as oxygen and neon, and
elements heavier than zinc. The latter is especially true with electron capture supernovae.[200] The bulk of
the material ejected by type II supernovae is hydrogen and helium.[201] The heavy elements are produced
by: nuclear fusion for nuclei up to 34 S; silicon photodisintegration rearrangement and quasiequilibrium
during silicon burning for nuclei between 36 Ar and 56 Ni; and rapid capture of neutrons (r-process) during
the supernova's collapse for elements heavier than iron. The r-process produces highly unstable nuclei that
are rich in neutrons and that rapidly beta decay into more stable forms. In supernovae, r-process reactions
are responsible for about half of all the isotopes of elements beyond iron,[202] although neutron star mergers
may be the main astrophysical source for many of these elements.[195][203]

In the modern universe, old asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars are the dominant source of dust from s-
process elements, oxides, and carbon.[195][204] However, in the early universe, before AGB stars formed,
supernovae may have been the main source of dust.[205]

Role in stellar evolution

Remnants of many supernovae consist of a compact object and a rapidly expanding shock wave of
material. This cloud of material sweeps up surrounding interstellar medium during a free expansion phase,
which can last for up to two centuries. The wave then gradually undergoes a period of adiabatic expansion,
and will slowly cool and mix with the surrounding interstellar medium over a period of about 10,000
years.[206]
The Big Bang produced hydrogen, helium, and traces of
lithium, while all heavier elements are synthesised in stars,
supernovae, and collisions between neutron stars (thus being
indirectly due to supernovae). Supernovae tend to enrich the
surrounding interstellar medium with elements other than
hydrogen and helium, which usually astronomers refer to as
"metals".[207] These ejected elements ultimately enrich the
molecular clouds that are the sites of star formation.[208]
Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different
composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen
and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are
the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier Supernova remnant N 63A lies within a
elements, which are formed in a star during its period of clumpy region of gas and dust in the Large
nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the Magellanic Cloud.
material that forms a star have important influences on the
star's life,[207][209] and may influence the possibility of
having planets orbiting it: more giant planets form around stars of higher metallicity.[210][211]

The kinetic energy of an expanding supernova remnant can trigger star formation by compressing nearby,
dense molecular clouds in space.[212] The increase in turbulent pressure can also prevent star formation if
the cloud is unable to lose the excess energy.[213]

Evidence from daughter products of short-lived radioactive isotopes shows that a nearby supernova helped
determine the composition of the Solar System 4.5 billion years ago, and may even have triggered the
formation of this system.[214]

Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs) are intense, transient pulses of radio waves that typically last no more than
milliseconds. Many explanations for these events have been proposed; magnetars produced by core-
collapse supernovae are leading candidates.[215][216][217][218]

Cosmic rays

Supernova remnants are thought to accelerate a large fraction of galactic primary cosmic rays, but direct
evidence for cosmic ray production has only been found in a small number of remnants. Gamma rays from
pion-decay have been detected from the supernova remnants IC 443 and W44. These are produced when
accelerated protons from the remnant impact on interstellar material.[219]

Gravitational waves

Supernovae are potentially strong galactic sources of gravitational waves,[220] but none have so far been
detected. The only gravitational wave events so far detected are from mergers of black holes and neutron
stars, probable remnants of supernovae.[221] Like the neutrino emissions, the gravitational waves produced
by a core-collapse supernova are expected to arrive without the delay that affects light. Consequently, they
may provide information about the core-collapse process that is unavailable by other means. Most
gravitational-wave signals predicted by supernova models are short in duration, lasting less than a second,
and thus difficult to detect. Using the arrival of a neutrino signal may provide a trigger that can identify the
time window in which to seek the gravitational wave, helping to distinguish the latter from background
noise.[222]

Effect on Earth

A near-Earth supernova is a supernova close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on its
biosphere. Depending upon the type and energy of the supernova, it could be as far as 3000 light-years
away. In 1996 it was theorised that traces of past supernovae might be detectable on Earth in the form of
metal isotope signatures in rock strata. Iron-60 enrichment was later reported in deep-sea rock of the Pacific
Ocean.[223][224][225] In 2009, elevated levels of nitrate ions were found in Antarctic ice, which coincided
with the 1006 and 1054 supernovae. Gamma rays from these supernovae could have boosted atmospheric
levels of nitrogen oxides, which became trapped in the ice.[226]

Historically, nearby supernovae may have influenced the biodiversity of life on the planet. Geological
records suggest that nearby supernova events have led to an increase in cosmic rays, which in turn
produced a cooler climate. A greater temperature difference between the poles and the equator created
stronger winds, increased ocean mixing, and resulted in the transport of nutrients to shallow waters along
the continental shelves. This led to greater biodiversity.[227][228]

Type Ia supernovae are thought to be potentially the most dangerous if they occur close enough to the
Earth. Because these supernovae arise from dim, common white dwarf stars in binary systems, it is likely
that a supernova that can affect the Earth will occur unpredictably and in a star system that is not well
studied. The closest known candidate is IK Pegasi, about 150 light-years away.[229]

According to a 2003 estimate, a type II supernova would have to be closer than eight parsecs (26 light-
years) to destroy half of the Earth's ozone layer, and there are no such candidates closer than about 500
light-years.[230]

Milky Way candidates

The next supernova in the Milky Way will likely be detectable even
if it occurs on the far side of the galaxy. It is likely to be produced
by the collapse of an unremarkable red supergiant and it is very
probable that it will already have been catalogued in infrared
surveys such as 2MASS. There is a smaller chance that the next
core collapse supernova will be produced by a different type of
massive star such as a yellow hypergiant, luminous blue variable, or
Wolf–Rayet. The chances of the next supernova being a type Ia
produced by a white dwarf are calculated to be about a third of
those for a core collapse supernova. Again it should be observable
wherever it occurs, but it is less likely that the progenitor will ever
have been observed. It is not even known exactly what a type Ia
progenitor system looks like, and it is difficult to detect them The nebula around Wolf–Rayet star
beyond a few parsecs. The total supernova rate in the Milky Way is WR124, which is located at a
estimated to be between 2 and 12 per century, although one has not distance of about 21,000 light-
actually been observed for several centuries.[140] years[231]
Statistically, the most common variety of core-collapse supernova is type II-P, and the progenitors of this
type are red supergiants.[232] It is difficult to identify which of those supergiants are in the final stages of
heavy element fusion in their cores and which have millions of years left. The most-massive red supergiants
shed their atmospheres and evolve to Wolf–Rayet stars before their cores collapse. All Wolf–Rayet stars
end their lives from the Wolf–Rayet phase within a million years or so, but again it is difficult to identify
those that are closest to core collapse. One class that is expected to have no more than a few thousand years
before exploding are the WO Wolf–Rayet stars, which are known to have exhausted their core helium.[233]
Only eight of them are known, and only four of those are in the Milky Way.[234]

A number of close or well known stars have been identified as possible core collapse supernova candidates:
the red supergiants Antares and Betelgeuse;[235] the yellow hypergiant Rho Cassiopeiae;[236] the luminous
blue variable Eta Carinae that has already produced a supernova impostor;[237] and the brightest
component, a Wolf–Rayet star, in the Regor or Gamma Velorum system.[238] Others have gained notoriety
as possible, although not very likely, progenitors for a gamma-ray burst; for example WR 104.[239]

Identification of candidates for a type Ia supernova is much more speculative. Any binary with an accreting
white dwarf might produce a supernova although the exact mechanism and timescale is still debated. These
systems are faint and difficult to identify, but the novae and recurrent novae are such systems that
conveniently advertise themselves. One example is U Scorpii.[240] The nearest known type Ia supernova
candidate is IK Pegasi (HR 8210), located at a distance of 150 light-years,[241] but observations suggest it
could be as long as 1.9 billion years before the white dwarf can accrete the critical mass required to become
a type Ia supernova.[242]

See also
Kilonova – Neutron star merger
List of supernovae
List of supernova remnants
Quark-nova – Hypothetical violent explosion resulting from conversion of a neutron star to a
quark star
Superluminous supernova – Supernova at least ten times more luminous than a standard
supernova
Supernovae in fiction – supernovae appearances in fictional stories
Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae – Chronological list of
developments in knowledge and records
Collapsar
Hypernova – Supernova that ejects a large mass at unusually high velocity

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1).
240. Thoroughgood, T. D.; Dhillon, V. S.; Littlefair, S. P.; Marsh, T. R.; Smith, D. A. (2002). "The
recurrent nova U Scorpii – A type Ia supernova progenitor". The Physics of Cataclysmic
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Further reading
Branch, D.; Wheeler, J. C. (2017). Supernova Explosions. Springer. p. 721. ISBN 978-3-662-
55052-6.
Takahashi, K.; Sato, K.; Burrows, A.; Thompson, T. A. (2003). "Supernova Neutrinos,
Neutrino Oscillations, and the Mass of the Progenitor Star". Physical Review D. 68 (11): 77–
81. arXiv:hep-ph/0306056 (https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0306056).
Bibcode:2003PhRvD..68k3009T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhRvD..68k3009
T). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.68.113009 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.68.113009).
S2CID 119390151 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119390151).
Woosley, S. E.; Janka, H.-T. (2005). "The Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae". Nature
Physics. 1 (3): 147–154. arXiv:astro-ph/0601261 (https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601261).
Bibcode:2005NatPh...1..147W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005NatPh...1..147W).
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.336.2176 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.336.
 2176). doi:10.1038/nphys172 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys172). S2CID 118974639 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118974639).

External links
Tsvetkov, D. Yu.; Pavlyuk, N. N.; Bartunov, O. S.; Pskovskii, Y. P. "Sternberg Astronomical
Institute Supernova Catalogue" (http://www.sai.msu.su/sn/sncat/). Sternberg Astronomical
Institute, Moscow University. Retrieved 28 November 2006. A searchable catalogue
"The Open Supernova Catalog" (https://github.com/astrocatalogs/supernovae). GitHub. 6
October 2022. An open-access catalog of supernova light curves and spectra.
"List of Supernovae with IAU Designations" (http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/lists/RecentSu
pernovae.html). IAU: Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. Retrieved 25 October
2010.

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