JLS 712

JLS712 MEDIA LAW AND ETHICS
Course Code JLS712
Course Title Media Law And Ethics
Course Developer/Writer Innocent Okoye, Ph.D.

Dept. of Mass Communication,
University of Lagos
Course Editor Dr John Edemode

Department of Mass Communication,
Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi
Edo state.
Programme Leader Christine I. Ofulue, Ph.D.

National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island,Lagos
Course Coordinator Chidinma H. Onwubere

National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way,
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
National Open University of Nigeria
5, Dar Es Salaam Street,
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse 11
Abuja, Nigeria.
National Open University of Nigeria 2008
First Printed in 2008
ISBN: 978-058-712-8
All Rights Reserved
Printed by …….
For National Open University of Nigeria
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
E-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
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CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 The Purpose Of Law And Ethics In

The Society…………………………………... 1
Unit 1 The Meaning and Purpose of Law……………. 1-5

Unit 2 The Essence and purpose of Ethics…………... 6-12
Unit 3 Theories of Ethics…………………………….. 13-18
Unit 4 The Regulation of the Mass Media…………… 19-25
Module 2 Press Freedom And The Constitutional

Obligations Of The Nigerian Media……….. 26
Unit 1 Press Freedom: History, Definitions, Legal

Bases and Constraints………………………… 26-37
Unit 2 Public Officers, public figures, national Interest
and the public interest………………………… 38-43
Unit 3 Constitutional provisions on the obligations and
Ownership of the media in Nigeria…………… 44-49
Module 3 The Universal Press Laws………………….. 50
Unit 1 Defamation and its Essentials………………… 50-56

Unit 2 Classes of Defamation……………………….. 57-60
Unit 3 Defences to Defamation……………………… 61-65
Unit 4 Sedition……………………………………….. 66-70
Module 4 Copyright, Contempt National Security

And The Official Secrets Act……………….. 71
Unit 1 Copyright……………………………………... 71-77

Unit 2 Contempt of Court and Parliament…………… 78-85
Unit 3 National Security……………………………... 86-93
Unit 4 The Official Secrets Act……………………… 94-98
Module 5 The Canons Of Journalism…………………. 99
Unit 1 Truth and Fairness……………………………. 99-105

Unit 2 Objectivity and Integrity……………………… 106-113
Unit 3 Other canons: Independence, Responsibility
and Accuracy…………………………………. 114-118
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Module 6 Ethical Problems, Ethical Mechanisms And

Ethical Case Studies In Nigerian Journalism 119
Unit 1 Ethical problems in Nigerian Journalism…….. 119-122

Unit 2 Purpose and kinds of Ethical mechanisms…… 123-125
Unit 3 Regulatory mechanisms and Ethical Case
Studies………………………………………... 126-150
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MODULE 1 THE PURPOSE OF LAW AND ETHICS IN

THE SOCIETY
Unit 1 The Meaning and Purpose of Law

Unit 2 Essence and Purpose of Ethics
Unit 3 The Regulation of the Mass Media
Unit 4 What is Mass Communication Ethics?
UNIT 1 THE MEANING AND PURPOSE OF LAW
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning and Purpose of Law
3.2 Divisions of man-made Law
3.3 The Purpose of Law in the Society
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, three topics will be in focus:
- Natural and man-made laws

- Divisions of man-made law
- The purpose of law in the society
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
Understand the differences between natural and man-made laws

Understand the divisions of man-made laws
Discuss the general functions of law in the society
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
1
3.1 Natural and Man-Made Laws
Laws are the set of rules established by nature or by human authorities,

to regulate natural phenomena or human behaviour within a given
community or country. From this general definition, it can be seen that
laws fall under two broad categories, that is, those which govern natural
phenomena and those which govern human activities.
Natural Laws are the laws of nature, such as the laws of the natural
sciences. An example of natural law is that which governs the floatation
of objects. Those who studied physics in secondary school can still
remember Archimedes principles, which states that “if a body is
immersed in water, the up-thrust is equal to the volume of liquid
displaced”. Based on this natural law, scientists design sea-going
vessels. Other natural laws include the Laws of Relativity discovered by
Albert Einstein, and the Law of Gravitation, discovered by Isaac
Newton. Even the laws of Supply and Demand and Diminishing Returns
are natural laws. Also, the fact that the earth revolves and at the same
time rotates on its axis is a law which was imposed by nature itself.
But we are concerned in this study with man-made laws. Man-made

laws are those imposed by human authorities for the regulation of
human activities. Such laws include the United Nations Declaration of
Human Rights (UNDHR), various International Conventions, National
Constitutions, Statutes, Codes, Decrees and Edicts imposed by
governments at different levels and for specific purposes.
The following are generally true of man-made laws:
1. They are imposed by the ruling class of every time and space to
regulate the behaviour of people under them.
2. Man-made laws are enforced by the rulers as vigorously as they have
the political will to enforce them. Hence some laws may exist in the
Statute but are hardly ever enforced.
3. Every law has an effective date
4. Laws can be repealed or amended to suit the desires (policies and
objectives) of the ruling class.
5. Man-made laws derive from the values and practices of a given
society.
6. Man-made laws respect natural laws and justice.
Man-made Laws Contrasted with Natural Laws:
In contrast to man-made laws, natural laws have no effective date, nor

are they respecters of culture or the ruling class of any time and space.
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In short, natural laws are immutable and constant, while Man-made laws
can change with time.
SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Identify 10 natural and 10 man-made laws in the town or village where

you grew up.
3.2 Divisions of Man-made Laws
The Law of the land can be grouped into two broad divisions, namely,
civil law and criminal law. Civil law seeks to protect civil or private
rights while criminal law defines criminal offences and specifies
punishments for their breaches. While the violation of civil law is an
offence against an individual, the breaking of criminal law is considered
as an offence against the state. Some crimes are against humanity, such
as genocide, slavery, child prostitution and other such heinous offences.
The following fall under Civil Law: Law of contract, company law,
commercial law, family law, insurance law etc. Examples of criminal
offences are: robbery, rape, murder, kidnapping, arson, obtaining goods
or money under false pretences, defamation, sedition, etc.
With the aid of the Criminal and Penal codes, make a complete listing of
the laws against the state.
3.3 The Purpose of Law in the Society
Ewelukwa (2004:1) identifies five important contributions of law to the

society as follows:
i) Regulation of human conduct

ii) Reconciliation of the interest of the individual to that of the
community
iii) Pointing out when interests exist
iv) Man owes his dignity to law
v) Law initiates changes in economic, political, social and religious
structures.
i) Regulation of Human Conduct
Law exists as a social control of customs and morality to ensure that

citizens conduct themselves in an orderly manner.
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In an ideal society where citizens conduct themselves in a perfectly

orderly manner, guided by their morality, religion and conscience, there
would have been no need for law.
But such a perfect society does not exist. Once in a while some people
may choose to fight, steal or rob. It is to point out the acceptable way to
conduct social life that laws are made so that there can be peace and
order in the society.
ii) Reconciliation of the interest of the individual to that of the

Community
Some people’s interest may be at variance with those of the community.

But Ewelukwa (Ibid:2) points out that “the interest of the individual
must be balanced with the welfare of the community, for the good of all
and the public good in particular”, hence there are laws.
iii) Pointing out when interest exists
In a world of interdependence and interpersonal influence interests are

bound to exist and evaluated. The court of law examines cases brought
before it and identifies and protects the interest of parties whose
interests have been violated.
iv) Man owes his dignity to law
The rule of law, not the rule of man, controls every civilized society The
basic assumption of the rule of law is that the law is supreme, that all
men are subject to the law of the land and that the inalienable right of
citizens are guaranteed by the constitution. It is the rule of law which
recognizes the civil and political rights of the citizen.
v) Change in economic, political, social and religious structures

are initiated by law
Every society moves with the changing times. As the social, economic,
and political orders change, society restructures itself to ensure progress
and continuity. These changes are initiated by laws. In Nigeria, for
example, many obnoxious laws which existed during the colonial and
military eras have now been repealed or amended. In their places have
been enacted better laws which better protect the rights of the individual
and allow him more leverage to improve himself and the society at
large.
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Identify five “bad” laws promulgated by the military governments

which have now been replaced by more humane laws or repealed
altogether.
4.0CONCLUSION
From now on you should understand that the purpose of laws is not
necessarily to punish offenders, but to ensure peace and harmony in the
society. If laws could be religiously observed by every one then the
society will be a good place to live and every one will be happy. Such a
place does not exist on earth, but there are places where things are better
than in others.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have considered the meaning and purpose of law in all
societies. It was explained that laws are the general rules that govern
natural phenomena and human beings anywhere they may be on earth.
Laws are divided into two, namely, natural and human laws. Natural
laws govern natural phenomena while human laws are those imposed on
the society by the rulers.
We also drew a contrast between natural laws and human laws. Natural
laws are ordained by God (or nature, for those who do not believe in
God), and are immutable. On the other hand, human laws differ from
place to place and from time to time.
Finally, the general purposes of law in the society were discussed. They
are: regulation of human conduct; reconciliation of the interest of the
individual to that of the community; pointing out when interests exist;
the fact that man owes his dignity to law; and the fact that law initiates
changes in economics, political, social and religious structures.
6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAs)
Discuss the essence and purpose of law and why there is so much
deviant behaviour in modern societies.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Ewelukwa, B.N. (2004). Introduction to Nigerian Press Law, Onitsha:

Maranatha Press Ltd. Pp 1-2.
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Malemi, E. (1999). Mass Media Law: Cases and Materials, Lagos:

Grace Publishers Inc.
UNIT 2 THE ESSENCE AND PURPOSE OF ETHICS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Essence and Purpose of Ethics
3.2 Why should People Lead Ethical Lives?
3.3 Law and Ethics Compared and Contrasted
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit three topics are discussed
- The meaning and purpose of ethics

- Why people should lead moral lives
- Similarities and differences between law and ethics
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit the student should be able to:
Define and explain what ethics means

Understand why people should lead moral lives
Discuss the similarities and differences between law and ethics
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Essence and Purpose of Ethics
While law consists of the laid-down rules that guide people’s behaviour
in a state, the disobedience of which attracts penalties, ethics is the
branch of philosophy which deals with judgement as to the rightness or
wrongness, desirability or undesirability, approval or disapproval of our
actions. Webster Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary defines ethics as
the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty
and obligation. Ethics can also be defined as a normative science of
conduct which is concerned with the right thing to do.
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Ethics and morality are often used interchangeably. But Odunewu

(2000) points out the difference as follows: “while morality refers to
behaviour that is acceptable, ethics deals with the criteria by which
decisions about right and wrong are made”.
Those who lead ethical lives are generally regarded as “good” people.
The Josephson Institute for the Advancement of Ethics (Josephson
Institute, 2003) identifies certain values as being essential to ethical life.
They are:
a) Honesty
b) Integrity
c) Promise-keeping
d) Fidelity
e) Fairness
f) Caring for others
g) Respect for others
h) Responsible citizenship
i) Pursuit of excellence
j) Accountability.
Let us now take these concepts one by one and discuss what they mean
or imply in their ordinary sense, at least.
a) Honesty implies telling the truth always. Honest people are

generally respected even if they are poor. The universal belief is
that such people will be ultimately rewarded. Hence, the popular
maxim: “Honesty is the best policy”.
b) Integrity is being in a “state of entireness, or wholeness, or an

unimpaired state of uprightness, honesty and purity” (Akinfeleye,
2005).
c) Promise-keeping means discharging obligations and honouring

agreements.
d) Fidelity means being loyal and faithful to one’s spouse, friend,

business partner, associate, comrade, or beliefs.
e) Fairness involves treating each person or each case equally and

according to the rules or law.
f) Caring for others is the mark of kindness and generosity.
g) Respect for others is a mark of humility, tolerance and patience.
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h) Responsible citizenship means being law-abiding, doing one’s

civic duties, such as paying tax, voting and respecting constituted
authority and maintaining peace and tranquillity in one’s
neighbourhood and work place.
i) Pursuit of excellence means commitment to the highest

standards both in personal life and in the world of work. It
implies not given to the acceptance of mediocrity, and being
willing to go the extra mile to ensure that things are done
properly, regardless of personal cost.
j) Accountability means proving that one has performed one’s duty

creditably and is willing to submit oneself for scrutiny.
Discuss the essentials of ethics from your own cultural background.
3.2 Why Should People Lead Ethical (or moral) Lives?
This writer has identified 10 reasons why people should lead moral
lives. They are as follows:
i) God our maker expects us to lead moral lives.

ii) The society expects us to lead moral lives.
iii) Our families expect us to lead moral lives.
iv) We need to lead moral lives to be in harmony with our fellow
humans.
v) We need to lead moral lives to be at peace with our consciences.
vi) We need to lead moral lives to live long. vii)
We need to lead moral lives to be healthy.
viii) We need to lead moral lives to be productive.
ix) We need to lead moral lives to show good examples to the
younger generation.
x) We need to lead moral lives to serve the society better and win
respect for ourselves and our professions.
Can you think of other reasons why people should lead moral lives?
3.3 Why Ethics Pertains only to Humans
From the foregoing it is evident that only the higher animal, that is, man
should be concerned with ethics. The lower animals cannot show
concern for ethics, nor can they be held accountable for their actions.
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What then are the things about humans that make them concerned about
ethics? Okunna (1995: 3) identifies the following as the characteristics
of humans which predispose them to being ethical beings:
a) Human beings are rational

b) Human beings are social
c) Human beings are learning beings
d) Human beings have feelings
a) Human Beings are Rational
Humans are endowed with intellect which enables them to reason. The
lower animals do not have intellect but instinct. It is this instinct which
enables them to live their lives: catching their prey, eating, escaping
from danger and procreating. Even though some animals like dolphins,
apes and dogs exhibit what one might be tempted to call intelligence,
they are still regarded by experts as not to be ascribed intelligence,
which is the preserve of man.
At the same time, some human beings sometimes act in ways which
tend to suggest that they are just like animals, that is, behaving
irrationally or out of instinct. This is probably why the ethical
philosopher, Immanuel Kant, believes that the greatest good can be
achieved if humans will follow their rational nature and suppress their
instincts.
b) Human Beings are Social Animals
Also, according to Kant, man’s relationship with other humans is his

motivation for being ethically-minded. Indeed, according to another
philosopher, Erich Fromm, man finds fulfilment only in relation with his
fellow man. It is this social nature of man that is also responsible for
human progress. If man lived on earth merely to satisfy his biological
needs, it would not have mattered how other human beings regard him.
But human beings are concerned about what others think about them,
and indeed, how they will be remembered when they die.
c) Human Beings have Feelings
Only humans have the capacity to feel compassion for others. This is the
compelling reason why the mass media publish human interest stories,
that is, stories about humans which make others stop and think: “this is a
human being like myself”. Because humans have feelings they act in
morally acceptable ways which promote solidarity and togetherness.
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d) Human Beings are Learning Beings
Only humans learn from experience, and this enables them to cultivate
norms of ethical conduct aimed at ensuring societal continuity. If there
is no experience there will be no foresight. Knowledge is acquired not
only from personal experience but also from other people’s experiences
recorded in books and the other mass media, or passed on as oral
tradition from one generation to another.
How can you account for the fact that some animals use rudimentary
tools and bury their dead? Shouldn’t they be considered as having
intellect?
3.3 Law and Ethics Compared and Contrasted
Law and ethics may have the same basic objective, namely, to ensure
order, protect the rights of the individual and preserve the state. Yet,
they differ in their peculiar characteristics and processes. The following
are the basic differences between law and ethics.
a) Law is imposed by the outer society, while ethics is self-imposed

and self-enforced (e g. by a professional body for its members).
b) Law has a definite effective date while ethics has no effective
date.
c) Law can expire, or be repealed, but ethics is continuous.
d) Law has more formal institutions, such as the legislature, police,
judiciary (the courts, tribunals, court-martials, etc.) penitentiary
(prison, reformatory, etc), but ethics has less formal institutions
for its formulation and enforcement. Indeed, the chief enforcer of
ethics is the conscience. Moreover,
e) “While morality protects a way of life by tabooing immoral
action even before it takes place, laws only provide a resource
after the deed has been done”, according to Caster (1983).
Law and ethics, which do you consider as superior? Give your reasons.
4.0 CONCLUSION
A good man is so regarded because he is ethically minded and leads his

life in morally acceptable ways. On the other hand, a bad man is bad
because he is not morally upright. In all societies there are standards by
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which actions can be regarded as good or bad. Without a concern for

ethics there will be no difference between a human being and an animal.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed the essence and purpose of ethics. We

saw several definitions of ethics and the difference between ethics and
morality, even though they are often used interchangeably.
We also listed and explained 10 values which are essential to the ethical
life. They are honesty, integrity, promise-keeping, fidelity, fairness,
caring for others, respect for others, responsible citizenship, pursuit of
excellence and accountability.
Also covered were 10 reasons why people should lead ethical or moral
lives. In this unit also, it was pointed out that ethics is of particular
concern to humans because they are rational, sociable, capable of
learning and have feelings. The lower animals are not bothered about
ethics, and you know why.
Finally, we compared and contrasted ethics with law, drawing the

similarities and differences.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. Find five other definitions of ethics given by authoritative sources

2. What other differences between law and ethics can you think of?
7.0 REFERNCES /FURTHER READINGS
Akinfeleye, R A (2005). “Journalistic Integrity in Political and

Economic Reporting”, a Paper presented at the Nigerian Press
Council National Workshop on Reporting Politics and the
Economy – Responsibilities of the Mass Media”, Held at Aja,
Lagos, Nigeria, From October 18 – 21, 2005.
Caster, H (1983). cited in Egbon, M. (2006) “The Problems of Ethics in

the Mass Media”, A Paper presented at the Nigerian Press
Council National Workshop on “The Line Editor as a
Gatekeeper” Held at Aja, Lagos, Nigeria, from April 9 – 12,
2006.
Fromm, E. cited in Okunna, C S (1995). Ethics of Mass

Communication, Enugu: New Generation Books, 3-4
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Josephson Institute for the Advancement of Ethics (2003). Resources:

Making Ethical Decisions, www.josephsoninstitute.org
Odunewu, A (2000). “Ethics and Professionalism” in Arogundade, L.

and B. Eitokpah (eds) Media in a Democracy, Lagos:
International Press Centre and Friederich Ebert Foundation, 1
Okoye, I E (2005). “Public Relations Ethics” a Paper presented at a

Workshop organized for Public Relations Officers of the Lagos
State Government, at Alausa, Ikeja, in November 2005
Okunna, C S (1995). Ethics of Mass Communication, Enugu: New

Generation Books, 3-4
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UNIT 3 THEORIES OF ETHICS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Teleological Ethical Theories
3.2 Deontological Ethical Theories
3.3 Other sub Theories
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Different people are likely to behave differently when faced with the
same ethical situation. This is because of their divergent ethical
orientations. An individual’s ethical orientation is responsible for his
ethical response. This is why it is necessary to understand ethical
theories.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define and give examples of teleological ethical theory Define and

identify examples of deontological ethical theory Identify all the
other ethical theories subsumed under the teleological and
deontological ethical theories.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Ethical Theories
Theories are ways of explaining phenomena. Theories of ethics are ways

of explaining ethical orientations. Okunna (1995:9) points out that
ethical theories generally attempt to do one or a combination of the
following: explain, describe, prescribe or predict ethical behaviour or
standards. They are explanatory when they give reasons why humans
take whatever moral decisions in their dealing with others. They are
descriptive when they tell us the nature of ethics in general. They are
prescriptive when they stipulate how people should behave in certain
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ethical situations. They are predictive if they indicate how people are
likely to behave under certain ethical situations.
Ethical theories can be divided into two main classifications:
1. Teleological (or consequentialism) and

2. Deontological (or non-consequentialism)
Within each of these groups there exist several clear-cut ethical schools
of thought. Let’s now consider each school and its subgroups.
1. Teleological ethical theory or consequentialism
This is concerned with the result of the action. An action is considered

as good if it produces good results. Hence those who subscribe to this
ethical orientation are called consequentialists. Within the teleological
school there are three subgroups. They are: utilitarianism, egoism and
pragmatism.
The ethical utilitarians believe that people should act in the best
interest of everyone concerned. Their catch-phrase is “the greatest good
for the greatest number”. Their consuming passion is the good of the
majority, rather than the interest of a single individual. This may appear
all right on the surface. But, according to Pasqua et. al., (1990: 259),
the problem may arise as to the acceptable assessment of what
constitutes the greatest number.
The ethical egoists, on their part, believe that people should act in their
own self interest. Even among ethical egoists, there are two subgroups,
the universal egoists and the personal egoists. The universal egoists
simply believe that each person should act in his own best interest, while
the personal egoists believe that each person should speak for himself as
to what he wants.
Ethical Pragmatism is the third subgroup under the teleological school.

It insists that that which works in real life is the right thing to do. In
other words, for pragmatists, truth is what works in the real life of
human behaviour. Pasqua et al (ibid: 260) describe pragmatism as the
ethical theory with a pure American origin. A proponent of “pragmatism
of instrumentalism”, John Dewey counsels that the individual is required
to tackle the problems of an ever-changing world with “an adaptable set
of standards necessary to cope with changing situations”. Dewey does
not agree with “extreme rationalism and extreme empiricism” as the key
to the solution of problems. However, journalism professor and
authority on media ethics, John Merrill, warns that pragmatism should
have its limits. The fact that something works does not necessarily make
it good. For example, a pragmatic journalist could use dishonest
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persuasion on a highly vulnerable and trusting audience, on the mere

justification that the method works. But this could be dangerous.
Discuss the disadvantages of propaganda in the light of John Merrill’s

warning on pragmatism.
3.2 Deontological Ethics or Non-Consequentialism
This ethical school maintains that a good action should not depend on
the result or consequences, but rather on its intrinsic value, hence the
adherents of the theory are called non-consequentialists. Pasqua et. al
(ibid) identify three variants of the deontological ethical school of
thought. They are: divine command theory, Kant’s duty ethics and
natural law theory. Let’s now consider their explanations one by one.
Divine Command
This theory maintains that whatever God commands is right, since God
is infinitely good and infallible. Conversely, whatever God forbids is
wrong. This way of reasoning is all right with those who believe in God.
Not to the unbelievers. To the unbelievers, this is a very subjective way
of reasoning. And they ask the following question: is something right or
wrong because it is God’s command, or does God only command or
forbid it because it is already right or wrong?
Kant’s Duty Ethics
An advocate of deontological ethics, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804),

formulated the duty ethics, now named after him. He maintains that a
good man is one who habitually acts rightly, and that a right action is
that which is done from a sense of duty. In other words, duty ethics calls
on people to act from a sense of obligation. And this obligation springs
from reason rather than experience. Thus a moral principle will not
depend on empirical data and will be binding on everyone. This is what
Kant calls the Categorical Imperative.
A good action, according to Kant, is not good because it produces result,

but rather because it is a moral action done from a sense of duty to the
moral law.
Natural Law Theory
Natural law ethical theory derives from the dictates of reason. Its
adherents do not have to believe in God, but believers and unbelievers
alike can converge on an ethical middle ground based of reason.
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According to Pasqua et. al.(ibid: 261), most great national and

international documents of the 20th Century, such as the United Nations
charter, are based on natural law ethical theory. Also, most of the rights
now enjoyed universally by individuals and the media derive from
natural law. John Hospers, a contemporary philosopher divides these
basic rights into six. They are:
1. Right to life
2. Right to property
3. Freedom of expression
4. Welfare rights
5. Rights of children, and
6. Rights of animals
Discuss the position of the teachings of your own religion in the light of
deontological ethics.
3.3 Other Ethical Theories
Some other ethical orientations deserve mention as they fall under either
the teleological or deontological theories. They include but are not
limited to:
Ethical Universalism, which is the idea of having a common set of

ethics guiding members of the same profession where ever they may be
in the world. An advocate of ethical universalism, Callahan (2003)
argues that, since all human beings have a common human nature
always and everywhere, and share universals such as language, reason,
emotions and family systems, there should be a common morality that
would ensure societal continuity.
Absolutist ethics, which maintains that a right action is right at all

times.
Relativist ethics, which permits that moral standards could vary

according to cultures, circumstances and times.
Objectivist ethics, which emphasizes rationality in judging ethical

conduct.
Subjectivist ethics, the opposite of objectivist, which allows that ethical

standards could be subject to feelings and emotions of the individual
making the moral decision.
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Legalistic ethics, which takes on a rigid way of looking at things, as of

law.
Antinomian ethics, the antithesis of legalistic ethics, which is a very
liberal way of looking at ethics.
Situational ethics, which considers the rightness or wrongness of an

action based on the particular situation or circumstance in which the
doer finds himself.
Make a case for ethical universalism in view of what is happening today

around the world.
4.0 CONCLUSION
When you see two otherwise respected individuals taking opposing

sides in an issue such as abortion, for instance, you can now understand
that their ethical orientation may be responsible for the way they think.
Of course, three important factors are responsible different people’s
ethical development. They are cultural background, individual
differences and situational contingencies. A good understanding of these
things will make for better understanding of people and their ways, and
enhance peace in the world.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we considered the two broad divisions of ethical theories,

namely, teleological and deontological. It was explained that the
teleological theory considers a good action on the results it produces
while the deontological theory considers a good action on its intrinsic
value. The apostle of deontological ethics, Immanuel Kant maintains
that it is the duty of man to do the right thing always. This is what he
calls the “Categorical Imperative”.
Within the teleological group, there are three main sub groups. They are
the ethical utilitarians, the ethical egoists and the ethical pragmatics. All
these sub groups have their different points of emphasis which make
them unique.
Also within the deontological school of ethics there are different sub
groups, such as the divine command adherents, Kant’s duty ethics
adherents and the natural law adherents. However, since the natural law
position is independent of any religious orienetation, it is the school of
ethics adopted in the drafting all international charters. Accordingly,
17
most of the universal freedoms enjoyed everywhere in the world today

derive from the natural law ethics.
Articulate the fundamental differences between the opposing ethical

theories. Also discuss the merits and demerits of each ethical school of
thought.
Callahan, S. (2003). “New challenges in globalization for journalism”

Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 18, 13-15
Okunna, C.S. (1995). Ethics of Mass Communication, Enugu: New

Generation Books, p.9.
Pasqua, T.M., J.K. Buckalew, R.E. Rayfield, and J.W. Tankard (1990).
Mass Media inthe Information Age (Instructor’s Edition), New
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 262.
18
UNIT 4 THE REGULATION OF THE MASS MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Why the Mass Media Must be Regulated
3.2 What are Media Laws?
3.3 What is Media Ethics?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit five topics will be covered:
- The compelling reasons for the universal regulation of the mass

media
- Definition and explanation of media laws or press laws
- Definition and explanation of media ethics
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to do the following:
Understand why the mass media are regulated the world over
Know what media laws are
Understand what is media ethics
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Why the Mass Media Are Regulated the World Over
All over the world, governments regulate various fields of human

endeavour. Thus, banking, education, health care delivery, hotels, etc.,
are regulated. This means these industries are provided with basic
structures for their operation. The mass media industry is equally
regulated. However, because of the peculiar nature of the mass media as
vehicles for free expression, which is a fundamental human right,
government is careful to regulate the media only to the extent consistent
with the expectations of a democratic society. Thus, over-regulation of
the media will stifle free expression and give rise to underground press
and even rebellion.
19
Malemi (1999: 32) identifies four formal regulatory mechanisms of the

mass media as follows:
a) constitutional provisions
b) statutes
c) ethical guidelines
d) informal restraints.
a) Constitutional Provisions
The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Section 39.
b) Statutes (e.g. The Official Secrets Act, Laws of Sedition, Contempt,

Obscene and Harmful Publications Act, Defamation, Copyright,
Advertising laws, National Broadcasting Commission (NBC) Code,
Newspaper Act, Media Council Decree, which established the
Nigerian Press Council (NPC), the Nigerian Television Authority
(NTA) Act, the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) Act,
etc.
c) Ethical Guidelines
Professional bodies provide mechanisms for the regulation of their

members, each having a constitution and a code of ethics.
d) Informal restraints
Examples are beat associations and other informal arrangements which

impose certain demands on members.
List all the journalistic beat associations in the state where you reside.
3.2 What then are Media Laws?
It is important to point out that some authors use media law, mass
communication law and press law interchangeably. This is because the
mass communication domain has been stretched in recent times to
include all forms of information and communicative processes and
channels.
The original mass communication domain consisted of the press

(newspaper and magazine), radio, television, film, public relations and
20
advertising. But in recent times new forms and even old ones that were
not in the original list have been included.
Some of these new forms are: drama, phonographs, the internet and
even G.S.M. For this reason, some authors have defined Mass
communication law to mean all the laws made to govern the activities of
these wide varieties of media. For example, Malemi, (1999:3) writes:
Mass communication, media or press law, is the law

governing the receiving and dissemination of ideas and
information, the Media of mass communication, the role
of press and the writing public, their rights and their duties
to the private individual and the state in general.
It has been pointed out above that the term Press is only a part of and not
the whole of mass-communication. So, media law or mass-
communication law should include all the laws governing the operation
of newspaper, magazines, radio, and television broadcasting, public
relations and advertising practices, internet, phonograph, satellite
broadcasting and all the new information and communication
technology (ICT).
However, many authors limit their discussion of mass-communication

law to press law, as it was in the beginning. Why is it so? I guess it is
because press law is the oldest and most often brought to the
consciousness of the general public.
Indeed, there are laws governing the practice of public relations and
advertising, but since the practitioners of these professions do not deal
directly with general public, not much is known about the laws
governing them.
Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that press law does not constitute
mass-communication or media law, since the mass media or mass-
communication consist of other channels in addition to the press. We
shall therefore limit our discussions in this text to press law.
What are Press Laws?
Press laws are legislations made by the government in power at the

Federal State and Local Government levels, to control or regulate the
activities of the Press in a part or all part of a given country. There is no
country in the world where there are no Press laws or where the Press
is not expected to operate within the ambit of the law. After all, the
purpose of law is to protect the rights of citizens and ensure an orderly
society.
21
However, given the fact that freedom of the Press is an essential

requirement for democracy, the laws governing the press in the
genuinely democratic countries are those which only seek to protect the
fundamental rights of individuals and ensure the maintenance of peace
and tranquillity. Such laws are the laws of Defamation, Libel, Slander,
Sedition, Copyright and Plagiarism.
Other laws outside these basic ones are usually frowned at by the Press
and Civil Society, since they are bound to constitute undue restrictions
on Press and freedom, which to a large extent is an extension of
individual freedom. The United States of America provides a model in
this regard. The famous First Amendment to the American Constitution
which was adopted in 1791, states in part that ‘…Congress shall not
make any law… abridging the freedom of the Press’. This Provision of
the American Constitution is the basis of the high degree of press
freedom and individual freedom enjoyed by the American Press and
people.
But most other countries of the world, especially in the developing

world, do not enjoy a high degree of Press freedom. This is because, in
addition to the laws of Defamation, Libel, Slander, Sedition, Copy right
and Plagiarism which already exist in their Statutes, the ruling elite are
always passing other obnoxious laws which merely seek to protect the
selfish interest of those in power.
In the history of Nigeria from the colonial era to end of military rule in
1999, most Press laws were made for this purpose. These bad laws,
notorious for being retroactive and precluding the jurisdiction of the
civil courts, have been used to intimidate, harass, and imprison
journalists, opposition politicians and Civil rights advocates. Tony
Momoh (2004) gives a complete inventory of such laws.
In the following sections, we shall discuss only the laws which are
universally imposed in civilised societies, that is , the laws of
defamation, libel, sedition, slander, copy right and plagiarism. But
before then, we need to know more about freedom of the Press,
including its legal basis and constraints.
Make an inventory of all the important press laws made by various

Nigerian governments at the centre, from colonial times to the present
day.
3.3 What is Mass Communication Ethics?
22
It has been pointed out that ethics is basically self-imposed and self-
enforced. Mass communication ethics is therefore the set of moral
guidelines which the mass communication professionals have articulated
to guide their professional conduct.
Ethics compels the professional to consider his/her basic principles and

values, his/her obligations to himself/herself and to others. It compels
the professional to decide how to live, how to conduct his/her
professional affairs, how he/she will think, act and react to people and
issues around him/her.
Journalistic ethics is subsumed in mass communication ethics, since

journalism is only a part of mass communication. Merrill defines
journalistic ethics as:
the branch of philosophy which helps journalists to

determine what is right to do, by giving the journalist
standards by which he can judge actions to be right or wrong,
good or bad, responsible or irresponsible.
Furthermore, according to Merrill, it defines what is good or bad

journalism and details the obligations of journalists to the profession, to
the society and to democracy.
Who is a virtuous journalist?
A virtuous journalist is the one who has respect for and tries to live by
the cardinal virtues which Plato prescribes in The Republic (Merrill,
ibid). The cardinal virtues which Plato prescribes in The Republic are:
wisdom, courage, temperance and justice.
1. Wisdom
Wisdom can be defined as the correct application of knowledge. It is

what gives direction to moral life and it is the rational, intellectual base
for any system of ethics. Wisdom is partly natural and partly acquired. It
is acquired through the following ways: maturing, life experiences,
study, association, etc.
2. Courage
Courage is needed to resist the temptation to do the wrong thing, that is,
deviate from the path of wisdom. In other words, it helps a person to
pursue the goal which wisdom has helped set for him/her.
3. Temperance
23
This is the virtue which demands reasonable moderation. It helps people

to avoid fanaticism in the pursuit of any objective, that is, knowing
where to apply the brakes, as it were.
4. Justice
Justice is the virtue which considers a person’s “deservingness”. It refers

more specifically to a person’s social relations. All men should be
treated equally, but equal treatment simply does not satisfy
“deservingness”. A person gets what he deserves. For example, if there
is only one seat available for two persons, justice, at least in the African
culture, demands that the older person should be offered the seat while
the younger person stands until another seat is fetched for him. Looking
at another scenario, should a young man be stoned to death for snatching
a wallet at a bus stop? Does he deserve to die for that minor offence?
That is jungle justice, which is no justice at all.
To what extent have Nigerian journalists exhibited the virtues listed by

Plato? Discuss.
4.0 CONCLUSION
So you can see that the mass media are regulated by laws and a system
of ethics. This is despite the fact that they are a vehicle through which
people express their fundamental rights of free expression. Without
some form of regulation the media could be misused by unscrupulous
persons to the detriment of the society.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have looked at the compelling reasons why the mass
media of all societies are regulated. Regulation means that they are
checked to some extent by laws and ethics. Specifically, the regulation
comes in form of constitutional provisions, statutes, ethical guidelines
and informal restraints.
Mass communication law, media law and press law are used
interchangeably to mean
“the law governing the receiving and dissemination of

ideas and information, the media of mass communication,
the role of press and the writing public, their rights and
their duties to the private individual and the state in
general” (Malemi, 1999: 3)
24
Media ethics, on the other hand, is that branch of philosophy which

helps the media professionals to set standards of moral conduct. It helps
those in journalism, for instance, to decide what is good journalism and
what is bad journalism, what is acceptable and what is unacceptable in
the performance of their duties of gathering, processing and
dissemination of a wide variety of messages designed for enlightenment
and entertainment.
We also asked the important question: who is a virtuous journalist? The

question was answered by foremost media ethical philosopher, John
Merrill, who says that a virtuous journalist is the one who has respect for
and tries to live by the cardinal virtues which Plato suggested in his
classical treatise, The Republic. The virtues are wisdom, courage,
temperance and justice. We went on to explain what each virtues entails.
6.0 TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Discuss separately the arguments of those who call for minimum

control of the mass media and the arguments of those who call for
maximum control of the mass media.

Merrill, J.C. (1982). “Ethics and Journalism”, in Ethics and the Press:
Readings in Mass Media Morality, New York: Hastings House
Publishers. 10-11
Momoh, T. (2002). Nigerian Media Law and Ethics, Lagos: Efua Media
Associates.
25
MODULE 2 PRESS FREEDOM AND THE

CONSTITUTIONAL OBLIGATIONS OF
THE NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA
Unit 1 Press Freedom: History, Definitions and Legal bases

Unit 2 Public Officers, Public Figures, The National Interest And
The Public Interest.
Unit 3 Constitutional Provisions on the Obligations and
Ownership of the Mass Media in Nigeria.
UNIT 1 PRESS FREEDOM: HISTORY, DEFINITIONS

AND LEGAL BASES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 History of Press Freedom in the Ancient World
3.2 History of Press Freedom in Old England
3.3 History of Press Freedom in Nigeria
3.4 Definitions of Press Freedom
3.5 Legal Bases of Press Freedom in Nigeria
3.6 Constraints to Press Freedom in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit three things will be discussed
History of freedom of expression in the ancient world

History of press freedom in old England
History of press freedom in Nigeria
Some definitions of press freedom
Legal bases of press freedom
Constraints to press freedom
2.0 OBJECTIVES
26
Know a brief history of freedom of expression in the ancient

world
Know a brief history of press freedom in old England
Know a brief history of press freedom in Nigeria
Define press freedom
Know the legal bases of press freedom in Nigeria.
Know the major constraints to press freedom in Nigeria
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Struggles for Free Expression in the Ancient World
From time immemorial and in all climes, human beings have been
struggling for more freedom to express themselves, in social life, in
religion, in the arts, in political and economic activities and in even in
the scientific field. In many countries of the world there is now
considerable freedom for people to express themselves and pursue their
legitimate undertakings. But it has not always been so. In the past,
political and religious leaders were very uncomfortable with those with
new ideas and indeed made life unbearable for such people.
As a result, many great minds were extinguished prematurely long

before society realised its mistake. For example, the great Greek
philosopher, Socrates (470 – 399 B.C.) was killed for allegedly
corrupting the youths of Athens with his strange ideas; Jesus Christ was
crucified for preaching a new doctrine; and Galileo Galilie (1564-1642),
the Italian astronomer and physicist was killed for his scientific
discoveries.
However, after many centuries of ruthless suppression of those whose

ideas ran contrary to those of the rulers a little succour came the way of
the Europeans in the Middle Ages, with the passage of certain great
Bills of Rights which guaranteed more freedom of expression. Some of
such great laws were the Magna Carta in 1215; and the English Bill of
Rights in 1689.
The Magna Carta (The Great Charter) was a broad statement of legal
principles which was passed by a certain King John of England on
Monday June 15, 1215. The document, written in Latin comprised 61
clauses, included some civil rights which the king had undermined in the
past. History records that the idea of passing the charter was to forestall
revolts which had become inevitable because of the denial of people’s
basic rights. But the enduring importance of the Magna Carta lie in the
fact that, even though it was a feudal document, it gave legal recognition
to the fact that the relationship between king and vassals was based on
27
mutual rights and obligations. In later years the document was used
strengthen the idea that the monarch’s power was limited, not absolute.
The English Bill of Rights was passed in 1688, under William and Mary
as King and Queen of England, after what was referred to as “the
Glorious Revolution”, following disputes over succession to the throne
between Catholics and Protestants.
But more importantly, the Bill of Rights was a profound statement of

liberties, whereby the individual was protected against the distortion of
justice in the interest of the crown.
The Virginia Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Virginia, a South Atlantic state in the United States of America, became

important following the introduction of tobacco farming there in 1712.
This led to the bringing of slaves there, starting from 1619. Later on the
state was one of the leading states in the American fight for
independence and the Civil War. It was a major battlefield in the war ,
and Richmond, its capital city was the capital of the Confederate States.
The Bill of Rights was ratified by the American Congress in 1789, in

order to allay the fears of some states that the new American
Constitution did not guarantee enough freedoms. The Bill of Rights,
which was actually 10 amendments to the American Constitution, then
adequately guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, the press, petition
and assembly. It also guaranteed the freedom to carry arms, and the right
to be protected against unreasonable searches and arrests, trial by jury,
due process of law, and the protection of property rights.
In other parts of the world, revolutions such as happened in old England

and America, also took place before laws were passed to grant more
basic freedoms to people. In fact, at the time the above upheavals were
taking place in America, a very bloody revolution was taking place in
France, which is now popularly referred to as the French Revolution. In
France the brutality of the aristocrats towards the masses gave rise to a
popular uprising which eliminated the upper class and abolished the
monarchy for ever.
Compare and contrast the French and American revolutions, especially

as they affected the granting of civil rights.
28
3.2 History of Press Freedom in Old England
Press freedom became an issue in Europe with the birth of modern mass
media such as books and newspapers, following the invention and
spread of printing. You will recall that Johann Gutenberg of Mainz,
Germany, invented movable type about 1445. Soon after, the printing of
books became popular in Germany, but with the sacking of Mainz in
1462, its trained printers dispersed to other European cities and resumed
their trade there. Thus, Italy embraced printing in 1462; France in 1470;
Spain in 1474; and England in 1476.
Some ragtag newspapers called “Corantoes” appeared in England in

1621. But the kings of England were not receptive to the newspapers for
fear that the masses would get enlightened and begin to challenge their
authority. So, they placed many restrictions in the way of the journalists
and printers. In fact, the restrictions were so severe that the rudimentary
newspapers could not be printed in England. They had to be printed
abroad and smuggled into England.
It was at this time that intellectuals like John Milton started publishing
popular essays in support of freedom of expression. Milton’s argument
was that falsehood and truth should be allowed to grapple and let the
superior force win. His most famous essay was the Arepagitica (1644),
which advanced formidable opposition against the existing press
licensing laws of England. In 1694 the licensing was discontinued , and
this new era of freedom gave birth to the first real newspaper in
England, called the Daily Courant, in 1702.
But the obnoxious laws of England had caused many intellectuals to flee
to the New World (America). Consequently, the first rudimentary
newspapers in that part of the world, the Publick Occurance, was
founded by Benjamin Harris, who had been expelled from England for
operating an underground press. But the first real newspaper in America
was the Boston Newsletter, which was founded by John Campbell and
Bartholomew Green in 1704.
Find out the role played by the church in the struggle for freedom of
expression in old England and America.
3.3 History of Press Freedom in Nigeria
The first newspaper in West Africa was the Sierra Leone Gazette,
founded in 1801 by the “officers of the Sierra Leone Company” (Omu,
1978: 5). Subsequently, other countries in the sub region embraced the
29
trade: Ghana in 1822; Liberia in 1826; Nigeria in 1859 and Gambia in

1883.
The first newspaper published in Nigeria, Iwe Irohin, existed from 1859
to 1867. It appears that subsequently, there was an absence of
newspapers for almost a decade, before a tribe of secular newspapers
began to appear in the 1880s. By the early 1900s, the British Colonial
masters started becoming uncomfortable with the emergent press, and
began to enact harsh laws to put the press in check. According to Omu,
(ibid: 174), “the heightened tone of press criticism which marked
political opposition from the last days of the nineteenth century to the
eve of the First World War could not but irritate the colonial
administration”. Accordingly, the colonial masters enacted the first of
such laws, the Newspaper Ordinance of 1903. Then came the Seditious
Offences Ordinance of 1909 and subsequent ones, as the need arose and
many more. A complete inventory of all the press laws from 1903 has
been provided by Momoh (2004, op cit.).
So began the struggle for press freedom in Nigeria, which has continued
ever since. It has been observed that most of the press laws enacted in
Nigeria from colonial times were obnoxious impositions by those in
power to protect themselves from the legitimate searchlight of a dutiful
and patriotic press.
Incidentally, the struggle for press freedom in Nigeria was tied to the
struggle for political independence. The early newspapers used their
editorials and columns to crusade relentlessly for political independence.
As noted by Okoye (2003:11),
“as far back as 1881, when the Colony of Lagos was being
administered from Sierra Leon, the question of independence from
colonial rule had started bothering newspaper editorial writers.
For example, consider the following excerpt from an editorial

Published in the Lagos Times and Gold Coast Colony Advertiser of
March 9, 1881:
“We are not clamouring for immediate independence, but it should

always be borne in mind that the present order of things will not last
for ever. …A time will come when the colonies on the West Coast
will be left to regulate their own internal and external affairs”
This trend continued until independence was finally obtained in 1960.

As expected there were provisions for freedom of expression in the
Independence Constitution, but there was no specific provision granting
freedom of the press. The struggle to have definite constitutional
30
provisions guaranteeing press freedom is still on. The Freedom of

Information Bill currently before the National Assembly is expected to
take care of that. Unfortunately, this important bill did not receive the
assent of President Obasanjo.
Meanwhile, when the hard-worn independence was lost to military

dictatorships in the 1990s, it was the Nigerian press and civil society
that went back to the trenches to recover it.
In the history of press freedom in Nigeria, some journalists and their

publications deserve mention for their courageous roles. They are:
1. John Payne Jackson and Thomas Horatio Jackson of the Lagos

Weekly Record.
2. James Bright Davies of the Nigerian Times
3. Ernest Ikoli of the African Messenger
4. Herbert Macaulay of the Lagos Daily News
5. Duse Mohammed Ali of the Comet
6. Nnamdi Azikiwe of the West African Pilot
7. J.V. Clinton of the Eastern Nigerian Mail
8. Anthony Enahoro of the Comet
9. Peter Enahoro of the Sunday Times
10. Dele Giwa of Newswatch magazine
11. Tunde Thompsom of the Guardian
12. Nduka Irabor of the Guardian.
13. Bayo Onanuga of The News magazine
14. Chris Anyanwu of TSM magazine
15. Niran Malaolu of The Diet newspaper
16. Nosa Igiabor of Tell magazine.
Also deserving of special mention are some social critics who have been
very vocal in their advocacy for good governance and human rights.
Some of them used newspapers extensively as columnists, though they
were not employed full time by the newspapers. They include: Wole
Soyinka, Tai Solarin, Air Iyare, Bola Ige, Agwu Okpanku, and many
others.
Mention the names of 10 additional journalists who played outstanding

roles in the struggle for press freedom in Nigeria.
31
3.4 Definitions of Press Freedom
As has been noted earlier in the study, press freedom is an essential

ingredients of the democratic culture. The higher the degree of press
freedom allowed in any country, the greater the degree of democracy its
citizens enjoy.
What then is Press Freedom?
Let me now examine some definitions of Press Freedom given by

different authors.
Soji Alabi (2003: 53) writes that Press Freedom “simply means that the
press should be allowed to publish without prior restraint.” This, he
added, implies that the press should be free to publish or broadcast what
it deems fit to the public.
Onagoruwa (1985: 15) defines Press Freedom as the right of the press
to “publish without being subjected to intimidation, threat, molestation
or blackmail.”
Another notable authority, Aiyar (1979) defines Press Freedom as

follows:
… the right to report facts honestly and faithfully, even if
they prove inconvenient or embarrassing to someone. It
means liberty to interpret the evidence before them
according to their (reporters’) independent judgement and
journalist’s conscience.
Lastly, consider my own definition: Press Freedom is the liberty to

gather, to hold, express and disseminate information and opinions
without official or unofficial restrictions via written and unwritten laws
and actions.
If we examine these definitions closely, we shall see that they are more
or less, saying the same thing in different words. They are all saying that
newsmen and women, individually and collectively, or mass media
organisations, should enjoy the liberty to do their legitimate duties
without having to obtain prior permission from any authority, and
without having to bother whether what is eventually dished out to the
public will suit or embarrass any public official somewhere.
Another important question is: why is there is so much concern over

press freedom in the world? The simple answer is that if there is no
press freedom or if press freedom is diminished at any time, it is not
32
only journalists that will be hurt, but the entire society will bear the
brunt of it.
On the occasion of the World Press Freedom Day, May 3, 2000, the
immediate past United Nations Secretary General, Kofi Annan,
UNESCO Director General, Koichiro Matsuura and United Nations
High Commissioner for Human Rights, Mary Robinson issued a joint
statement and said:
In every society, freedom of the press is essential to transparency,

accountability, good governance and the rule of law. It cannot be
suppressed without dire consequences for social cohesion and stability.
When it is sacrificed, whatever the reason invoked, the chances are that
conflict is not far down the road.
Press freedom is therefore essential to ensure that those in authority are

constantly monitored so that they do not overstep their bounds, to the
detriment of the society. Indeed, there are many credible international
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) which dutifully monitor the
degree of press freedom in each country of the world and publish reports
on their findings. Freedom House is one such organisation. It measures
each country’s press in four aspects:
1. the degree to which laws and administrative decisions affect news

content.
2. the degree of political influence or control over content.
3. the degree of economic influence on the media by governmental
or private sectors, and
4. the degree of oppression, from censoring materials to killing of
journalists.
According to Chang (2003), based on the above four criteria, Freedom

House ranks each country on a scale from 0 to 100. The higher the
score, the less free the country’s press system is considered to be.
Countries with a score of 0 to 30 are considered “Free”, those with
31-60 “Partly Free”, while those which score 61-100 are considered
“Not Free”.
Look up 10 more definitions of press freedom offered by other notable

authors.
33
3.5 Legal Bases of Press Freedom in Nigeria
The following are the legal bases of Press Freedom applicable in

Nigeria.
1. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 59 (1) of December

14, 1946, which states Freedom of information is a fundamental
human right and is the touch stone of all the freedoms to which the
United Nations is consecrated. Freedom of information implies the
right to gather, transmit and publish news anywhere, without fetters.
2. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of
December 10, 1948, which states :
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and

expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinion
without interference; and to seek, receive and impart
information and ideas through any media regardless of
frontiers.
3. Articles 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political

Rights of December 10, 1966, which states;
1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without

interference.
2. Everyone shall have, the right to freedom of expression; this right
shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas of all kind, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing
or imprint, in the form of art, or through any media of his choice.
4. Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights,
which states:
Every individual shall have the right to receive information.
Every individual shall have the right to express and disseminate
opinions within the law.
5. Section 39 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria, which states:
… Every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression,
including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart
ideas and information without interference.
Why is press freedom an essential concomitant of democratic

government? Discuss.
Constraints to Press Freedom
34
It has been pointed out that no where in the whole world is Press
Freedom absolute. Even in the most democratic countries, there are still
the laws of libel, sedition, copyright and other similar laws which seek
to protect the state, individual rights and intellectual property. In
addition to these universal laws, many countries have governmental
agencies which regulate the activities of specific mass media examples
are the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) in the United States
of America, the Nigeria Press Council (NPC), the National Broadcasting
Commission (NBC) and the National Film and Video Censors Board
(NFVCB).
But some of the laws which serve as constraints to press freedom in

Nigeria are:
3.5 Articles 19 (2) and (3) of the Universal Declaration of Human

Rights (UDHR), which state.
3.5.1 In the exercise of his rights and freedom, everyone shall be
subject only to such limitation as are determined by law solely for
the purpose of securing due recognition; and
3.5.2 These rights and freedom may in no case be exercised contrary to
the purpose and principles of the United Nations.
3.6 Articles 19 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Right, which states;
3.6.1 The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this
Article carries with it special duties and responsibilities, it may
therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be
such as are provided by law and are necessary:
(a) For respect of the rights or reputation of others.

(b) For the protection of national security or of public order, or of
public health or morals.
(1.) Any propaganda for war shall be prohibited by law.

(2.) Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that
constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence
shall be prohibited by law.
(3) Article 13 (2), (3), (4) and (5) of the freedom of thought and
expression, which states:
(2) The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph
shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to
subsequent imposition of liability which shall be expressly
established by law to the extent necessary in order to ensure:
(a) respect for the rights or reputation of others; or
35
(b) the protection of national security public health or morale
Why do you think people’s rights ought to be protected in the exercise

of press freedom?
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see that in most countries press freedom is encouraged as an

essential ingredient of the democratic culture. Even though the Nigerian
constitution does not expressly provide for freedom of the press, the
constitution makers must have reasoned that by granting freedom of
expression, that of the press had been taken care of. Despite this
constitutional draw back, the Nigerian press has been virile from
Colonial times to the present day. Indeed, it has been argued that
freedom is never given to anyone on a platter of gold, but that those who
desire freedom have to fight for it. And the Nigerian press has given a
good account of itself in its struggle for more press freedom.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have surveyed the history of the struggles for free
expression in various parts of the world, both in the ancient and modern
times. We also looked at several definitions of press freedom given by
experts. What all the definitions are saying is that press freedom is the
liberty of the mass media to do their duty of informing, educating and
entertaining the public without prior official censorships, or other
official and unofficial activities which curtail that liberty. All over the
world there are legal bases for press freedom, which may differ slightly
from place to place. In Nigeria the legal bases of press freedom include:
Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Article 19 of
the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; Article 9 of the
African Charter on Human and People’s Rights; and Section 39 of the
1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Lastly, we also saw that press freedom is not absolute; hence there are
some constraints, which were also listed and explained.
Compare and contrast the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and

the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights as the legal bases of
press freedom.
36
1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
Aiyar, R. (1979). Quest for News, Madras: Macmillan Press.
Akinfeleye and I. Okoye (ed), Issues in Nigerian Media History: 1900

– 2000 A.D., Lagos: Malthouse.
Alabi, S. (2003). “Press Freedom: Background, Legal Bases and

Constraints” UNILAG Communication Review, 4 (1), 52-64
Daramola, I. (2003). “Press Freedom: Legal Bases and Constraints in

America and Nigeria”, in R.A. Akinfeleye, and I. Okoye (eds),
Issues in Nigerian Media History, Lagos: Malthouse, 153-166
Duika, W.J., World History, Belmont: West/Wadsworth
Momoh, T.(2002). Nigerian Media Law and Ethics, Lagos: Efua Media
Associates.
Okoye, I.E. (2003). “Evolution of Editorial Writing in Nigerian

Journalism” in R.
Omu, F. (1978). Press and Politics in Nigeria: 1880 – 1937, London:

Longman
Onagoruwa, T. New Directions for Journalism in Nigeria, Ibadan: NUJ-

NT
37
UNIT 2 PUBLIC OFFICERS, PUBLIC FIGURES,

NATIONAL INTEREST AND PUBLIC
INTEREST
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Public Officer and Public Figure
3.2National Interest and Public Interest
3.3Their Relationship with the Media
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit the following questions will be answered:
- Who is a public officer and who is a public figure?

- What is National Interest?
- What is Public interest and why are the media interested in it?
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this you will be able to:
Define and know the difference between a public officer and

public figure
Define and understand what is the national interest.
Define public interest and why the media are interested in it.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Who is a Public Officer and who is a Public Figure?
A Public officer or Public official is the person who holds an office in

trust for the public and earns his/her living from the taxes paid by the
public. The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
provides an exhaustive list of all those recognised as public officers in
Nigeria, for the purposes of the Code of Conduct. They are:
i) The President of the Federation.
38
ii) The Vice President of the Federation

iii) The President and Deputy President of the Senate; Speaker and
Deputy Speaker of the House of Representatives and Speakers
and Deputy Speakers of Houses of Assembly of States, and all
members and staff of legislative houses.
iv) Governors and Deputy Governors of states.
v) Chief Justice of Nigeria, Justices of the Supreme Court, President
and Justices of the Court of Appeal, all other judicial offices and
all staff of courts of law.
vi) Attorney –General of the Federation and Attorney-General of
each state.
vii) Ministers of the government of the federation and commissioners
of the governments of the states.
viii) Chief of Defence Staff, Chief of Army Staff, Chief of Naval
Staff, Chief of Air Staff and all members of the armed forces of
the federation.
ix) Inspector-General of Police, Deputy Inspector General of Police
and all members of the Nigeria Police Force and other
government security agencies established by law.
x) Secretary to the Government of the federation, Head of the Civil
Service, permanent secretaries, directors –general and other
persons in the civil service of the federation or of the states.
xi) Ambassadors, high commissioners and other officers of Nigerian
missions abroad.
xii) Chairman, members and staff of the Code of Conduct Bureau and
Code of Conduct Tribunal.
xiii) Chairman, members and staff of local government councils.
xiv) Chairman and members of the boards or other governing bodies
and staff of statutory corporations and of companies in which the
federal or state government has controlling interest.
xv) All staff of universities, colleges and institutions owned and
financed by the federal or state governments or local government
councils.
xvi) Chairman, members and staff of permanent commissions or
councils appointed on full time basis.
Akinfeleye (2005) adds that no matter the mode of appointment to that

public office, whether by election or selection, the public officer “has
lost part of his privacy, that is, the right to be left alone”.
A public figure, on the other hand, does not earn his living from the tax
payers’ money, but “by his activities, pronouncements, comments on
public issues within the community, which are of public interest, he has
become a public figure”, (Akinfeleye, ibid). Thus, celebrities like
popular musicians, sportsmen, successful entrepreneurs and the like, are
public figures. Both the public officer and the public figure attract the
39
attention of the mass media, and rightly so, since what they do or say
may have good or adverse consequence for the society.
What are the other differences between a public officer and a public
figure?
3.2 National Interest
National Interest is one concept on which experts are not agreed. It has
been defined in various conflicting ways by different experts. For
example, Momoh (2004) defines the national interest as “those interest
which Nigerians are brought up to regard as values to strive for, to live
for, even to die for”. He explains further that these values have become
so entrenched in the psyche of the Nigerian that other interests must take
second place. The national interest should also override personal and
group interest.
Your guess is as good as mine, that the values so close to the heart of
every Nigerian are the need to live in peace, harmony, comfort and
prosperity. Any thing which undermines these fundamental legitimate
aspirations should therefore be considered as anti-national interest.
However, what makes the national interest problematic is the question

as to who determines it. Akinfeleye argues that the national interest
cannot be the legitimate aspirations of all Nigerians if is determined and
articulated by a dictatorship. All the same, he agrees that in the case of
Nigeria, the national interest has been adequately captured by the
National Anthem, the National Pledge and the Motto.
Another expert, Areh (2005) argues that no individual or group can be in

a better position to define the national interest than the government in
power. He defines the national interest as “the interest of the state
according to recognised organ of government and the government of the
day”.
Both Momoh (2005) and Areh (ibid) agree that the 1999 Constitution
adequately articulates the National Interest of the Nigerian nation. This
national interest is properly spelt out in Chapter II of the Constitution,
under Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy.
This chapter outlines the following important things:
i) The fundamental obligations of Government

ii) The Government and the people of Nigeria
iii) Political objectives
40
iv) Economic objectives

v) Social objectives
vi) Educational objectives
vii) Foreign policy objectives
viii) Environmental objectives
ix) Directive on Nigerian culture
x) Obligation of the mass media
xi) National ethics
xii) Duties of the citizen.
Nor should National Interest be confused with national Security, which

has come to be seen as the use of the instruments of coercion to contain
threats to peace in every part of the nation state. This is also known as
the protection of the territorial integrity.
Comment on the saying in diplomacy that relations may change but

national interests may not change.
3.3 Public Interest
The public interest is any event, issue or development which in the

judgement of the working press, deserves to be brought to the attention
and knowledge of the media audience. Indeed, any significant thing a
public officer or public figure does, or fails to do, is of public interest.
The traditional journalistic maxim is that any person who accepts a
public office has lost his privacy, that is, the right to be left alone
(Akinfeleye, 2005). Such a person has become a “customer” of the
newsmen and must be monitored and made accountable to the people.
At the same time, the monitors must ensure that whatever they report
about the public officer is of public interest. This calls for integrity on
the part of the monitors and strict adherence to the professional code of
conduct and legal boundaries.
Why is it necessary for the monitors of public interest to have integrity?
4.0 CONCLUSION
According to Momoh (2005), “there can be no greater thing in the

national interest for those who govern to do so to secure the welfare and
safety of the citizens”. And how this can be done is settled in Chapter
Two of the Constitution that documents the Fundamental Objectives and
41
Directive Principles of State Policy. Those entrusted with the duty of

serving the national interest must be monitored. There is a popular
saying that a gold fish has no hiding place. It is for this reason that those
in the public limelight, either as public officers or public figures are
constantly being monitored by the mass media of every society. Indeed,
what such people do or fail to do, have serious implications for the
society.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we focussed on public officers, defined who a public officer

is, and presented a comprehensive list of all those recognized as public
officers in the Federation of Nigeria. The list may differ for other
societies, but the common idea is that public officers are paid by the tax
payers to perform specific duties for the state. Public figures may not be
paid by the state as such, but they are in the public consciousness always
because they are celebrities. Many are role models whose actions or
inactions may have serious implications for the society.
We also discussed what the national interest is. It is the aspirations and
goals of the nation, as articulated by the government at any time. In fact,
governments exist to pursue the national interest. Such national goals
are usually captured in the nation’s constitution, national anthem, and
pledge, and publicized so that the nationals will know them and work
towards achieving them.
Furthermore, in this unit, we saw what the public interest is, and why the
mass media are always interested in them. In fact, the public interest is
the driving force of news. It is what the media conceive as the public
interest that they report as news.
6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
We learn from history that sometimes the government’s conception of

the national interest is at variance with those of other important
stakeholders such as the press and civil society. Prescribe what should
be done at such times.
Akinfeleye, R.A.(2005). “Journalistic Integrity in Political and

Economic Reporting”, A paper presented at the Nigerian Press
Council National Workshop on “Reporting Politics and the
Economy – the Responsibility of the Mass Media”, at The
Peninsula Resort, Km. 25, Lagos – Epe Express way, Aja, Lagos
State, from October 18 – 21, 2005.
42
Areh, K. (2005). “National Interest and the Media”, A paper presented

at the Nigerian Press Council National Workshop on “Reporting
Politics and the Economy–the Responsibility of the Mass
Media”, at The Peninsula Resort, Km. 25, Lagos – Epe Express
way, Aja, Lagos State, from October 18 – 21, 2005.
1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Momoh, T. (2004). Nigerian Media Laws and Ethics, Lagos: Efua

Media Associates Ltd.
Momoh, T. (2005). “Role of the Mass Media Sustaining Nigeria’s

Democracy” A paper presented at the Nigerian Press Council
National Workshop on “Reporting Politics and the Economy –
the Responsibility of the Mass Media”, at The Peninsula Resort,
Km. 25, Lagos – Epe Express way, Aja, Lagos State,
from October 18 – 21, 2005
43
UNIT 3 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS ON THE

OBLIGATIONS AND OWNERSHIP OF THE
MASS MEDIA IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is the Media’s Relevance to the Political, Cultural
and Economic Realm?
3.2 What Role does the Nigerian Constitution Assign to the
Media?
3.3 In what Practical ways can the Media Perform this Role?
3.4 What does the Nigerian Constitution say in Respect of
Ownership of the Mass Media?
3.5 Why is a Special Licence Required for Broadcast
Ownership?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be looking at five things:
- The media’s relevance in the political, cultural and economic

realm
- The Constitutional role of the media in Nigeria
- The practical way the media perform that role
- Constitutional provision in respect of media ownership
- Why a special licence is required for broadcast media ownership.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should understand clearly the following:
Why the media are important to the political, cultural and

economic realm
The Constitutional duties of the Nigerian media
The practical ways in which the media perform their
Constitutional duties
What the Nigerian Constitution says about media ownership
44
Why a special licence is required for the establishment of

broadcast media.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is the Media’s Relevance to the Political, Cultural

and Economic Realm?
In the so-called liberal democracies, where the free-market economy

obtains, and government is of the people, by the people and for the
people, the mass media play essentially the same roles. Such roles can
be broken down into political, cultural, economic, and what have you. A
few examples will suffice here.
McQuail (2000) identifies the media’s relevance to the political realm as

follows:
a) They have become an essential element in the process of

democratic politics by providing an arena and channel for wide
debate, for making candidates for office widely known and for
distributing diverse information and opinion.
b) They are now a means of exercising power by virtue of the
relatively privileged access that politicians and agents of
government generally claim from the media as a legitimate right.
Culturally, the media are relevant in the following ways:
a) They constitute a primary source of definitions and images of

social reality and the most ubiquitous expression of shared
identity.
b) They are the largest focus of leisure time and interest, providing
the shared cultural environment for most people and more so than
any other single institution.
At the economic level, the media are relevant for the following reasons.
a) Traditionally they have been a means whereby people with goods

and services to sell can advertise their wares.
b) They are also growing as business enterprises, as media
industries are growing, diversifying and consolidating their
power in the market.
45
3.2 What is the Constitutional Duty of the Nigerian Media?
It is in recognition of these important roles of the media that the

Nigerian Constitution assigns them definite roles, the only non-
governmental institution to be so recognized. Hence, the 1999
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, in Chapter 2, under the
Fundamental Objectives and Principles of State Policy directs that: “the
State shall abolish all corrupt practices and abuse of power”. Then,
Section 22 of the same Chapter assigns duties to the mass media, that is,
newspapers, magazines, radio, television etc, to monitor government and
make government accountable to the Nigerian people and uphold the
objectives of the state.
It states: “The Press, radio, television and other agencies of the mass
media shall at all times be free to uphold the fundamental objectives
contained in Chapter two and uphold the responsibility and
accountability of the government to the people.”
The fundamental objectives of the Nigerian state, as contained in the

above-mentioned section of the Constitution, have been listed in this
study.
By this constitutional provision, Akinfeleye (2005) explains that the

press is not given the power to try public officers on the pages of the
newspapers and magazines, or on radio and television, but rather, that of
monitoring and making the public officers accountable to the people.
3.3 In what Specific Ways Can The Press Perform This

Constitutional Duty?
Traditionally, the press performs the function in the following ways:
1. Reporting what goes on routinely in government circles, with a view

to alerting the citizens when something goes wrong. This is called
the surveillance or watch dog function.
2. Commenting on the significant issues and developments with a view
to explaining, analysing or criticising them. In this way bad policies
and undesirable developments are nipped in the bud.
3. Exposing wrong doings in government circles through investigative
and special reporting, features and opinion articles.
4. Interviews and discussion programmes in the print and electronic
media, whereby knowledgeable personalities and advocates of
desirable ideas and programmes can express their views and canvass
support.
46
5. Providing the avenues whereby people can send feedback to

government, through letters to the editor, and interactive
programmes on radio and television.
Identify other practical ways in which the media can perform their
Constitutional duty of monitoring government and making it
accountable to the Nigerian people.
3.4 Constitutional Provision in Respect of Ownership of the

Mass Media in Nigeria
While Section 39 (1) of the 1999 constitution provides for freedom of

expression, as we have already seen, subsection (2) grants the freedom
to own, establish and operate any mass media. However, the same
subsection 2 states that ownership of the electronic media, that is radio,
and television shall be by a special licence from the president.
This means that while you can establish a print medium, that is
newspaper or magazine, without any special presidential permit, such a
permit is required for the establishment of radio and television stations.
The question then is: why does one require a special licence to own and
operate radio and television stations but none to own and publish
newspaper and magazines?.
3.5 Why is Special Licensing Required for Broadcasting?
The following factors may be responsible for why special licence is

required to own and operate the electronic media:
1. The broadcast spectrum belongs to all Nigerians. To operate a radio

or television station one requires to be allocated frequencies.
Government controls and allocates frequencies on behalf of all
Nigerians. If frequencies are not controlled and allocated by central
authority, there will be confusion in the atmosphere.
2. Governments the world over earn revenue from the allocation of
broadcast frequencies and the frequencies used by other wireless
technologies. such as GSM Government needs these revenues for the
provision of social services.
3. Government regulates public broadcasting to ensure that it is used
responsibly in the interest of the people. In the absence of regulation,
some unscrupulous persons may misuse the media and endanger the
public good.
47
4. Government regulates broadcasting, also to ensure that the media

conform to the fundamental objectives of the state. In Chapter Two
of the Nigerian Constitution under the Fundamental Objectives and
Directive Principles of State Policy, the objectives of the Nigerian
nation are articulated. These are the guiding principles of the
Nigerian State which every government must endeavour to achieve.
Since broadcasting is a very powerful tool, it stands to reason that if
proper care is not taken to regulate broadcasting, these lofty ideals of
the state may be undermined.
But does it mean that the print media operate without any controls
whatsoever? Not exactly. All mass media operate within the laws which
government makes to ensure orderliness in the society. As has been
pointed out many times before, such laws include libel, defamation,
sedition, copyright, plagiarism, contempt of court and others.
Find out and discuss how broadcasting is regulated in any of the

advanced countries such as Britain and the United States.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see that the Nigerian Constitution recognizes the important
roles the mass media can play in the society and accordingly assigns
them special duties. The media are the only institution outside the three
arms of government that is so recognized by the Constitution. Therefore,
to whom much is given much is expected. It behoves media
professionals to live up to the high responsibility expected of them.
They can do this by, first of all, knowing these Constitutional duties, and
then, adhering strictly to the ethics of their profession in the
performance of their duties.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the media’s relevance to the political,

cultural and economic realm, as identified by McQuail (2000). Even
more importantly, we looked at the duties assigned to the media by the
Nigerian Constitution (1999). We discussed the practical ways in which
the media have been performing this Constitutional duty.
Furthermore, we looked at the Constitutional provisions in respect of

ownership of the broadcast media. Lastly, we pointed out why a special
licence is required for the establishment of the broadcast media but not
for the other media.
48
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
Discuss the problems which usually face the Nigerian media in the
performance of their Constitutional obligations, and suggest how these
obstacles can be overcome, for the benefit of the society.

McQuail, D. (2000). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory, 4th

Edition, London: Sage
49
MODULE 3 THE UNIVERSAL PRESS LAWS
Unit 1 Defamation and its essentials

Unit 2 Classes of Defamation: Slander and Libel
Unit 3 Defences to Defamation
Unit 4 Sedition
UNIT 1 DEFAMATION AND ITS ESSENTIALS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Defamation
3.2 What is Criminal Defamation?
3.3 What is the Purpose of the Law of Defamation?
3.4 Who are “Right-thinking Members of Society?
3.2 What are the Essentials of Defamation?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor - Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, four things will be focused upon:
- The meanings of Defamation

- The essentials of Defamation
- The meaning of Criminal Defamation
- The purpose of the law of Defamation
- What is meant by “Right-thinking members of the society”
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Know what is defamation

Define what Criminal Defamation means
Understand the purpose of the law of Defamation
Understand what is meant by “Right –thinking members of
society.”
Know the essentials of Defamation
50
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Defamation?
Defamation can be defined as the transmission to a third party, either

orally or in writing, of information which tends to damage the reputation
of another person. It is the publication of a statement, which exposes a
person to hatred, ridicule, contempt and/or causes him to be shunned or
avoided by right thinking members of society.
Experts (e.g Ewelukwa, 2004: 209; Malemi 1999:74, etc) are all agreed
that for a statement to be defamatory of a person, that statement must be
false and calculated to:
(a) Lower him in the estimation of right-thinking men; or

(b) Cause him to be shunned or avoided, or
(c) Expose him to hatred, contempt or ridicule, or
(d) Conveys an imputation on him disparaging or injurious to him in
his office, profession, calling, trade or business.
(e) Injures his financial credit
Similarly, the Penal Code states in Section 391, under Defamation, as

follows:
Whoever by words either spoken or reproduced by mechanical means or

intended to be read or signs or by representations, makes or publishes
any imputation concerning any person, intending to harm the reputation
of such person, is said … to defame that person.
3.2 What is Criminal Defamation?
Defamation can be at once a civil as well as a criminal act. Indeed both

the Criminal and Penal Codes have provisions on defamation. Section
373 of the Criminal Code defines Defamatory matter as matter likely to
injure the reputation of any person in his profession or trade. Even a
dead person can be defamed, according to both codes.
Section 375 of the Criminal code stipulates that any person who
publishes any defamatory matter is guilty of a misdemeanor and is liable
on conviction to imprisonment, fore knowledge that the offending
matter is false attracts imprisonment for two years.
Section 376 states:
Any person who publishes, or threatens to publish, or offers to abstain

from publishing, or offers to prevent the publication of defamatory
51
matter, with intent to extort money or other property or with intent to

induce any person to give, confer, procure or attempt to procure, to
upon, or for any person, any property or benefit of any.
Similarly, the Penal Code stipulates in Section 392, that “Whoever

defames another shall be punished with imprisonment for a term, which
may extend to two years or with fine or with both”
3.3 What is the Purpose of the Law of Defamation?
The purpose of the law of defamation is to protect the reputation of

people resulting from injurious statements, or acts by others. It is
concerned with safeguarding the plaintiff’s interest in the good opinion
which other people hold of him. For this reason, both the Criminal and
Penal Codes emphasizes that the offending publication must not be
false. (In due course, we shall see that truth is a strong defence to
defamation). And should any injury be established in the person’s
reputation, office, trade or profession, such injury must be compensated.
However, if the plaintiff has no reputation in respect of what is said,

then the law cannot protect him and he will not be entitled to any
redress. For example, if the person has been expelled from school for
certificate forgery, it will not be defamatory to call him a “bloody liar”
or “rogue’.
3.4 Who Are “Right – thinking Members of Society?”
Of course, an important condition for the establishment of defamation is

that the statement should be such that lowers the plaintiff in the
estimation of right – thinking members of the society generally. This
means that if a member of the plaintiff’s social club testifies that the
plaintiff’s estimation has been reduced in his own estimation or that of
their club member, it is not enough to establish defamation. Thus, a
section of the community does not amount to the general public.
According to Malemi (1999:76), the Supreme Court had ruled in
Egbuna V Amalgamated Press of Nigeria Ltd,that in finding out the
standard of the right – thinking members of society the court usually
does not include:
on the one hand, persons who are so lax or so cynical that they
would think none the worse of a man whatever was imputed to
him, and on the other hand, those who are censories as to regard
even trivial accusations (if they were true) as lowering another’s
reputation, or who are so hasty as to infer the worst meaning
from any ambiguous statement…. The ordinary citizen … is
neither usually suspicious or usually naïve, and he does not
52
always interpret the meaning of words as would a lawyer, for he

is not inhibited by a knowledge of the rules of construction.
By excluding the two extremes of the naïve and those who may be too
sensitive, the Supreme Court seems to have arrived at the general public
as constituting right – thinking members of society.
3.5 What are the Essentials of Defamation?
The following points must be proved for an action of defamation to

succeed in court.
1. Publication
The offending statement must have been published. Publication means

that the statement was communicated to a third party, other than the
plaintiff.
The writing of a libelous matter or the speaking of a slanderous matter

to only the plaintiff does not amount to publication. For example, if you
receive a letter from a jilted lover in which she thoroughly abused you,
but there is no proof that she copied the letter to any other person, you
cannot sustain an action of defamation against her. However, the
plaintiff must give the name of that third party in court as evidence that
the offending matter was actually published.
Furthermore, communication of defamatory matter by husband to wife

and vice versa, does not amount to publication since they are regarded
as one person, for that practical purpose.
2. Malice
Another essential ingredient of defamation is that the offending

statement must have a malicious intent. Malice is evil motive or spite.
If the plaintiff can prove the existence of a malicious intention, the
defence of fair comment by the defendant will be defeated.
3. Damage
Damage is quantifiable loss as a result of the defamation. In a situation

where the defamatory statement is not actionable per se on mere
publication, the plaintiff must prove some special or actual damage to
succeed in his claim.
53
4. Repetition
Though it is not an essential condition for defamation, every repetition

of a defamatory statement in writing, orally or in any other form,
amounts to a fresh publication. And this may create a fresh cause of
legal action.
Repetition and dissemination of defamatory matter may necessitate the

suing of the printer, publisher, author and vendor news agent, in the case
of books, newspapers and magazines.
This is as far as the theory goes. But in practice, vendors are rarely
joined in any action of defamation, as the law views their involvement
leniently, regarding them as innocent disseminators. However, should a
vendor be joined in an action, he can easily be let off the hook if he can
show that he did not know that the matter he is circulating is libelous
and that his ignorance is not due to negligence on his part.
3.3 What is Innuendo?
Innuendo is where defamation occurs, not by the natural meanings of the

words used, but by some kind of inference or connotation. If a plaintiff
alleges innuendo, then he must establish that the particular meaning of
the word used refers to him and can be understood as such.
There are two kinds of innuendo: true (legal) innuendo and false
(popular) innuendo. It is a mere academic exercise trying to distinguish
between true and false innuendo, since in either case the court would
require the plaintiff to prove that the matter complained about was to his
discredit. (Ewelukwa, 2004:218).
3.4 What is Unintentional Defamation?
A person who suffers defamation through any publication can sue and
collect whether or not the offensive matter as intended to ridicule him.
If an author creates a fictitious character in a fictional book or film and it
defames a real person whom the author never knew existed, the real
person can bring an action.
According to Ewelukwa (Ibid), it is to forestall this kind of situation,

which could cause hardship for writers and publishers of fiction, that the
law of defamation has been amended in many countries, including
Nigeria. The change allows for the publication of a reasonable
correction and apology in the case of unintentional defamation. This is
to forestall litigation and the eventual award of damages.
54
Assent to Publication
If a person assents to a publication either expressly or impliedly, then he

has no case if some people now interpret that publication to be negative
of him. It is more so if the ordinary meaning of the published matter is
not derogatory.
Why is the protection of one’s reputation so important in a free society?
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see why it is essential for journalists to understand the essence
of the law of defamation, and be properly guided in their day to day
official activities and even in their private lives. Ignorance of the law has
never been and can never be a defence. In the Colonial era many well
meaning but ignorant nationalist-journalists were jailed because they
were ignorant of the law of defamation and how to escape it. The law of
Defamation is to protect the reputation of persons from undue injury.
You can also see that it is not sufficient to institute an action of

defamation.; the plaintiff must prove the essentials of defamation
discussed in the unit for the action to succeed.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have defined and explained what defamation means in

law. We have seen the explanation of criminal defamation as well as the
purpose of the law of defamation itself. We have also looked at the
essentials of defamation. They include publication, malice, damage and
repetition. Any of these can sustain a case of defamation. They are all
explained in the unit. We also saw the definition and explanation of
innuendo. We also we defined and explained what constitutes
unintentional defamation.
Lastly, we have also seen that an indispensable condition for the

establishment of defamation is that the statement should be such that
lowers the plaintiff in the estimation of right thinking members of the
society. We then saw the definition of the expression “right thinking
members of the society,” from a Supreme Court pronouncement.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. Find out from your own village what constituted the law of
defamation before the advent of English law to Nigeria.
55
2. Find out from the editor of a newspaper and the news editor of a
radio or television stations how they have handled any cases of
unintentional defamation in the past.
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READINGS

Maranatha Press Ltd

56
UNIT 2 CLASSES OF DEFAMATION: LIBEL AND

SLANDER
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Libel?
3.2 What is Slander?
3.3 What is Vulgar Abuse?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, three things will be covered:
- The definition of Libel

- The definition of Slander
- The definition of Vulgar abuse
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to :
Demonstrate what libel means

Explain meaning and instances of slander
Define and explain what vulgar abuse means
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Libel?
Much as the 1999 Constitution provides for freedom of expression in

Section 39 (1) and the freedom to own the media for the expression of
ideas in 39 (ii), it also provides for the protection of the right of the
individual and national security. In section 45, the constitution
provides:
Nothing in section 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41 of this Constitution

shall invalidate any law that is reasonably justifiable in a
democratic society –
57
(a) in the interest of defence, public safety, public order,

public morality or public health; or
(b) for the purpose of protecting the rights and freedom of

other persons.
Momoh (2004: 116) identifies a person’s reputation as one of the

protections he enjoys as per the above constitutional provision. Any
attempt to reduce a person’s reputation in the eyes of those who know
him is a violation of his right to his good name. If the offending
statement is in a permanent form, he is said to have been libeled.
Definition of Libel
Thus, Ewelukwa (2004:212) defines libel as defamation by means of

writing or by any other permanent form such as video tapes, pictures,
was work, effigy etc.
Malemi (1999:77) also defines libel as a defamatory statement made in a

visible or permanent form such as written or printed statements as in
books, newspapers, notes, circular, letter, or by way of effigy,
caricature, painting, photograph, film, radio, and television broadcasts,
any recorded audio – visual material and so forth.
Furthermore, citing the case of Union Bank of Nigeria V R.Oreden &

Anor, Ewelukwa identifies the following as the conditions for libel.
(a) The publication must be in writing

(b) The publication must be false
(c) The publication must be published to some other person aside
from the plaintiff and the defendant.
(d) The publication must refer to the plaintiff and must be
defamatory of him.
(e) The publication must be by the defendant.
3.2 What is Slander?
Slander is defamation through the spoken word or gesture. It is not

generally actionable upon mere publication. However, there are
instances where slander could be actionable per se, that is, without proof
of special damage.
They include:
58
1. Allegation of a criminal offence punishable with imprisonment,

such as theft, rape etc.
2. Imputation or allegation of a contagious disease which may
necessitate the exclusion of the suffer from other members of
society e.g. AIDS, leprosy etc.
3. Allegation of unchastely against a young woman.
4. Imputation of incompetence or unfitness against a workman,
which can injure him in his trade, office, trade or profession.
3.3 What is Vulgar Abuse?
It has been pointed out by lawyers that many otherwise slanderous

statements may be dismissed by the court as mere vulgar abuse. If there
is a hot exchange of abusive words between two persons, as is often the
case in the Lagos traffic, can an aggrieved party sue and claim damages
slander?
Experts say that the court will examine the particular circumstances
under which the offensive words were spoken. The court will not
dismiss the offence as mere vulgar abuse where the words spoken
alleges specific acts of wrong doing or a crime which will lead to the
person being shunned by the public or being arrested by the law
enforcement agents. For example, if a person is falsely accused of being
a cocaine pusher which leads to his being arrested and detained by the
police, it will not be dismissed as mere vulgar abuse.
Go to the archives, find and summarize three celebrated libel cases

involving Nigerian newspapers.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see that the freedom of expression which is a fundamental

human right, and expressly guaranteed by the constitutions of free
societies, is by no means an absolute privilege. The law of libel imposes
one notable limitation to unbridled freedom of expression, aimed at
protecting the reputation of persons.
You can also see that many of those abuses traded in the street may pass
as vulgar abuse, while others indeed are quite capable of attracting
actions of slander. A wise man should therefore exercise restraint when
he talks no matter the degree of provocation.
59
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the classes of defamation, that is, libel
and slander. The difference between libel and slander is basically that,
while libel is in a permanent form, slander is not. We looked the
definitions and conditions for the occurrence of both libel and slander.
Lastly, we saw what constitutes mere vulgar abuse and who determines
whether a particular case can pass as mere vulgar abuse or can be
considered as slander.
Interview an experienced legal practitioner and ask him to comment on

the particular challenges of establishing a case of libel in court.

Maranatha Press Ltd

60
UNIT 3 DEFENCES TO DEFAMATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What are the Defences to Defamation?
3.2 What are the Remedies for Defamation?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor -Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, two things will be focused upon:
- The Defences to Defamation

- The Remedies for Defamation
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to know:
The Defences to Defamation

The Remedies for Defamation
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What are the Defences to Defamation?
We shall now consider eight defences to defamation open to journalists,

authors, publicists, publishers, etc.
They are:
1. Justification or truth
2. Fair comment
3. Privilege
4. Consent to Publication
5. Death of the Plaintiff
6. Res Judicata
7. Accord and satisfaction
8. Innocent dissemination
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1. Justification or truth
If the publication complained about is true, entirely or even

substantially, it can form a solid defence to defamation. But the onus is
on the defendant who pleads justification to prove that the publication is
true.
2. Fair Comment
It is also a defence against defamation if the defendant can prove that the
publication complained about is a fair comment made in the interest of
the public. Indeed, since the constitution charges the press to make
government accountable and uphold the fundamental objectives of the
Nigerian state, it follows that fair comment made in respect of any
public officer or public figure on any matter of public interest can form a
defence against an action for defamation.
Ewelukwa (2004:224) insists that for a comment to be “fair comment” it

must satisfy the following conditions.
1. The matter commented on must be of public interest.

2. The matter commented on must be an expression of opinion by
the defendant and not an assertion of fact by him.
3. The comment on the plaintiff must be fair.
Indeed, the beauty of fair comment is that if a commentator expresses an

honest opinion on a matter of public interest, it does not even matter if
the opinion is wrong in that it will bring the subject of the comment to
public ridicule, it is still a solid defence against an action of defamation.
3. Privilege
Privilege means a benefit or immunity enjoyed by someone or a class of

people which does not apply to the general public. In communication,
privilege is the freedom enjoyed in certain circumstances whereby
statements can be made without the bogey of an action of defamation.
As a defence against defamation privilege is in two kinds: absolute and
qualified privilege.
(a) Absolute Privilege
Absolute privilege is the unhindered liberty to make statements

orally or in written form to the extent that anyone who feels that
he has been defamed by the statement cannot seek redress in a
law court, nor can the court entertain such as action. This is
regardless of whether the statement is false and/or malicious.
62
Those who enjoy absolute privilege in the courts of their official

duties include the Head of State, governors, High Court judges,
magistrates, even lawyers and witnesses, legislators. Thus no
action can be brought against any of the above mentioned if they
defame any one in the course of their official duties. Also,
communication between husband and wife enjoys absolute
privilege.
(b) Qualified Privilege
There is qualified privilege to make defamatory statements when

the person who makes it has a duty, legal, social or moral, to
make it and the person to whom it is made has a duty, legal,
social or moral, to receive it. However, the statement must have
been made honestly and without malice. For, malice defeats
privilege.
Qualified Privileges of Newspapers
Ewelukwa (2004:228) writes that in the defamation laws of many states

in Nigeria newspaper reports enjoy qualified privilege if they satisfy the
following criteria.
(a) They are fair and accurate reports of legislative proceedings.
(b) They are fair and accurate reports of the public proceedings of the
conference of an international organization of which Nigeria or
any of its states is a member.
(c) They are fair and accurate reports of any public proceedings of an
international court.
(d) They are fair and accurate reports of any proceedings in public of
a body or person appointed to hold a public enquiry by the
government or legislature of any part of the Commonwealth
outside Nigeria.
(e) They are fair accurate reports of any reports of any proceedings
before a court exercising jurisdiction throughout any part of the
Commonwealth outside Nigeria under the Nigerian Army Act
1990 or the Nigerian Navy Act, 1990.
(f) They are fair and accurate copies or extracts from any register
kept in pursuance of any law or Act which is open to inspection
by the public or any other document which is required by any law
or Act to be open to inspection by the public.
63
(g) Notice of advertisement published by or on the authority of a

court within Nigeria or office of such court.
4. Consent to Publication
If a person willingly invites the press to cover his function or he grants

an interview on his own volition, then the press can plead consent if the
person turns round to bring an action of defamation. However, if the
publication goes beyond the limit of the initial approval, there may be
grounds for an action.
5. Death of the Plaintiff
If the person allegedly defamed is dead, it will be difficult to sustain the

action because reputation is a personal possession and only the owner of
the reputation can sue for it.
6. Res Judicata
If a case of defamation has been tried, lost and won, it will be a waste of
time to file a fresh action on the same matter. Res judicata is to say that
the case has come to a logical end and had died a natural death.
7. Accord and Satisfaction
It shall be a defence to defamation if there is a mutual settlement

between the two parties to the satisfaction of both of them.
8. Innocent Dissemination
The person circulating the offensive matter can plead that he is ignorant
of what he is disseminating and should therefore be excluded from any
legal action. The plaintiff and the court usually exonerates this category
of persons especially in view of the fact that they cannot pay any
damages should the case be awarded against them.
3.2 Remedies for Defamation
If a case of defamation has been established and accepted by the court,

then the plaintiff is entitled to one or a combination of the following
remedies.
(a) Damages
(b) Injunction, which may be interim, interlocutory or perpetual.
(c) Publication of retraction or correction
(d) Publication of apology and offer of amends.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Without these defences against defamation the task of journalists and

other public affairs commentators would have been a very dangerous
one indeed. But the law has provided adequate defences to protect all
those with honest and genuine intentions in the discharge of their duties.
It behooves the responsible journalist to carefully consider the defences
available in each case before making an incisive commentary of public
interest.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the eight defences against defamation.

They are: justification, fair comment, privilege, consent, and death of
plaintiff. Others are Res judicata, accord and innocent dissemination.
We also considered the remedies for defamation, which include

damages, injunction, retraction and apology.
Interview an experienced newspaper editor for his/her comments on

how his/her newspaper has ever applied any of the defences to
defamation to its advantage.

Maranatha Press Ltd
65
UNIT 4 SEDITION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Sedition?
3.2 What are the Important Aspects of Sedition?
3.3 Is the Law of Sedition Still Relevant?
3.4 What is the Constitutional Basis of the Law of Sedition?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, three things will be looked into:
- The definitions of Sedition

- The important things to know about Sedition
- The Constitutional basis of the law of Sedition
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define and explain what Sedition is

Know the important aspects of Sedition
Understand the Constitutional basis of the law of Sedition
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Sedition?
One of the first laws the British Colonial Administration enacted to

check the rising wave of criticism at that time was the Seditious
Offences Ordinance of 1909. When the Criminal Code was adopted in
1916. Sedition occupied a prominent place in it and has ever since been
part of our statutes (Momoh, 2004:17).
Accordingly, Section 50 (1) of the Criminal Code (applicable to

Southern Nigeria) defines a seditious publication as a publication having
66
a seditious intention. And Section 50 (2) defines seditious intention as

an intention
(a) To bring into hatred or contempt or to excite disaffection against

the person of the Head of the Federal Government, the Governor
of a state or the government or constitutions of Nigeria or a state
as by law established or against the administration of justice in
Nigeria; or
(b) To excite Nigerians to attempt to procure the alteration, otherwise

than by lawful means, or any other matter in Nigeria as by law
established; or
(c) To raise discontent or disaffection among the inhabitants of

Nigeria; or
(d) To promote feelings or ill-will and hostility between different

classes of the population of Nigeria.
Sedition Defined
From the above statutory provisions, sedition can be defined as any

statement or representation which has the intention to stir up treason,
defame the person of the head of state or governor of a state or incite
one section of the population against another.
3.2 Important Aspects of the Law of Sedition
The student must understand the following aspects of the law of

sedition, outlined by Malemi (1999:59)
(a) Seditious Conspiracy

(b) Seditious Libel
(c) Seditious Speech
(d) Who may be convicted for sedition?
(e) Is the law of sedition still relevant?
(f) Constitutional basis of the law of sedition.
(a) Seditious Conspiracy
This is the agreement or plan by two or more persons to

overthrow or put down by unlawful means or to destroy by force
the government of the country or state.
(b) Seditious Libel
67
This is any communication in written or any other permanent

form, which has the intention to incite people to change the
government by unlawful means or which advocates the
overthrow of the government by force or which advocates the
destruction of the state.
(c) Seditious Speech
This is any speech which advocates the overthrow of the

government or its destruction by force.
(d) Who may be convicted for Sedition?
Section 51 of the Criminal Code makes the following persons

liable for sedition:
Anyone who does a seditious act or takes part in the

preparation or conspires with others to commit
sedition or utters seditious words. Also liable are
printers, publishers, distributors, vendors,
reproducers and importers of seditious publications.
(e) Is the Law of Sedition still relevant in the Present Democratic

Dispensation?
It has been noted that the law of sedition was one of the first
press laws enacted by the British Colonial administration in the
Protectorate of Southern Nigeria to check rising press criticism.
Many journalists and nationalists of that era were, as a result,
jailed and newspapers heavily fined. On the attainment of
independence, therefore, the nationalists had expected that such
obnoxious laws would be expunged from the statutes.
Indeed, some progressive judges had ruled that such laws had no
place in an independent Nigeria. But 46 years after, the law still
occupies a prominent place in the statutes.
Those against the retention of the law of sedition point out that it
denies people their fundamental human rights of free expression,
vitiates the right to criticize government and denies the people
their right to self determination. They argue further that the law
of sedition could be misused by a dictator to overreach himself,
thereby retarding the growth of democracy and development.
But those who support the retention of the law of sedition present
a counter argument. They argue that the law of sedition is aimed
68
at protecting the government and its institutions which are

established by law to serve the Nigerian people. Without such a
law, acts of treason, such as incitement to riots, destruction of
public property and enthronement of anarchy could be
perpetrated by lawless people to the detriment of the state. While
arguing that the right to free expression is not absolute, they insist
that such rights impose a corresponding duty on the citizens to
respect constituted authority and stay within the provisions of the
law.
An attempt to balance the two arguments brings one to a middle

of the road conclusion, namely, that I will not be in the interest of
the state to abolish altogether the law of sedition. However,
government must exercise utmost restraint in the enforcement of
such laws in order to accommodate the genuine desire of the
people for good government and self-determination.
3.3 Constitutional Basis of the Law of Sedition
The Constitutional basis for the law of sedition in Nigeria is section 4 of

the 1999 constitution which states:
Nothing in Sections 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41 of this

Constitution shall invalidate any law that is reasonably
justifiable in a democratic society –
(a) in the interest of defence, public safety, public order, public

morality or public health; or
(b) for the purpose of protecting the rights and freedom of other
persons.
This shows that the intention of the law of Sedition is to preserve public
order and to protect the citizens of Nigeria against the result of riots,
disorder and other consequences of a violent overthrow of the
government.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In the past Nigerian journalists, public commentators and human rights

activists paid a huge price going in and out of detention, under the law
of Sedition. Perhaps, that was the price that had to be paid for a free
society. Indeed, the lesson from all societies of the world throughout the
ages is that no price is too much to be paid for liberty.
69
Nevertheless, it pays to understand the law of the land so as to avoid

costly and unnecessary altercations with the powers that be. That is why
journalists and other public affairs commentators should know the
nuances of the law of Sedition in order to perform their duties more
safely.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the law of Sedition and the important
aspects of Sedition itself. We also discussed the relevance of such a law
in the current democratic dispensation and reviewed the arguments for
and against retaining the law in a democracy. Lastly, we also looked at
the Constitutional bases of the law of Sedition.
Compare and contrast the enforcement of the law of Sedition during the
military era and during a democratic era in Nigeria.
The Criminal Code (Laws of Southern Nigeria)
Malemi, E, (1999). Mass Media Law: Cases and Materials, Lagos:

Momoh, T, (2002). Nigerian Media Law and Ethics, Lagos: Efua Media
Associates.
70
MODULE 4 COPYRIGHT, CONTEMPT AND THE

ISSUE OF NATIONAL SECURITY
Unit 1 Copyright: Piracy and Plagiarism

Unit 2 Contempt of Court and Contempt of Parliament
Unit 3 National Security and the Nigerian media
Unit 4 The Official Secrets Act
UNIT 1 COPYRIGHT: PIRACY AND PLAGIARISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Copyright?
3.2 What Works are Eligible for Copyright?
3.3 What is the Duration of Copyright?
3.4 What are the Remedies for Copyright Violation?
3.5 What is Piracy?
3.6 What is Plagiarism?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit four things will be focused upon:
- The meaning and purpose of the law of Copyright

- Works eligible for Copyright
- The duration of Copyright
- The remedies for Copyright
- The meaning of Piracy
- The meaning of Plagiarism
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define and explain what Copyright is all about

Know the kind of works eligible for Copyright violation
Know the duration of Copyright and what is “fair use”
Know the remedies for Copyright
71
Know the meaning of Piracy

Know the meaning of Plagiarism
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Copyright?
Copyright is the right which the law gives an author or other originator
of an intellectual production whereby he is invested with the sole and
exclusive privilege of reproducing and selling copies of his work. It is
usually expressed in warnings like the example below in books and
phonographic recordings:
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced

in a retrievalsystem or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording or
otherwise without the prior written permission of the
publisher/author.
The essence of the law of Copyright is to protect intellectual property

from being reproduced and sold by unauthorized persons, so that the
owner of the work can enjoy the fruit of his labour. But the advance in
technology is making it increasingly difficult to enforce copyright laws.
This is because hundreds of thousands of copies of books and
phonographic materials of all kinds can now be easily reproduced by
pirates, thanks to the ubiquitous photocopying machines and
audio/visual recorders.
Piracy has assumed a worrisome dimension in the developing countries

where poverty and the get-rich –quick syndrome, coupled with poor law
enforcement, have combined to provide fertile ground for such vices. In
schools and universities indigent students photocopy whole books for
their use, even where such materials are available and affordable. Also,
at the ubiquitous road side markets in the cities it is common to find
poor quality reproductions of recommended text books on sale at rock
bottom prices – the fruit of piracy.
In Nigeria the widespread violation of copyright, especially in the music

industry, led to the enactment of the Copyright Act of 1990. This was to
strengthen the existing Copyright Act of 1970. Section 14 (1) of the
1990 Copyright Act states as follows:
Copyright is infringed by any person who, without the licence or

authorization of the owner of the copyright:
72
a) Does or causes any other person to do an act, the doing of which

is controlled by copyright.
b) imports into Nigeria, otherwise for his private or domestic use,
any article in respect of which copyright is infringed under
paragraph (a) of this subsection;
c) exhibits in public any article in respect of which copyright is
infringed under paragraph (a) of this subsection.
d) Distributes by way of trade, offers for sale, hires or otherwise or
for any purpose prejudicial o the owner of the copyright. Any
article in respect of which copyright is infringed under paragraph
(a) of the section;
e) Makes or has in his possession, plates, master-tapes, machines,
equipment or contrivances used for the purpose of making
infringed copies of the work;
f) Permits a place of public entertainment or of business to be used
for a performance in the public of the work, where the
performance constitutes an infringement of copyright in the work,
unless the person permitting the place to be so used was not
aware, and had no reasonable ground for suspecting that the
performance would be an infringement of the copyright;
g) Performs or causes to be performed for the purposes of trade or
business or as supporting facility to a trade or business, any work
in which copyright subsists.
3.2 Works Eligible for Copyright in Nigeria
Malemi (1999: 136) lists the following works as those eligible for
copyright violation in Nigeria:
a) Literary works
b) Musical works
c) Artistic works
d) Cinematographic works
e) Sound recording
f) Broadcast
a) Literary works
They include writings such as novels, stories, poetry, plays, film,

broadcasts and teleplays, text books, biographies, essays, articles,
etc
b) Musical works
Included here are all kinds of musical works, whether

accompanied by lyrics or instrumental.
73
c) Artistic works
Such as paintings, drawings, etchings, lithographs, woodcuts,

engravings, prints, maps, plans, diagrams, sculptures,
photographs, etc.
d) Cinematograph films
Films of all sorts, whether or not they can be shown as moving

pictures.
e) Sound recording
Any sound recording that can be perceived aurally.
f) Broadcast
All broadcasts via radio, television, satellite, cable, or

rebroadcasts.
However, some kinds of works do not enjoy copyright. They

include but are not limited to: letters to the editor, advertisements
and titles. Also, according to Malemi, “copyright protection does
not exist in respect of any idea, thought, fact, concept, principle,
discovery, process, procedure, system or method of operation, no
matter the form in which it is expressed, illustrated or embodied
in a work.”
3.3 Duration of Copyright and Fair Usage
The Copyright Act stipulates that the duration of copyright depends on

the nature of the work in question. For literary, musical and artistic
works, the copyright lasts for the lifetime of the author, plus 70 years
after his death. However, for cinematograph films, photographs, sound
recordings and broadcasts, the copyright lasts for 50 years from the end
of the calendar year in which the work was first published or broadcast.
“Fair usage” or “fair dealing” is an exception to copyright control,

whereby the work is not reproduced for commercial purposes but a few
copies are made for private use, study or research.
3.4 The Remedies for Copyright
The remedies for copyright violation as contained in the Copyright Act

are:
74
a) Damages
b) Injunction
c) Accounts
d) Delivery up
a) Damages are the compensation which may be recovered in the

courts by any person who has suffered loss or damage.
b) Injunction is a court order requiring a party to a dispute to do or

refrain from doing something. In the case of copyright violation,
it is handed down to the pirate to stop further selling or using of
the work in question.
c) Account in this sense is the assessment of the gains which

accrued to the violator of copyright from the work.
d) Delivery up means that the court orders the copyright infringer to

give up all the pirated work still in his possession
Find out from the officials of Performing Musicians Association of

Nigeria (PMAN) about the efforts the association has made so far to
curb piracy of their members’ works and the difficulties they are facing
in combating piracy in the West African sub region.
3.5 What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism is the unethical practice of lifting information (news,

statistics, ideas, passages, etc.) from existing materials and presenting it
as if it originated from the writer.. The chief plagiarizers are students at
all levels. Frequently they “dub” copiously from books, journals,
newspapers and magazines without attributing their sources. Plagiarism
is a very serious offence in the academia, punishable by removal from
the job whenever proved beyond reasonable doubt.
Newsmen and women also commit plagiarism when they lift ideas from
books and other media without attribution. But it is in the best interest of
journalists and their mass media to acknowledge their sources, because
if the story lifted turns out to be false, the blame will first go to the
original source. Besides, since the game of the media is to be the first to
come out with the news, those who go to great extents to achieve that
feat should be accorded their deserved credit, in the interest of fairness.
Therefore, when reporters obtain statistics from documents to beef up

their reports, it is only proper that they should indicate the source.
75
Hence, Article 13 of the 1998 Code of Ethics for Nigerian Journalists,

under Plagiarism, states: “A journalist should not copy, wholesale or in
part, other people’s work without attribution and/or consent”
Why is plagiarism considered a serious offence in the academia?

Discuss.
3.6 What is Piracy?
Piracy is the illegal reprinting or reproduction of another person’s work

which is under copyright. Both plagiarism and piracy are subsumed
under copyright, but differ in the sense that, by common application,
piracy refers to the large scale reproduction of the material for
commercial purposes, while plagiarism is lifting another person’s ideas
without attribution, and purporting same to have originated from you.
(See “Fair usage” under 3.3 above)
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see that every successful author and every originator of a
successful musical production in Nigeria would have been much happier
than they are, but for the nefarious activities of copyright violators
whose stock in trade is to continue reaping where they did not sow. You
can also see that the law has provided adequate safeguards against
copyright. Alas, if only the law can be adequately enforced! So
copyright infringement goes on, and the owners of intellectual property
continue to lose. When will it end?
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the meaning of copyright and the havoc
copyright violations wreak on intellectual proprietary. We also
discussed the kinds of works that can be copyrighted, including books,
art works, photographs, films, architectural drawings, etc.
We also discussed the duration of copyright and what can be considered

as fair usage of another person’s work. Lastly, we also saw the remedies
for copyright, which include damages, injunction, account and delivery
up.
76
Compare and contrast the copyright laws on Nigeria and that of the
United States of America.
Copyright Act, 1990

Maranatha Press Ltd

77
UNIT 2 CONTEMPT OF COURT AND CONTEMPT OF

PARLIAMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Contempt of Court?
3.2 Contempt of Court and the Media
3.3 Celebrated Case of Contempt of Court
3.4 What is Contempt of Parliament?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, three things will be focused upon:
- The meaning of contempt of court

- Ways in which journalists commit contempt
- Celebrated case of contempt of court
- The meaning of contempt of parliament
- Ways in which a journalist can commit contempt of parliament
- Whether parliament like the courts can jail a journalist.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Explain what contempt of court means

Know the practical ways in which contempt of court can occur
Be acquainted with one of the most celebrated cases of contempt
in Nigerian journalism
Explain what contempt of parliament means
Know the ways in which a journalist can commit contempt of
parliament
Know why parliament cannot commit a journalist to prison
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
78
3.1 What is Contempt of Court?
The law of contempt is predicated on the absolute necessity to provide

an enabling environment for the courts and the legislature to perform
their constitutional duties without hindrance. In Nigeria the laws that
pertain to contempt of court are the Criminal Code Act, the Penal Code
Act and the Constitution itself.
Section 133 of the Criminal Code states that any person who:
1. Within the premises in which any judicial proceeding is being

heard or taken within the precincts of the same, shows disrespect
in speech or manner, to or with reference to such proceedings,
or any person before whom such proceeding is being heard or
taken; or
2. Having been called upon to give evidence in a judicial

proceeding, fails to attend or, having attended refused within
lawful excuse to answer a question or produce a document or
prevaricates, or remains in the room in which such proceeding is
being heard or taken after the witnesses have been ordered to
leave such room; or
3. Causes an obstruction or disturbance in the course of a judicial

proceeding; or
4. While a judicial proceeding is pending makes use of any speech

or writing misrepresenting such proceeding, or capable of
prejudicing any person in favour of or against any party to such
proceeding, or calculated to lower the authority of any person
before whom such proceeding is being heard or taken; or
5 Publishes a report of the evidence taken in any judicial proceeding

which has been directed to be held in private; or
6 Attempts wrongfully to interfere with or influence a witness in a

judicial proceeding either before or after he has given evidence in
connection with such evidence; or
7 Dismisses a servant because he has given evidence on behalf of a

certain party to a judicial proceeding; or
8 Retakes possession of land from any person who has recently

obtained possession by a writ of court; or
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9. Commits any act of intentional disrespect to any judicial

proceeding, or any person before whom such proceeding is being
had or taken,
Is guilty of a simple offence, and liable to imprisonment for three

months.
Section 6 of the Criminal Code further states:
Nothing in this act or code shall affect the authority of courts of

record to punish a person summarily for the offence commonly
known as contempt of court, provided that a person is not
punished for the same both under the inherent powers of the
court and under the provisions of Section 133 of the Criminal
Code.
Similarly, Section 155 of the Penal Code provides thus:
Whoever intentionally offers any insult or causes any

interruption to any public servant while such a servant is sitting
at any stage of a judicial proceedings shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to six months or
with a fine which may extend to 20 pounds or both.
The 1999 Constitution also provides for contempt of court in Section 39

(3) where it states:
Nothing in this section shall invalidate any law that is reasonably

justifiable in a democratic society: (a) for… maintaining the
authority and independence of courts…
Definition of Contempt
From all the foregoing, contempt of court can be defined as: any act
which is calculated to embarrass, hinder or obstruct court administration
of justice, or which is calculated to lessen its authority or its dignity,
committed by a person who does an act in wilful contravention of its
authority or dignity, or tending to impede or frustrate the administration
of justice or by one who, being under the court’s authority as a party to a
proceeding wilfully disobeys its lawful orders or fails to comply with an
understanding which he has given.
Contempt of court can be in two ways:
a) Contempt in the face of the court (facia curia) otherwise known as

direct contempt; and
80
b) Indirect contempt or ex facia curia. This is contempt committed

outside the court, so to say.
3.2 Ways in which Contempt of Court Can be Committed

by the Journalist
As law-abiding and responsible citizens, journalists are expected to

respect the courts in the course of their official duties. However, in the
past there have been altercations between journalists on the one hand
and judges and magistrates on the other over contempt, occasioned by
the following infringements:
a. Trial by the media, whereby a suspect in a criminal offence is

deemed already guilty by the media even before the trial is over.
This annoys judges and magistrates and often causes them to
invite the journalists involved for tongue lashing and possible
committal to prison if they do not show sufficient remorse.
b. Commenting on a case before the court in a manner that suggests

that those involved will not obtain justice.
c. Showing disrespect to the magistrate or judge right in the court

(in facia curia) , such as making a noise when the court is sitting,
taking photographs in the open court, etc.
3.3 A Celebrated Case of Contempt of Court
A case of contempt of court which readily comes to mind is the

celebrated case of Onagoruwa Vs the State, in which Dr. Olu
Onagoruwa , a columnist with the Daily Times allegedly prejudged a
case before the Anambra State High Court in 1979.The State Chief
Judge trying the case ordered that Onagoruwa be detained in prison until
he purged himself of contempt.
Onagoruwa appealed on the ground that the order for his detention was
unlawful, and that the alleged contempt was ex facia curia, not in facia
curia as argued by the opposing side.
The appeal court ruled that the detention of Dr Onagoruwa for contempt
was indeed improper, as he was not given a fair hearing. More so, the
contempt in question was not in the face of the court but outside the
court. The appeal court upheld the argument that the alleged contempt
was not the publication of the initial article, but rather the refusal of the
appellant to comply with the order of the court that he should make
amends for his initial contempt.
81
The court further made the following landmark statement about

contempt in general:
Contempt committed ex facia curia being words spoken or acts

done outside court which are intended or likely to interfere with
or obstruct the fair administration of justice, a newspaper article
apparently prejudging a trial could clearly be prima facie
contemptuous, but in deciding whether it actually offends the
law, the court should act with caution and restraint and consider
whether the hearing will in fact be grossly affected,
particularly, where the issue concerned is a civil one to be
heard without a jury, but solely by a judge, trained to assess the
evidence fairly and to arrive at conclusion based on that alone.
(Ewelukwa, 2004:151)
Lessons from the Appeal Court’s Ruling
From the Appeal court’s ruling on the Onagoruwa case, one can
understand a few things about contempt of court as it applies to
newspapers:
i) If the newspaper commentary prejudges a case under trial, it will

be prima facie contemptuous of the court.
ii) However, judges are expected to apply that law with caution,
since the newspaper article on its own is not enough to sway the
learned trial judge to depart from the path of justice, especially
when he has before him evidence to consider in deciding the
case. What is more, the judge has received adequate training to
enable him to weigh the evidence before him.
iii) This serves as a lesson to both journalists and judges on the

contentious issue of contempt of court. Some judges seem to be
too sensitive on such matters, to the ridiculous extent that
undermines freedom of expression. Indeed, the old notion that a
case in court cannot be commented upon is a fallacy.
3.4 What is Contempt of Parliament?
Contempt of parliament is any action or word which tends to intimidate

or obstruct members of parliament from performing their lawful duties.
Parliament in present day Nigeria would mean the National Assembly or
the House of Assembly of a State.
The 1999 Constitution accordingly gives the National Assembly and the
State Houses of Assembly the powers to make laws. For example,
Chapter 1, Part II, Sections 4 (i) and (2) state as follows:
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(1) The legislative powers of the Federal Republic of Nigeria shall be

vested in a National Assembly for the federation which shall
consist of a senate and a House of Representatives.
(2) The National Assembly shall have power to make laws for the
peace, order and good government of the Federation or any part
thereof with respect yo any matter included in the Exclusive
Legislative List set out in Part 1 of the Second Schedule of this
Constitution
Furthermore, Section 4 (7) states:
The House of Assembly of a State shall have power to make laws for the
peace, order and good government of the State or any part thereof.
Accordingly, the legislature has the power under the Legislative Houses
Powers and Privileges Act, 1990 to punish any one or institution,
including the media, whose actions or utterances are deemed to be
contemptuous of that legislature. (The Legislative Houses and Privileges
Act defines the powers, privileges and immunities of parliament.)
3.5 In What Ways can a Journalist Show Disrespect To

Parliament?
The mass media as responsible institutions of the society are therefore

expected to respect the immunities, integrity, privileges and rights of the
assembly members. But sometimes conflicts arise. In what instances can
the action of a journalist be deemed to be disrespectful to a legislative
house? Disrespect to parliament can be in the following ways:
a) Misrepresentation of parliamentary proceedings

b) Scandalous publications about parliamentarians
c) Refusal to honour the invitation of the parliament
d) Refusal to correct misrepresentation about parliament or its
leaders, etc.
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3.6 Can Parliament Commit a Journalist to Prison?
Is it possible for parliament to commit a journalist to prison, like the

courts? The answer is of course no, and it has never happened (in
Nigeria, at least). Whenever parliament feels aggrieved over adverse
press reports, it usually reacts in form of reprimand, objections,
warnings and caution. It does not have the power to jail journalists since
it is not a court of law. Moreover, it would not be a judge and prosecutor
in its own case. The theory of separation of powers gives parliament the
role of making laws but leaves the interpretation for the judiciary.
Therefore it would be unconstitutional for parliament to prosecute and
jail a journalist, or any one.
However, parliament can, and indeed, has issued warrants for the arrest
of persons who were summoned by parliament but failed or refused to
show up. Parliament can also withdraw the accreditation of any
journalist who disrespects it. But it has been the custom of parliament to
exercise utmost caution in such matters so as to avoid unnecessary
altercations with the media, since both institutions are partners in
progress.
Find out and summarize another case of contempt of court involving the
Nigerian press.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Contempt of court is aimed at maintaining the sanctity of courts so that

they can adequately discharge their constitutional duty of dispensing
justice. Every responsible citizen is duty bound to respect the courts.
Journalists as responsible citizens cannot do less. You have also seen
that the laws of the land adequately seeks to prevent contempt of
parliament so that the legislative houses can perform their constitutional
obligations without interference. It behoves every journalist as a
responsible citizen to accord parliament its due respect.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the bases of the law of contempt of court
from the Criminal Code, the Penal Code and the Constitution. We also
defined and explained what contempt of court means.
In the unit, it was also pointed out the practical ways a journalist can
violate contempt off court. A celebrated case of contempt was cited as
an example and some lessons were drawn from it.
84
In this unit, we also looked at what constitutes contempt of parliament

and the practical ways in which it can occur. We also answered the
question whether parliament can prosecute and jail a journalist. The
question was answered in the negative.
6.0 TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
Compare and contrast contempt of parliament with contempt of court.

Discuss.
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999
Legislative Houses and Privileges Act, 1990
The Criminal Code (Laws of Southern Nigeria)
The Penal Code (Laws of Northern Nigeria)

Maranatha Press Ltd
85
UNIT 3 NATIONAL SECURITY AND THE MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is National Security?
3.2 What are the Traditional Roles of the Media which Seem
to Undermine National Security?
3.3 What are the Actions of Government which Undermine
National Security?
3.4 What Government must do to Protect National Security?
3.5 What the Media must do to Protect National Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall look at five things:
- The meaning of National Security

- The traditional roles of the media which seem to undermine
National Security
- The actions of the Government which undermine National
Security
- What Government must do to protect National Security
- What the Media must do to protect National Security
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, you should be able to do the following:
Understand the meaning of National Security.

Know the traditional roles of the mass media which seem to
undermine National Security.
Know the excesses of Government which may undermine
National Security.
Know what Government should do to protect National Security.
Know what the Media should do to protect National Security.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
86
3.1 What is National Security?
Imobighe (2001) identifies three models for defining national security.

The first is the narrow military conception, which implies the
assemblage of “a formidable military defence to protect the territorial
integrity of the state from both internal and external violations” .The
second model sees national security as “protection not only from
military threats but also from economic vulnerability, ecological threats
and natural disasters”. The third model for defining national security,
which he terms “a new thinking” among African scholars, considers
national security as:
Freedom from, or elimination of threats not only to the physical

existence of the state, but also to its ability for self – protection
and development, and the enhancement of the general well-
being of all the people.
According to Imobighe (ibid) this is the kind of security which provides

all the inheritance with the “right atmosphere for self-improvement and
actualization”.
In examining the three models of security suggested by Imobighe, one

can easily see that the first model, which is the dominant paradigm, is
the type practiced in most of the African states from pre-colonial times,
but was perfected by the military. The second model is gaining more
and more acceptance, while the third model, at best, is only an ideal
existing in the heads of Africans but as yet, the governments are only
paying lip service to it.
The most ardent proponents of the traditional model of security are the
apologists of military rule. For example, Nigeria’s former Inspector –
General of Police (IGP), Mohammed Gambo (1988 : 102) defines
national security simply as :
Protection of the lives and property of people of various forms

of threat be it internal of external. It is the decision –
making process concerned with the identification of potential
and actual threats, and the mobilization of resources in frame
that promptly ensures the safety and stability of the nation state,
while simultaneously enhancing the promotion of national
development.
Even at that, what obtains in most African states, which attained

perfection during the dark days of military rule is a distorted version of
the traditional model, whereby those in power substitute their individual
security for national security and, consider any challenge to their
87
tenacious grip on power as a threat to national security. Since national

security should occupy the ‘highest priority’, is “non- negotiable” and
does not permit “undue compromise” (Gambo ibid) any individual or
group which poses the slightest threat to the selfish interest of those in
power, is visited with the full might of state coercion. Incidentally, it is
the media and those who use them to vent dissenting views that are
always at the receiving end of this coercion. The history of Nigeria from
the dawn of colonialism to date but especially in the military era, is
replete with instances of such rifts between the media and government
over national security.
3.2 Traditional Roles of the Media which Seem to

Undermine National Security
The following theoretical cum traditional functions and characteristics

of the mass media make them particularly vulnerable to accusations of
national security breaches.
Harold Lasswell (1948) identified three major functions of the media as

surveillance of the environment, correlation of the parts of the society in
responding to the environment and the transmission of social heritage
from one generation to the next. A fourth function, entertainment was
added to this list (Wright, 1986). In performance of these functions the
mass media in Nigeria, like their counterparts in other places, inevitably
step on powerful toes. However, since, as we have pointed out earlier,
the authorities of Nigeria usually equate their personal preservation with
the security of the nation, and there are no special statutory provisions to
protect the media, it is hardly surprising that the media are constantly
being accused of undermining national security.
Another characteristic of the mass media which seems to undermine

national security is the ability of foreign radio, television and of late, the
internet, to cut across national boundaries. Information which the
government would rather prefer the citizens to be ignorant about, is
made available to the general public via those media. Akpan (1988:14)
points out that such split- over signals “can easily threaten a nation’s
culture, integrity or even security”.
Thirdly, commercials brought to the notice of Nigerians by media such

as books, newspapers, magazines, satellite television and the internet are
capable of creating a desire for foreign goods and services, thereby
providing uneven competition to locally produced goods and services.
An avalanche of imported consumer goods into the Nigerian economy
has over the years caused the closure of many local factories, increasing
unemployment and economic crimes. Similarly, according to Akpan
(ibid) the desire for the consumer goods of other countries, can lead to
88
the disruption of national plans for “orderly social and economic

development”.
On the other hand, if the goods and services advertised are desired but
cannot be afforded by the local folks, it may result in what Schramm
referred to as “rising expectations and rising frustration”. Frustration
breeds restiveness in the policy, which often finds expression in
economic crimes sabotage, looting and vandalization of public property
at the least provocation, communal and sectarian clashes and numerous
other negative tendencies which undermine national cohesion and
security
3.3 Government Activities which May Undermine National

Security
In the course of running the affairs of the state, successive Nigerian

governments are guilty of a number of excesses which are hardly
compatible with civilized, let alone, democratic norms. These excesses
of government equally undermine national security, and not even the
most docile press in the world can condone them. They include, but are
not limited to the following which do not require further elaboration
here:
i) Government’s failure to deliver on the social contract.

ii) Deportation of “trouble-makers” and
iii) The usual crude repression of the press and popular dissent.
3.4 What Government must do to Protect National Security
In the first place, government must realize that it is no longer tenable to

interpret national security solely in terms of the preservation or the
perpetuation of the ruling elite. There is a need to redefine national
security in line with overall national interest. The withholding of certain
kinds of information from public knowledge should clearly be seen to be
for the preservation of the nation state, rather than the protection of
those in power.
Moreover, government must realize that official secrecy and censorship

belong to the ages. Modern information and communication technology
(ICT) has rendered them obsolete. Many things government wants to
keep away from the citizens still get to the public through other sources,
such as the internet and satellite television. It is therefore safer for
government to give out correct information about itself to its citizens
rather than allow the foreign media and mischief makers to publish the
distorted versions. A well-informed citizenry will contribute more
positively to democracy and national development than an ill-informed
89
one. Government should therefore cultivate the policy of openness. In

this regard, the Freedom of Information Bill (FOI) currently before the
national assembly should be passed into law to afford the press and the
generality of the citizenry access to official information. This will serve
as a bulwark against ignorance and rumor mongering.
In addition, secrecy or even the best public relations cannot substitute

for good governance. Those in power must deliver on the social
contract, through prudent management of the nation’s resources and
provision of basic amenities to the people. National security is seriously
undermined if the majority of the population are left to wallow in the
Hobessian state of nature, while constantly being shown the good life
being enjoyed by the people in other parts of the world by the foreign
media.
The government should also cultivate the policy of dragging to the press
council or the courts, journalists whose activities are inimical to national
security. This should replace the old practice whereby over-zealous
officials meted out summary punishments to those journalists, thereby
acting as prosecutor and judge in their own case.
3.5 What the Press Should do to Protect National Security
For many reasons, journalists should contribute to and protect national

security. The first reason is that Nigerian journalists, as citizens , owe an
obligation to ensure the nation’s well-being and development. Another
reason is the prominent position of journalistm as the Fourth Estate of
the Realm, constitutionally recognized alongside the Executive, the
Legislature and the Judiciary. It stands to reason that journalist should
work conscientiously to preserve the nation at all cost. Indeed, in the
one-and-a-half centuries history of Nigerian journalism, its professionals
have given a good account of themselves as patriotic and socially
responsible, perhaps even more so than the members of the executive,
the legislature and the judiciary.
Yet, objective analyses of the press performance over the years,

particularly in times of national crises, have found the Nigerian press
guilty of “undue misrepresentations and overt partisanship”(Ibelema :
2003 :197). And this is the excuse autocratic leaders have cited for press
repression. Ibeleme(ibid)gives the following account:
After accusing “some section of our press” of disseminating a

“great deal of misinformation”, Abacha asserted that
“government would not shirk her responsibility to protect “the
rights of her citizens”.
90
Ibelema is also right in pointing out that by citing “the right of the
citizens” Abacha was only speaking tongue in check, being concerned
rather with his own self-preservation. But the press had fetched the ant-
infested faggots that invited the lizards, to use an Achebe idiom.
Against the above background, the first advice one can give the Nigerian
press on the protection of national security is therefore that they should
come to equity with clean hands, being faithful to their code of ethics.
Truth, as a cardinal journalistic principle, should be preserved at all
costs. Press partisanship should also be eschewed in the spirit of social
responsibility. Journalists should rise above primordial sentiments such
as ethnic emotionalism, religious bigotry and selfish interest in the
handling of public affairs especially when the security of the country is
involved. It is usually assumed that the average Nigerian journalist is
well grounded in the relevant laws and ethical codes governing his
profession.
But at a national workshop on curriculum development held in

Abeokuta, Ogun State in November, 2003, it was generally observed
that many Nigerian journalists are ignorant of the laws and ethics of
their profession. Accordingly, the Workshop recommended that
appropriate steps be taken in the training institutions to ensure that the
students know and apply the necessary laws and ethics.
Journalists must offer constructive criticism at all times and avoid undue
sensationalism especially on matters of national security. Moreover,
media professionals should aim at the production of high quality media
content as a bulwark against the invasion of foreign media content with
their adverse consequences for the nation’s culture industries and
security.
Cite and discuss10 historical instances of Government – Media

altercations over National Security in Nigeria since Independence.
4.0 CONCLUSION
National Security is of utmost importance to every country and no

responsible government can afford to be negligent about it and watch
the security of its nation being trifled with. At the same time, it must be
stressed that it is the duty of all patriotic citizens and institutions to
partner with the government in the protection of national security. The
mass media as a patriotic institution must join hands with government to
protect national security for the benefit of all the citizens, including even
those who are yet unborn.
91
Therefore, as partners in progress, the Nigerian government and the

media must conform to certain acceptable universal practices, such as
taking one another into confidence at all times, and resisting the
temptation to act as prosecutor and judge in their own court when issues
of national security concern arise from time to time.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have looked at three definitions of national security

offered by an expert.
But the definition that best captures the legitimate aspirations of most
modern nation states is the third definition which defines national
security as: “Freedom from, or elimination of threats, not only to the
physical existence of the state, but also to its ability for self-protection
and development, and the enhancement of the general well-being of all
the people.”
We also looked at the traditional functions of the mass media which

seem to undermine national security. We then saw some excesses of
government which also undermine national security. Lastly, we
discussed the measures which government and the media must adopt as
partners in progress, for the protection of national security.
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
Interview a senior police or military officer for his/her views on why

government is often impatient with the media over national security.
Akpan, E. (1988). “Television and National Security” in R. Akinfeleye

(ed) Contemporary Issues in Mass Media for Development and
National Security, Lagos: Unimedia Publications Ltd.
Gambo, M. (1988). ‘Mass Media and National Security” in Akinfeleye

(ibid)
Ibelema, M. (2003) “The Nigerian Press and June 12: Pressure and
Performance During a Political Crisis”, Journalism
Communication Monographs, Vol. 4 (4), Winter 2003
Lasswell, H. (1992). “The Structure of Communication in Society” in

Mass Communication, 2nd Edition, W, Schramm (Ed), Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 117
92
Imobighe, I. (2001). cited in Akindele, R.A. and B. Ate, Beyond

Conflict Resolution: Managing African Security in the 21st
Century, Ibadan: Vantage Publishers and NIIA.
93
UNIT 4 THE OFFICIAL SECRETS ACT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is the Official Secrets Act?
3.2 What Other Laws Seek to Protect Government Secrets?
3.3 What is the Relationship Between the Official Secrets Act
and the Freedom of Information Bill?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be looking at three things:
- The essence and purpose of the Official Secrets Act of 1962

- Other laws which seek to protect government secrets
- The relationship between the Official Secrets Act and the
Freedom of Information Bill
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
Know the essence and purpose of the Official Secrets Act Know
the other laws which seek to protect government secrets
Understand the relationship between the Official Secrets Act and
the Freedom of Information Bill
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is the Essence and Purpose of the Official Secrets

Act?
The Official Secrets Act, which was enacted in Nigeria in 1962, seeks to
prevent the disclosure to the public of any material which government
considers as classified matter. The Act defines classified matter as:
Any information or any thing which under any system of

security classification, from time to time in use by any branch
94
of the government, is not to be disclosed to the public , and of

which the disclosure to the public would be prejudicial to the
security of Nigeria
From the above, it can be seen that the essence of the Official Secrets
Act is to protect national security. For, indeed, given the volatile nature
of the Nigerian polity, trouble can easily start if certain kinds of
information are freely released to the general public. Public officers are
by the Official Secrets Act barred from disclosing such sensitive
material to the general public.
The Act accordingly defines a public officer as “a person who exercises

or formerly exercised for the purpose of the government the functions of
any office or employment under the state.” Thus, all public officers,
including those in the pure civil service and those in other government
agencies such as the military, police, judiciary, legislature, universities,
etc, are barred from disclosing classified matter, whether they are still in
service or have disengaged from service in whatever manner.
The Official Secrets Act also criminalizes spying, espionage and

sabotage of the nation’s strategic military and other security
installations.
3.2 What other Laws Seek to Protect Government Secrets?
Apart from the Official Secrets Act, there are other laws in Nigeria
which seek to protect government secrets for security reasons. They
include: the Criminal Code Act; the Penal Code Act; The Evidence Act
and the Constitution itself. For example, the Criminal Code Act provides
in Section 97 (1) that:
Any person who being employed in the public service,

communicates fact which comes to his knowledge by virtue
of his office, and which is his duty to keep secret or by any
document which comes to his possession, except to some
person to whom he is bound to publish or communicate, is
guilty of a misdemeanor and is liable to imprisonment for two
years.
Also the 1999 Constitution states in Section 39 (3) that:
Nothing in this section shall invalidate any law that is

reasonably justifiable, in a democratic society (a) for the
purpose of preventing the disclosure of information received
in confidence, maintain9ing the authority and independence
of courts or regulating telephony, wireless broadcasting,
95
television or the exhibition of cinematograph films; or (b)

imposing restrictions upon persons holding office under the
Government of the Federation or of a State, members of the
armed forces of the Federation or members of the Nigerian
Police Force or other Government security services or
agencies established by law.
3.3 The Official Secrets Act and the Freedom of Information

Bill
On Wednesday November 15, 2006 the Senate of the Federal Republic

of Nigeria finally passed the Freedom of Information Bill and forwarded
to the President for his assent, which would make the bill a law. As at
the time of writing this material, it is legally not a law until the President
signs it. This was a whole year after the House of Representatives had
passed the bill. Before its historic passage, the bill was in the National
Assembly for more than six years
The title of the bill, though quite lengthy, deserves spelling out in full, as
it explains everything that the bill seeks to achieve. The title is:
A Bill for an Act to make public records and information more freely
available, provide for public access to public records and information,
project public records and information to the extent consistent with
public interest and the protection of personal privacy, protect
serving public officers from adverse
consequences of disclosing certain kinds of official information
without authorization and establish procedures for the
achievementofthesepurposesandrelatedpurposesthereof,2006
Consequently, Section 1 of the Freedom of Information Bill states:
Subject to the provisions of this Act, but notwithstanding

anything contained in any other act, law or regulation, every
citizen of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, has a legally
enforceable right to , and shall, on application be given access
to any record under the control of a government or public
institution.
From the above, we can say that the Freedom of Information Bill has the
following merits:
i) It will provide access to public information or records kept by

government, public institutions and even private organizations
carrying out public functions for Nigerians and even non-
Nigerians resident in the country.
96
ii) With more information available to the citizens, they can

participate more meaningfully in the governance of the country,
in the making of laws and formulation of government policies.
iii) It will promote greater accountability on the part of public

officers. This is probably the most important benefit of the bill
given the penchant of public officers to be secretive with
information. Hitherto such secretiveness had encouraged
corruption and the looting of public funds without detection.
iv) What is more, the bill provides that public officers who destroy
information in their custody will be imprisoned.
From all indications therefore, the Freedom of Information Bill if+

finally given the assent by the President will have amended the Official
Secrets Act of 1962 and 1970, thereby making information more easily
available while still protecting information whose disclosure will
jeopardize national security. By this bill Nigeria has made a significant
progress in the march to an enduring democracy and sustainable
development.
Compare and contrast the Freedom of Information Bill being proposed

for Nigeria and that of the United States of America.
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is expected that when the Freedom of Information Bill finally

becomes law that journalism practice will be less problematic and safer
in Nigeria. But the greatest beneficiaries will be the Nigerian people
who can now be better informed about the activities of government.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the essence and purpose of the Official
Secrets Act of 1962 and 1990.We have also seen the other laws which
seek to protect government secrets. Lastly, we discussed the relationship
between the Official Secrets Act and the Freedom of Information Bill
which was passed by the House of Representatives and the Senate, but
as at the end of April 2007 was still awaiting Presidential assent to
become law.
6.0 TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGMENTS
97
Discuss in detail the importance of free access to information in a

democracy.
The Official Secrets Act of 1962
The Official Secrets Act of 1990
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999
The Criminal Code Act
The Penal Code Act
MODULE 5 THE CANONS OF JOURNALISM
98
Unit 1 Truth and Fairness

Unit 2 Objectivity and Integrity
Unit 3 Other Canons: Independence, Responsibility, and
Accuracy
UNIT 1 TRUTH AND FAIRNESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What do we Mean by Canons of Journalism?
3.2 What is Truth?
3.3 Publishable and Un-publishable Truths
3.4 What is Fairness?
3.5 What are the Practical Ways of Achieving Fairness
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we are looking at Truth as a cardinal journalistic principle,

or canon of journalism. We shall also see the kinds of truths that are
publishable and those that are not normally published in the mass media.
But before we set out to do that, it is necessary to understand what we
mean by canons of journalism.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Understand what journalistic canons mean.

Define and explain the philosophical concept of truth.
Know the publishable and un-publishable truths.
Define and explain fairness
Know the practical ways of ensuring fairness
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
99
3.1 What Are the Canons of Journalism?
By canons of journalism we mean the fundamental principles on which

journalism is built. They are the ethical lights which guide the
journalistic enterprise. Those entering the profession are advised to be
committed to these principles and observe them religiously at all times.
In fact, a good journalist is judged by the extent of his commitment to
these ideals. And it is for this reason that all journalistic codes are based
on them. They are Truth, Objectivity, Fairness, Accuracy,
Independence, Responsibility etc.
3.2 What is Truth?
Truth is a philosophical concept which has been defined in many ways.

A well-known definition of truth is that it is the objective reality which
corresponds with that reality. (The New Caxton Encyclopedia, Vol. 18,
1969: 5764). However, this definition may be faulted by arguing that
objective reality itself is elusive.
Another definition of truth is that it is a network of coherent statements.

Thus, a statement is considered as true if it coherent with true statements
(Ibid). Again, this approach may be faulted on the ground that there are
different kinds of truth and different systems of coherent statements,
which may not be consistent with one another.
The third approach to the definition of truth is the pragmatic model,

which sees truth as “what works”. But, again, the problem with this
approach is that what works in one situation may not work in another.
Even in the absence of any water-tight definition of truth, yet there is a

general understanding of what truth means. You can call it the common
sense approach. The ordinary meaning of truth is the absence of
falsehood or lies. A lie on its part, is the deliberate misrepresentation of
reality in order to deceive. Truth abhors misrepresentations. A half-truth
is a lie, for all practical purposes.
A journalist is committed to telling the truth. But, how can he achieve

this? Okunna (1995: 41) explains that this has to do with the publication
of factual information. At best, this is just one way of ensuring truth.
However, we know from practical journalistic experience that factual
information may not necessarily be the truth. Let us illustrate as follows.
Suppose that as a reporter you obtain a scoop that there was a fire at a
factory. But before you got there some of the damaged items have been
evacuated from the building. You are not allowed into the building to
see the extent of damage. The Public Relations Officer of the company
addresses a press conference later to admit that, indeed, there was a fire
100
but not much damage was done. But an inside anonymous source
informs the reporter that much damage had actually been done by the
fire, and that indeed, lives were lost.
If the reporter goes ahead and writes what the P.R.O told him, he would
be reporting the fact. But is that the truth? In this case, the fact as given
by the P.R.O is only a tip of the iceberg. The truth is the entire iceberg.
Indeed, the fact as handed out to the media is often not the truth. Only
independent and free inquiry can produce the truth. But then, not all
truths can be published. This leads us to the next section on publishable
and un-publishable truths.
3.3 Publishable and Un-publishable Truths
3.3.1 Publishable Truths
It has been pointed out above that not all truths are publishable. The
truth to publish must be “fit to print”, as it were. In other words, it must
satisfy the following conditions:
(i) It must be of public interest. In module 2 we defined public

interest as any event, issue or development which, in the
judgment of the working press, deserves to be brought to the
knowledge of the mass audience.
(ii) It must not undermine national security. A good journalist must
be patriotic enough to protect the security, unity and progress of
this nation.
(iii) It must not offend good taste and public morality.
It must be added here that the decision as to what satisfies the above
considerations may differ from editor to editor. But it is the thrust of the
social responsibility theory of the press that truth at all cost will not
augur well for any society, but that the mass media must render certain
obligations to the society.
3.3.2 Un-publishable Truths
On the other hand, un-publishable truths are truths that are not of public
interest. For example, the fact that this writer ate bread with sardine this
morning is his private affair and not of public interest. If the writer is a
newsman, he would not have to “inflict” the information on the readers
since it is of no use to them.
101
Another example of un-publishable truth is truth that undermines

national security, or national cohesion or truth that may be considered
blasphemous by any religious group
Much has already been said about national security. Regarding

blasphemy, we know that people generally get emotional about their
religion and many riots have been caused by religious groups who
claimed that their religions had been blasphemed by the mass media.
Traditional journalism counsels that newsman should exercise utmost
caution when writing about the 3Rs, to wit, Race, Religion and Region.
Of course, texts and images that are vulgar or obscene should not be
published even if they are true. These are just a few of un-publishable
truths. Otherwise, the truths to be published and those not to be
published are generally dictated by the conventions of each mass
medium, and journalists become acquainted with them as they make
progress in the profession.
Interview the editor of two Nigerian newspapers and ask them to

comment on instances when they restrained themselves from publishing
what they know was the truth, for whatever reason.
3.4. What is Fairness?
In the ordinary sense, fairness means treating all persons or sides equally
and according to the rules and law. In this course text, we have already
discussed fair comment in the unit on the Defences to Defamation. Since
the mass media are powerful tools of public information and
enlightenment, those who operate them must exercise utmost caution to
ensure that all persons or sides are treated equally and according to the
acceptable standards.
Journalists should present the news fairly and impartially, placing value
on significance and relevance. In fact, it is for this reason that there was
a fairness doctrine in the broadcast industry in the United States of
America, which has now been abolished.
In Nigeria, the National Broadcasting Code (1993) equally provides in

2:2.3, under Accuracy, Objectivity and Fairness, that:
(a) All sides to any issue of public interest shall be adequately

presented to ensure fairness.
(b) The right of any reply shall be guaranteed to any claim to
misrepresentation.
102
3.4 Practical Ways of Ensuring Fairness
Fairness can be ensured in the following practical ways.
(a) The mass media should not publish unofficial charges affecting
reputation or moral character without an opportunity given to the
accused to be heard.
(b) The media should make prompt and complete correction of their
own mistakes of facts or opinion, whatever their origin.
The Radio-TV News Directors Association of the United States
of America has the following practical guidelines:
The media must treat all subjects of news coverage with respect
and show particular compassion to victims of crime and tragedy.
The media must exercise care when children are involved in a

story and give children greater privacy than adults.
The media must seek to understand the diversity of the

community and inform the public without bias or stereotype.
Present a diversity of expressions, opinions, and ideas in context.
The media should present analytical reporting based on

professional perspective, not personal bias.
The media must respect the right to a fair trial.
(c) We can also borrow a leaf or two from the Washington Post’s
Code of Ethics as it concerns fairness.
- No story is fair if it omits facts of major importance or

significance. Fairness includes completeness.
- No story is fair if it includes essentially irrelevant
information at the expense of significant facts. Fairness
includes relevance.
- No story is fair if it consciously or unconsciously misleads
or even deceives the reader. Fairness includes honesty-
leveling with the reader.
- No story is fair if reporters hide their biases or emotions
behind such subtly pejorative words as “refused”,
“despite”, “quietly”, “admit”, and “massive”. Fairness
requires straightforwardness.
103
Take any edition of any Nigerian daily newspaper and discuss the issue
of fairness with reference to the treatment of stories in that edition.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The need to seek truth in all fields of human endeavour was the thrust of
the Libertarian movement which took place in the 18th century. In
journalism no one can forget the contributions of philosophers like John
Milton in this regard. But with time it was realized that publishing truth
at all cost would be to the detriment of the society. In other words,
freedom to seek and publish the truth must be accompanied by
responsibility to know where to apply the brake. It is for that reason that
there are publishable and un-publishable truths.
It behooves the responsible journalist to know what to do at any time,

bearing in mind the need to give the best to society. Moreover,
concerning fairness, a Nigerian adage says “if a child is treated the way
other children are treated, he will feel good”. And the popular English
adage says that what is sauce for the goose is also sauce for the gander.
These proverbs underline the importance of fairness and balance in
different cultures. In journalism, which seeks to serve the general public
interest, the need for fairness cannot be over emphasized. It is even more
so when you consider the fact that the media are powerful tools which
can do a lot of damage if directed unfairly at a person or group.
Journalists are therefore enjoined to follow the practical ways of

ensuring fairness which the news media from time to time prescribe for
their operatives
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit so far, you have learnt that:
Canons of Journalism are the fundamental principles on which

journalism practice is built.
That truth is a cardinal journalistic principle.
That the ordinary meaning of truth is the total absence of falsehood
or lies.
That a journalist should be committed to telling the truth always.
That there are publishable and unpublishable truths.
That fairness is also a cardinal principle of journalism.
Lastly, we saw the practical ways of ensuring fairness adapted from
several codes of professionals ethics.
104
1. Write an essay on the philosophical concept of truth and discuss

its relevance to journalism.
2. Discuss the importance of fairness as a journalistic canon and
assess the extent the Nigerian media ensure fairness in the daily
operations.
Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of the Radio-Television News

DirectorAssociation:
wysiwyg://82/http://www.rtnda.org/ethics/coe.shtml.
Ethics in the Media: A Presentation by the Public Affairs Section, U.S

Consulate General, Lagos. (2003) .3
National Broadcasting Commission (1993). National Broadcasting

Code

Generation Books, 41.
The New Caxton Encyclopedia, p 5764
105
UNIT 2 OBJECTIVITY AND INTEGRITY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Objectivity?
3.2 Can Objectivity be Achieved?
3.3 What are the Obstacles to Objectivity?
3.4 What is Integrity?
3.5 How Can Integrity be Maintained?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor - marked assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we are looking at objectivity as a canon of journalism. We

shall also discuss the factors that may constitute stumbling blocks in the
way of objectivity, that is, after we have answered the question whether
objectivity can be achieved.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you are expected to do the

following:
Define objectivity in journalism.

Know the obstacles to objectivity which you must endeavour to
overcome.
Know what journalistic integrity means
Understand how integrity can be maintained
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Objectivity: What it Means
Objectivity is the state of being objective. To be objective means not

influenced by personal feelings or opinions, that is to say, fair.
In the original journalistic sense objectivity required that the journalist

kept himself out of his report by not injecting his emotion, personal
opinion and bias into the news report. But this is very difficult, if not
106
impossible. Since journalists may be required to offer interpretation and

explanation of the issues they write about, they may consciously or
unconsciously inject their own personal opinions and understanding of
the issue. In fact, if the mass media should pursue objectivity at all cost,
the media audience will be short- changed.
In the current practical sense, therefore, objectivity means presenting all

sides of an issue fairly, honestly and impartially, and allowing the
audience to judge. This is easier said than done.
3.2 Can Objectivity be Achieved?
Objectivity is the spirit of scientific inquiry. Thus those in the physical

sciences say that the object of scientific inquiry is the “external objective
reality” and not subjective beliefs and values. Objectivity to the scientist
means that knowledge is obtained through a rigorous observation of
events or phenomena, from an external objective reality.
But to what extent can objectivity be achieved when the subject of

analysis is human beings and human affairs, even journalism? In other
words, is objectivity possible in journalism? Donald McDonald, a
journalism professor and former editor illuminates the discussion with
the following long statement:
When the reporter moves from relatively uncomplicated,

concret, even physical phenomena into the realm of the abstract
and the complex, - i.e., studies, conferences, programmes,
policies on urban affairs, race and ethnic relations, foreign and
military affairs, economic and fiscal conditions, the
administration of criminal justice, cultural ferment, youth
unrest, population problems, environmental issues, politics and
government, - the value judgments he must take at every
critical stage in his investigation of the facts must reflect the
values he already holds. Again, these values flow from his
personal history. They are the products of his education, his
religious experience, his childhood, family life, social and
economic background, friendships and associations, national
ties and culture, as well as his emotional life and experiences
and his reason.
The question then arises:
Can journalists rise above natural allegiance to their nation, to their race,
to their region, to their religion, to their beliefs, and report the realities
unescorted by partisan euphemism? Your guess is as good as mine. We
shall next see the traditional obstacles to objectivity in journalism.
107
3.3 Obstacles to Objectivity
Journalistic objectivity can be hindered by any of the following factors:
(i) Limited space

(ii) Laziness on the part of the reporter
(iii) Lack of openness on the part of one party to a controversy.
(iv) Conflict of interest
(v) Advertiser pressure
(vi) Government pressure
We shall now discuss these factors one by one.
i) Limited space
In all mass media, reporters and editors do not have the space to include
all the materials they would want to include always. This is particularly
so in newspapers where limited space often results in the abridging of
stories during make up. On radio and television also, the anchor must
abridge a statement as soon as he receives the signal that the programme
must come to an end.
So, the abrupt end of a story or a narration for space constraints may
result in the inability to present all sides of an issue fairly and equally,
thus undermining objectivity.
(ii) Laziness of the reporter
If a reporter is not resourceful enough, he may not take enough pain to

obtain all the sides of a controversy. Objectivity suffers thereby.
(iii) Lack of openness of the news source
Some news sources would not open up to the reporter for one reason or
the other. A lady in a divorce suit, a jilted lover, a fired employee, or the
victim of an ugly incident such as robbery, fraud, rape etc. may find it
difficult to talk to the press. And this robs the reporter of the ability to
present the facts objectively.
Lack of openness can also be in the form of secrecy on the part of

government officials or the management of corporate bodies who want
to hide something from the press. Suppose there is a trade dispute, you
hear the view of the workers but management refuses to open up. How
can you ensure objectivity in the presentation of the facts?
108
(iv) Conflict of interest
Conflict of interest ranges from accepting gifts and travel junkets to

political involvement and all forms of divided loyalty. If a journalist’s
conscience has been compromised in any way, it is impossible for him
to maintain objectivity either as a reporter, editor, or programme
presenter on radio and television, or as a producer or even a contributor.
(v) Editorial control
Editorial policy is what a medium decides to publish and how it

publishes it. Aspects of policy may be written down but most aspects are
not written. In that case, matters are treated as they arise, but the final
say rests with the publisher. If the owner of the medium has a vested
interest in an issue, it is difficult for that medium to be objective when it
concerns that issue. The popular saying is that he who pays the piper
calls the tune.
Every working journalist knows that editorial control is an inevitable

evil that he has to put up with. The advice of the veterans is to resist it
subtly, but quit if it becomes unbearable.
(vi) Advertiser control
Since a substantial amount of media revenue comes from advertising it

follows that pressure from advertisers is also a fact of life. There is no
doubt that such pressures affect the effort of the media to present all
sides of an issue fairly and balanced.
(vii) Government pressure
Pressure from government can come in form of written and unwritten

laws. National security must be protected at all cost and government
policies sold to the citizens. For this reason government is usually
inpatient with the media when they do not show sufficient understanding
and sympathy with government position. But the argument of the media
is that if they should become too understanding of government position,
they would abdicate their responsibility to the people.
For the media to discharge their constitutional obligation to monitor

government and make it accountable to the people, they must resist all
attempts to make the media the lapdogs of the government. The media
must maintain objectivity by presenting all sides of an issue fairly and
equitably.
109
Compare and contrast NTA news and Channels TV news in terms of

objectivity. What is responsible for each organization’s objectivity
rating?
3.4 What is Journalistic Integrity?
Integrity means being in a state of wholeness, uprightness, honesty or

purity. The age-long saying that “Integrity maketh a man” must have
been coined to underscore the importance of that virtue in the life of
every individual .What then is professional integrity? Akinfeleye (2005)
explains that to be upright in ones profession “is to be truthful and never
careless or reckless in the discharge of ones duties”
Integrity naturally earns societal respect while the opposite of it would

attract disrespect and scorn from those with whom one interacts.
Akinfeleye (ibid) argues that every worthwhile profession must have
integrity to maintain its relevance to the society it serves, adding that
professional integrity is derived from the philosophical foundation of the
professional code of ethics for and by the profession itself.
Consequently, Akinfeleye concludes that journalistic integrity is a
derivation of the journalistic code of ethics.
Without integrity Nigerian journalists cannot effectively discharge their

constitutional duty of monitoring government, making it accountable to
the people and upholding the fundamental objectives of the Nigerian
state. What then are the practical ways of ensuring integrity?
3.5 Guidelines for Maintaining Journalistic Integrity
Rich (1999) suggests that journalistic integrity should start by

satisfactorily answering the following questions:
i) Does the journalist understand the nature, value and the changing
concept of news?
ii) Does he know how to obtain story ideas, collect information,
write and present the news?
iii) Does he understand story structures, style and the use of
language?
iv) Does he understand media issues such as accuracy, conciseness,
coherence, clarity and simplicity?
v) Does he know media ethics?
vi) Does he avoid misinformation, disinformation, half-truths,
falsehood and deception?
110
vii) How would he feel if the story or photo were about him or any
member of his family?
viii) What are the key issues in the story?
ix) Has he demonstrated positive social responsibility in the story?
x) What are the likely positive or negative consequences of the
publication on our politics and economy?
xi) Are there alternatives? Has the journalist put enough concepts of
objectivity, fairness, accuracy and balance into the story?
xii) Will the journalist be able to clearly and honestly explain his new
peg and decision to anyone upon publication of the story?
xiii) Do the news values conflict with monetary benefits?
xiv) Is the entire story in line with the journalist’s professional code of
ethics?
xv) Are the gender differences being explained without bias?
Furthermore, the Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct of the Radio-

Television News Directors Association of the United States of America
provides the following guide to journalistic integrity: Professional
electronic journalists should:
- Identify sources whenever possible. Confidential sources should

be used only when it is clearly in the public interest to gather or
convey important information or when a person providing
information might be harmed. Journalists should keep all
commitments to protect a confidential source.
- Clearly label opinion and commentary
- Guard against extended coverage of events or individuals that fail
to significantly advance a story, place the event in context, or add
to the public knowledge.
- Refrain from contacting participants in violent situations while
the situation is in progress.
- Use technological tools with skill and thoroughness, avoid
techniques that skew facts, distort reality, or sensationalize
events.
- Use surreptitious newsgathering techniques, including hidden
cameras or microphones, only if there is no other way to obtain
stories of significant public importance and only if the technique
is explained to the audience.
- Disseminate the private transmission of other news organizations
only with permission.
Professional electronic journalists should not:
- Pay news sources who have a vested interest in a story

- Accept gifts, favours, or compensation from those who might
seek to influence coverage.
111
- Engage in activities that may compromise their integrity or

independence.
Compare Nigerian journalists with other professionals, say accountants,

or lawyers, on the virtue of integrity. Discuss.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Objectivity is easier said than achieved. But one good thing about
journalism is that the media are constantly under the appraisal of a
watchful public. Objectivity in journalism pays the medium which
religiously observes it. But if a medium is in the habit of presenting one-
sided reports, then the citizens must look elsewhere for objective reports
at critical moments when the correct position of things must be known.
It is not for nothing that many Nigerians cannot do without listening to

the BBC, VOA, CNN, and other reputable foreign media. These media
have over the years earned a reputation for presenting facts accurately
and objectively. At the same time, government media such as NTA and
FRCN suffer credibility problem whenever they try to present news
which is not favourable to the government of the day. In such situations
their lack of objectivity affects their credibility.
It is therefore in the interest of both the individual journalist and his

organization that news should be presented as objectively as possible.
Furthermore, integrity maketh a man. Children are trained from the

cradle to be people of integrity. This is to forestall the ugly
consequences of growing up into men and women without integrity.
Jesus specifically admonished his followers: “Let your yes be yes and
your no be no.” There are similar moral admonitions in all the other
religions. For a profession like journalism which seeks to be the
conscience of the society the question of integrity is even more crucial.
Those aspiring to become journalists should therefore address the issue
of integrity seriously.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we explained the meaning of objectivity in journalism

parlance. In practical terms objectivity requires that all sides of an issue
are presented fairly, honestly, and impartially. We also saw McDonald’s
discourse as to whether objectivity can be achieved.
Then we listed and explained seven common obstacles to objectivity.
112
In this unit we also looked at the ordinary meaning of integrity and then
what is journalistic integrity. We then listed the questions which Carole
Rich suggests must be answered by prospective journalists as a guide.
1. Expand McDonald’s argument on whether objectivity can be

achieved, using the Nigerian experience.
2. Why should a journalist be of high integrity? Discuss

Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct , Radio-Television News

Directors Association of the United States of America:
wysiwyg://82/http://www.rtnda.org/ethic/coe.shtml
Ethics in the Media: A Presentation by the Public Affairs Section, U.S

Consulate General, Lagos. (2003).
Rich, C. (1999). Writing and Reporting, New York: Wadsworth

Publishing Co.
McDonald, D. (1978). “Is Objectivity Possible” in E .Denis, A. Ismach,

and D. Gillmor (Eds) Enduring Issues in Mass Communication,
New York: West Publishing Company

Generation Books
113
UNIT 3 OTHER JOURNALISTIC CANONS:

INDEPENDENCE, RESPONSIBILITY AND
ACCURACY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is Journalistic Independence?
3.2 What is Responsibility in Journalism?
3.3 What does Accuracy Entail?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be looking at the other journalistic canons, to wit,

independence, responsibility and accuracy. We shall explain what they
mean, why they are important and practical ways of achieving them.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
Define and explain what journalistic independence means

Define and explain what is journalistic responsibility
Know what accuracy entails.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is Journalistic Independence?
Independence in journalism means freedom from all obligations that

might interfere with the fidelity to the public interest. An honest
journalist must not promote any private interest contrary to the general
welfare.
Partisanship in editorial comment which knowingly departs from the

truth is also not the spirit of good journalism.
Even more importantly, all decisions on news coverage, news content,

slant and depth should be taken by the editorial team rather than being
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imposed by outsiders. This is to ensure that journalists are not used to

serve ends other than the general welfare. Indeed, professionalism is
undermined if the outsiders control editorial content thereby reducing
the professionals to mere errand boys.
The following is a classical case of government interference in the

editorial independence of a highly rated magazine. A best- seller book
by former CIA agent in DR-Congo, Larry Devlin, published in 2007,
and reviewed for New African magazine by Osie Boateng, gives the
account of how a former American ambassador to Congo, Timberlake,
and the American ambassador to Belgium, William Burden, were able to
convince Time magazine owner, Henry Luce, to change the magazine’s
cover story on Patrice Lumumba during the Congo crisis of the 1960s.
The CIA and the ambassadors, working hand in gloves to protect

American interest in the Congo at all costs, had reasoned that a cover
story on Lumumba would create a favourable image for the embattled
Congolese Prime Minister in the eyes of the American public. That
would not be in the best interest of the American Government which had
already concluded plans to kill the patriotic Lumumba for his romance
with the Soviet Union. They succeeded in changing the cover story of
Time magazine even after the press had gone to bed! That this could
happen to such a highly-rated magazine reputed for its editorial
independence, goes to show how government pressure can compromise
not only editorial independence but also objectivity. If gold can rust,
what will iron do?
Editorial independence is the first article of the 1998 Code of the Ethics
for Nigerian Journalists. The practitioners no doubt were informed by
past experiences in the media whereby unholy intrusions were made into
editorial content of the media, leading to serious altercations between
journalists and the intruders. Unfortunately, the 1998 code does not give
details of what it means by editorial independence. But if the truth must
be told, editorial independence would mean the following measures,
which may be a tall order for many Nigerian journalists:
(1) Journalists should declare if an actual conflict exists in their

efforts to be truly independent.
(2) Journalists should not take up publicity in public relations
responsibility in outside organisations which expect them to use
their positions as journalists to obtain publicity for those
organisations.
(3) A journalist should not be the one covering an event or any
organisations which they or their immediate family members
belong to. This may lead to biased reporting.
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(4) Journalists should not belong to political parties or other partisan

groups.
(5) Journalists should be wary of friendships with news sources
especially public figures, politicians etc
(6) Journalists should not use their positions as journalists to get
benefits or advantages in commercial transactions or personal
business for themselves, their families or friends.
(7) They should not use the company name, reputation, letter-head or
branded car to imply threat of retaliation or pressure, to curry
favour or to seek personal gain.
(8) Journalists should not take another job which interferes with or
compromises their primary duty.
(9) Newsmen should not accept awards from partisan groups or
causes, or from organisations or special-interest groups that they
may normally cover, which may thereby create conflict of
interest or raise doubts about the ability of the newsmen to report
fairly on that group or organisation
(10) As much as possible journalists should pay for their meals at
functions and not sit around waiting for free food. This is to
avoid being influenced by those offering the free food.
(11) Newsmen should pay their way to places of news coverage rather
than expect any free ticket from news sources.
(12) Newsmen should not be the ones writing news about themselves,
their blood relations and close friends.
These are some of the measures which need to be taken to ensure

editorial independence. Can we take them? Why not? These are standard
journalistic practices in other climes.
3.2 What is Journalistic Responsibility?
Journalistic responsibility means that a medium must be concerned with

the welfare of its audience and gain them goodwill and patronage.
A journalist must not use his power or that of his organization for selfish
or unworthy purposes. Ax-grinding, that is, using the medium to settle
scores, is irresponsible journalism. It has been pointed out above that
since the media are powerful tools, their misuse could spell doom for the
society. Therefore those working in the media must exercise caution to
ensure that they do not use the medium to further interests other than the
public good.
3.3 What does Accuracy Entail?
It is a mark of good journalism to guard against inaccuracies,

carelessness, bias or distortion through emphasis, omission or
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technological manipulation. News media should also acknowledge

substantive errors and correct them promptly and prominently.
The Dallas Morning News in the United States of America, has the
following statement concerning corrections and clarifications.
These will be published promptly after accuracy is determined.

Memos from appropriate staffers will explain how error
occurred. Every staffer is an ombudsman in that sense, and we
pursue each complaint vigorously. Every complaining party
must get a response, regardless of whether we publish a
correction or clarification. The explanatory memo is not
punitive, but seeks to ensure we do not repeat errors and to
determine how they happened.
You can see that this newspaper goes to great length to ensure accuracy.
This is how it should be.
Accuracy also means that the titles and names of persons and places
mentioned in the news must be properly spelt. Grammatical errors or
errors of facts are taboo in the mass media. In the electronic media of
radio, television and film, words must be pronounced correctly. Figures
must be accurate too. If the exact figures cannot be obtained, the media
should say so instead of giving fictitious figures that will later be found
to be far off the mark. This is what accuracy means.
You will find that accuracy determines the credibility rating of the
media. The media which have established a reputation for giving
accurate information are the most patronized. Have you asked yourself
why most Nigerians would rather tune to BBC even for news about
Nigeria? It has to do with accuracy. The BBC has a long history of
accurate reporting of events. It should be the goal of every medium to
build up its reputation in accuracy.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see that independence, responsibility and accuracy are

indispensable virtues in journalism. Without them the other canons are
incomplete.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at three important canons of journalism. We

have seen that journalistic independence means that the journalist should
not be encumbered with any extraneous commitments which can interfer
117
with his fidelity to the public interest. We also saw the practical ways to
ensure this.
In the unit we also discussed journalistic responsibility, which is another

way of intensifying that singular commitment to serving the public
interest. Lastly, we also saw what accuracy means and how it is related
with the credibility of the particular mass medium.
Find out from two Nigerian mass media, that is, one print and one
electronic, if they have any statements or guidelines on how to realize
these virtues. Summarize the statements in each case.
7.0 REFERENCE/ FURTHER READINGS
Boateng, O. (2007). “Confessions of a CIA Agent” NewAfican, No. 461,

April 2007, pp8-18
Code of Ethics for Nigerian Journalists, (1998)
The Dallas Morning News, News Department Guidelines:

http://www.asne.org /ideas/codes/dallas morning news.htm
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MODULE 6 ETHICAL PROBLEMS, ETHICAL

MECHANISMS AND ETHICAL CASE
STUDIES IN NIGERIAN
JOURNALISM
Unit 1 Ethical problems in Nigeria Journalism

Unit 2 Purpose and kinds of Ethics mechanisms
Unit 3 Regulatory mechanisms and Ethical case studies
UNIT 1 ETHICAL PROBLEMS IN NIGERIAN

JOURNALISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Freebies, Brown Envelope and Conflict of Interest
3.2 Other Ethical Problems; Misrepresentation and Cartel
Journalism.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be looking at some ethical problems in Nigerian

journalism, what they mean and the various ways in which they are
committed. They include freebies, brown envelope syndrome, conflict
of interests, misrepresentation, cartel journalism, sycophancy etc.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you should be able to understand

why the following practices are considered as unethical and undesirable
in journalism practice: freebies, brown envelope syndrome, conflict of
interests, misrepresentation, cartel journalism, sycophancy and others.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Ethical Problems in Nigerian Journalism
It is true that journalists in Nigeria are now being registered, on

attainment of the minimum educational qualification. But they are still
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unlike the doctors, lawyers and accountants in that they do not have to
pass licensing exams. What keeps the journalist moving are his
professional code of ethics, and his conscience. To what extent can a
Nigerian journalist keep to his professional code of ethics, and what
happens to those who violate the code? And talking about conscience,
does the Bible not say that some consciences have been “Seared with a
hot iron?” (I Tim: 4:2).
The following are some of the glaring ethical problems in Nigerian

journalism: freebies, conflict of interest, misrepresentation, brown
envelope syndrome and cartel journalism.
Freebies
These are sundry gifts which are offered to influence journalists. But the
question arises: is there any thing wrong with accepting Christmas or
Sallah gifts from politicians and political office holders? Many top
editors say a capital “Yes”. Perhaps the editors are saying so from their
own experiences. They know that journalists can be influenced by these
gifts to kill stories or put up news pages for sale.
Brown Envelope
It is not only reporters who take money from news sources. Sometimes
news sources receive money from the news media to give out
exclusives. But there is no doubt that money distorts both the news and
the news judgment of reporters and editors. If you interview a politician
and he gives you money, can you still maintain objectivity and be fair to
his adversaries?
Conflict of Interest
Conflict of interest appears in many forms. Newspapers depend on

advertising for their survival. Struggling newspapers may place their
advertisers ahead of the integrity of their news columns, and their
reporters cannot do anything about it. Reporters who are on the pay roll
of politicians will also have their own conflict of interest when the chips
are down. If the situation is serious enough, something must give.
Misrepresentation
Is it right to obtain political news in disguise? The rule is that a reporter

should always introduce himself before he begins an interview. But are
there special occasions when he can break the rule? Many editors think
if the story is important to the public, the reporter can obtain facts under
cover.
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But it does not end there. What of those who may lose their jobs for
their innocent mistakes of talking to a reporter when they thought they
were only discussing with a co-worker or person in need? As a rule
people deserve to know if their opinions will be published. Obtaining
news under cover is certainly one issue that requires more discussion in
today’s journalism.
Cartel Journalism
Cartel journalism is the formation of beat associations for the purpose of

protecting mutual interests. It is unethical insofar as it leads to the
suppression and distortion of information. In fact, it is censorship, which
is an impediment to press freedom. But there is hardly any beat where
reporters have not formed such associations in Nigeria. Wise counsel is
that they can remain as welfare associations, not professional
associations. Some other ethical problems in Nigeria journalism include
sycophancy, ethnicity, character assassination and so on.
Sycophancy is the same thing as praise singing. Incidents of praise

singing abound in the Nigerian media, and this is a spill-over from the
larger society where affluent people are adored regardless of how they
made their money. There is also the unfortunate tendency of journalists
to betray ethnic biases on sensitive national issues where objectivity is
required. Furthermore, the media are often accused of lending
themselves to be used for character assassination by various interest
groups.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Unfortunately, Nigerians are not reputed to be highly ethical and this has
rubbed off on all facets of life in the country. Journalists are dealing
with best and worst Nigerians. It is unreasonable to expect the
journalists to be without blemish in an ocean of corruption. But
journalists are agents of change. They cannot be part of the problem.
Those who want to make ill-gotten wealth should not have chosen
journalism as a career. All over the world, journalists are not the richest
set of citizens. But there is a place of honour for those who do public
service conscientiously. Our politics may be dirty, but it can be made
better. Journalists have a big role to play in that regard. That is the
challenge before us.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the major ethical problems of Nigerian

journalism. They are freebies, brown envelope syndrome, conflict of
interest, misrepresentation, cartel journalism, sycophancy and others.
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Interview two newspaper editors for their views on how they handle
cases of ethical violations their organizations.
7.0 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS
Okoye, I. (2000). Newspaper Editing and Production in the Computer

Age, Lagos: Mbeyi and associates

Generation Books
Lanson, G and M. Stephens (1994). Writing and Reporting the News

(Second Edition) New York: Oxford University Press.
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UNIT 2 PURPOSE AND KINDS OF ETHICAL

MECHANISMS IN JOURNALISM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Purpose of Ethical Mechanisms
3.2 Kinds of Ethical Mechanisms
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignments
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we are looking at the purpose and kinds of ethical

mechanism used in the practice of journalism in the world over.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
understand the purpose of ethical mechanism in journalistic

practice
understand the kinds of ethical mechanism used in journalism
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 What is the Purpose of Ethical Mechanisms in

Journalism?
Because of the increasingly important roles the mass media play in

modern societies, and the fact that media are very powerful tools, the
abuse of which can spell doom for the societies, there is the need for
effective mechanisms to ensure their continuous conformity to
acceptable ethical standards. Thus, as M’bayo (2006) puts it, “the ethics
of mass communication is everybody’s business and not just those who
practice the profession of journalism, and this is so because what media
practitioners do has implications for the society as a whole.”
Such ethics, according to Kasoma (1994:7), deals with making sound

moral decisions in journalistic performance which assures the presence
123
of societal morality that guides generally acceptable human values and

responsibilities.
M’bayo even says that journalists are probably monitored more than any
other profession. And this monitoring is done not only by journalistic
bodies but also by outsiders. In fact, there are more outside regulators
than inside ones.
3.2 Kinds of Regulatory Bodies
There are two broad classifications of regulatory bodies for journalism

practice in contemporary societies.
(i) Self regulatory bodies

(ii) Regulation by outsiders.
(i) Self regulatory bodies/mechanisms
These are regulatory bodies or mechanisms imposed and run by the

journalists themselves. They include:
(a) Codes of journalistic practice

(b) Media Council
(c) Ombudsman
(d) Peer group activities
The principle of a self regulatory mechanism is that, since ethics is

basically self-imposed and self-enforced, the ethic mechanisms
articulated by members of a profession themselves will be more
effective and more respected by the members than those imposed by the
larger society. It is the same principle that guides other professional
bodies such as medical doctors, lawyers, accountants and even the
military, in the formulation and enforcement of their own ethical
regulatory mechanisms.
(ii) Regulation by outsiders
The essence of regulation by outsiders is that journalistic business does

not have implications for journalists only, but also for the whole society.
Hence if a journalist commits a criminal offence, he will be charged to
court and prosecuted accordingly, regardless of how the self-regulatory
bodies for journalists looks at the offence. Also civil society groups
which monitor all aspects of society life, also monitor journalists for
civil rights violations.
The following are the regulatory mechanisms or bodies imposed by

outsiders in the practice of journalism;
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(a) civil society organisations, such as media alert, media forum, media
watch, media ombudsman, etc (M’bayo, 2006)
(b) public reactions to media performance
(c) Legal regulations
(d) Good conditions of service for journalists
We shall elaborate on these in subsequent units.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The work that journalists do does not concern journalists alone but has
implications for the entire society. For this reason there are both internal
and external mechanisms for the regulation of journalistic practices
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the philosophy behind ethical

mechanisms for journalism practice. We have also seen two broad
classifications of ethical regulatory mechanisms, ie, internal and
external. In the unit, we also saw examples of each group
Make a comprehensive list of all the external journalistic ethical

regulatory bodies in operation in Nigeria, giving brief information about
them.
7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS
Kasoma F. (1994). “The need for journalism ethics in Africa” in F.

Kasoma (ed) journalism ethics in Africa Nairobi: ACCE, 3-21
M’bayo R. (2006). “Tolerance, Freedom and truth: The bedrock of the

ethics of mass communication” A paper presented at the Times
Journalism Institute media conference Lagos, Nigeria, June 15,
2006.
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UNIT 3 REGULATORY MECHANISMS AND ETHICAL

CASE STUDIES
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Professional Codes of Ethics: Their Nature and Functions
3.1.1 Tiers of Journalistic Codes
3.1.2 National Codes
3.1.3 History of Journalism Codes in Nigeria
3.2 Press Councils
3.2.1 Brief History of the Nigerian Press Council (NPC)
3.3 Journalistic Peer Groups
3.4 What is Ethical Regulation by Outsiders?
3.4.1 How do letters to the editor serve as ethical
mechanism?
3.4.2 What are media monitors?
3.4.3 How do adequate Training and Remuneration for
Journalists Serve as Ethical Mechanism.
3.4.4 What are Legal Regulations as Ethical Mechanism?
3.5 Ethical Case Studies
3.5.1 Case Study 1: Fairness and Balance
3.5.2 Case Study 2: Right to Reply/Correction
3.5.3 Case Study 3: Invasion of Privacy
3.5.4 Case Study 4: Malice
3.5.5 Case Study 5: Bribery
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/ Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall be looking at four self-regulatory mechanisms in

journalism professional codes, press council, ombudsperson and peer
groups.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this unit, you should be able to understand

the nature and functions of the following as ethical mechanisms in
journalism practice.
126
Professional codes
Press council
Ombudsperson
Peer groups
The ethical mechanisms imposed by outsiders
How letters to the editors serve as ethical mechanism.
How spontaneous public reactions serve as ethical mechanism
The nature and purpose of media monitors.
How adequate training and remunerations for journalists can
serve as ethical mechanism
Legal regulations as ethical mechanism.
At the end of this unit, you should also understand how the Nigerian
Press Council adjudicated cases which breached the following ethical
principles: Fairness; Right of Reply; Invasion of Privacy and Malice. In
addition, you will also see a practical case of bribery of journalists,
which is universally condemned.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Professional Codes of Ethics: their Nature and

Functions
According to Momoh (2003) if you want to give legal backing to a

profession, there are four areas to be covered. They are:
(i) A system of accreditation of members
(ii) A register of members
(iii) A code of conduct: and
(iv) A body to enforce the code.
A code of conduct for journalism practice is a set of moral principles

articulated and adopted by the practitioners themselves to guide their
practice. The important thing about professional codes is that they are
articulated by the members of the profession themselves, not imposed
by outsiders or the larger society.
3.1.1 Tiers of Journalistic Codes
Journalistic codes are in three tiers
- National codes
- Regional codes
- International codes.
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3.1.2 National Codes
At the national level there are numerous codes. There are general codes
and those for practitioners in different media, e.g. Print journalism,
Radio and Television, Cinema etc. The oldest national code for
journalists is that of the American Society of Newspaper Editors, which
has been in existence since 1923. In Nigeria, there is an umbrella code
of the Nigerian Press Organisation (NPO), made up of the Nigerian
Union of Journalists(NUJ), Nigerian Guild of Editors(NGE) and the
Newspapers Proprietors Association of Nigeria (NPAN) codes.
3.1.3 History of Journalism Codes in Nigeria
The need for a code of conduct for Nigerian Journalists was appreciated
as far back as the 1950s when the NUJ was formed (Momoh, 2003). By
1979 both the NUJ and NGE had their different codes. But in 1979, the
three bodies, the NUJ, NGE, and NPAN adopted one code.
The coming together of the three bodies was occasioned by the

promulgation of Decree 31 of 1978 which established the Nigerian Press
council (NPC) Journalists saw the setting up of the Press Council as a
threat because it had a preponderance of government appointees. So the
NUJ, NGE and NPAN quickly came together and adopted the NPO
code, which it presented to the NPC board as the operative code for
media professionals. However, along the line problems arose.
Momoh (2003) identified the following problems which created the

need to revise the 1979 code
(i) The NUJ as trade union and editors were not to hold offices in
the NUJ even though they pay their check off dues to it
(ii) The NUJ could not enforce its code, not being a statutory body
(iii) The owner of a mass medium has the right to hire and fire The
constitution provides for ownership of media and the right to hire
and fire.
(iv) The NPAN has never accepted collective bargaining and the
minimum wage for journalists.
(v) Government did not have confidence in the ability of the press to
put their house in order. This was demonstrated by the numerous
obnoxious laws and actions which sought to check the press.
They include :
Decree 4 of 1984
Newspaper Decree 43 of 1993
Newspaper (proscription and prohibition from circulation)
Decree 48 of 1993.
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National mass media commission in the 1995 Draft constitution.

Threat of a press court
Arrest and detention of journalists
Threat to set up a newspaper registration board in Decree 43 of
1993.
All these culminated in the need to revise the existing code, which was
done in 1998 at a workshop organized by the Nigerian Press council.
The 1998 code had the following principles.
1. Editorial independence
2. Accuracy and fairness.
3. Privacy
4. Privilege/ Non-disclosure
5 Decency
6. Discrimination
7. Reward and Gratification
8. Violence
9. Children and minor
10. Access to information
11. National interest
12. Social responsibility
13. Plagiarism
14. Copyright
15. Press freedom and responsibility.
Regional Codes
These are codes guiding practice in different regions of the world.

Okunna (1995) lists some of them are:
(i) The inter-American Press Association adopted in 1926

(ii) The declaration of duties and rights for journalists, adopted by six
journalists’ unions of the European community in 1971
(iii) The code of Arab Journalists prepared under the auspices of the
Arab league
(iv) The Charter of the West African Journalists Association (WAJA)
which was adopted in 1986.
The International Journalistic Code
The International principles of professional ethics in journalism came

into being in 1983 under the auspices of UNESCO. The signatories
include the following regional bodies.
(i) International Federation of Journalists (IFJ)
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(ii) International Catholic Union of the Press (ICUP}

(iii) Latin American Federation of Journalists (FELAP)
(iv) Latin American Federation of Press Workers (FELATRAP)
(v) Federation of Arab Journalists (FAJ)
(vi) Union of African Journalists (UAJ)
(vii) Confederation of Asian Journalists (CAJ)
3.2 Press Councils
Press councils are self-regulatory bodies for journalism practice, as the

initiatives for setting them up must come from the professionals or
media themselves. Ideally, press councils should be run entirely by the
practitioners, but there are those established by the government, like the
Nigerian Press Council (NPC). But the essence of a press council is to
handle extra-legal matters involving individual journalists and the
media.
3.2.1 Brief History of the Nigerian Press Council (NPC)
By the early 1970s, well meaning Nigerians had started advocating for a
press council to handle extra-legal complaints against the press. So in
1978 the military government under General Olusegun Obasanjo
promulgated a Press Council Decree, which was outrightly rejected by
the press, because of preponderance of government appointees.
Ten years later, the Babangida administration received the decree and
renamed it the Nigerian Media Council Decree. This was also rejected
by the press. But the then Federal Minister of Information, Prince Tony
Momoh, himself a veteran journalist, desirous to give the Nigerian press
an enduring legacy, held wide consultations with the stakeholders,
which led to the promulgation of the Nigerian Press Council decree in
1992.
According to a publication of the Nigerian Press Council (1998) the new
decree was designed to:
Regulate the press, to guard against abuses not covered by the

existing press laws such as inaccuracy in media reports, distortion or
intrusion into citizens’ privacy for no valid reason, false emphasis,
reversal of facts and the treatment of crime and sex.
In other words, the NPC is a public complaint commission for

journalists where aggrieved members of the public can file complaints
against the journalists and their media organizations. But it not only
handles complaints against the media, but also addresses conducts of
any persons and organization against the press.
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Discuss the challenges facing the Nigerian Press Council as an ethical

mechanism
3.3 Journalistic Peer Groups
Traditionally, journalists the world over have assessed the performance

of fellow journalists in the newsroom and at the press clubs and other
relaxation centres. This informal peer review mechanism, though not
limited to ethical conduct, has assisted newsmen in their general duties.
More formal peer review mechanisms include publications such as the

famous American Editor and Publisher which has been published for
many decades. In Nigeria, the Media Review published by Lanre Idowu,
has been doing a good job of critiquing ethical conducts in the media.
For example in 2006, the issue of “wrap around” adverts, whereby some
newspapers devoted four cover pages for adverts for mouth-watering
fees, was exhaustively addressed by Media Review, with the verdict that
such a practice was unethical. Unfortunately, the practice still goes on.
Another example of peer review mechanism in the media is the long-

rested boo-boo programme on NTA, which pointed out, though in an
impolite manner, mistakes made by the print media.
There are also newspaper columnists who try to correct grammar usage
in the newspapers and magazines, the most visible of whom is Bayo
Oguntuashe, who writes for Sun on Thursdays. But the time has now
come for publications devoted solely for peer review of ethical conduct
in the Nigerian Press, like the practice in other parts of the world.
Below are some peer review cases from different parts of the unit
published by the World Press Institute
(http://www.macalester.edu/wpi/ethics0202.htm,2003)
(i) Writing in a recent U.S journalism trade magazine, columnist

Allan Wolper asserts that, “It is an open secret that many
journalists in Pakistan hold down side jobs with government
including the ISI (Pakistan secret service)
(ii) A reporter at the Times-Picayune in News Orleans, Louisiana
(US) questions the credibility of a local television broadcaster
who is on camera in some of her husband’s television ads
promoting him for public office
(iii) A Time magazine article delves into the ethically questionable
relationship between fashion editors and designers. The Article
131
reports that many fashion journalists receive thousands of dollars

worth of free clothing and other perks.
(iv) An associated press correspondent in Bolivia resigns after a web
site reports he has a conflict of interest. The reporter made a
speech in Las Pas in favour of a water project that could benefit a
children’s foundation he had set up.
(v) A columnist writing for the Moscow Times.com reports that a
journalist with children, an unemployed husband and a monthly
salary of $30 (U.S) complains that she could never get by in
legitimate journalism without free-lancing “stories to order” on
the side, either at the request of her boss or on her own. Made to
order stories look to readers like legitimate stories, but they are
paid for by the company featured.
Source: Ethics in the media, A presentation by the public affairs section
Assess the role of beat associations in Nigerian journalism.
3.4 What is Ethical Regulation by Outsiders?
Ethical regulatory mechanisms imposed by outsiders are those which are

articulated and imposed by outsiders, as opposed to those imposed by
media professionals themselves.
Since what journalists do or fail to do have serious implications for the

society, various groups have seen the need for monitoring mechanisms
which seek to ensure that journalists and the media live up to certain
expectations.
Seib et. al (1999) capture it beautifully like this:
Almost everyone has something to say about journalism ethics. Those

people who are the subjects of news stories often complain that
journalists work in ethical void, trampling on privacy, sensationalizing,
playing fast and loose with the truth……… News consumers – the
public – rely on journalists for information, but are skeptical about the
profession’s commitment to behaving ethically.
Ethical mechanism imposed by outsiders include but are not limited to

the following:
- Letters to the Editor

- General public reactions to media performance
- Media monitors and critics
132
- Legal restrictions
- Regular opinion surveys
- Adequate training and retraining of journalists.
3.4.1 How do Letters to the Editor Serve as an Ethical

Mechanism?
Letters have been regular features of newspapers and magazines from

the earliest times. Usually brief and straight to the point they are either
readers’ reactions to things published in earlier editions, or they may just
be the opinion of readers to societal issues they feel strongly about,
which were not specifically mentioned by the publication’s earlier
editions.
As they concern professional ethics, letters to the editor are often used
by readers to explain about unethical conducts such as biased reporting,
lack of fairness in news presentation and things like that.
How do spontaneous public reactions serve as an ethical mechanism?

Extreme cases of public protest against media content abound in the
history of Nigerian journalism. Two notorious examples will suffice:
Example 1
In 2002 there were public reactions in some parts of northern Nigeria

over a feature article in ThisDay Newspaper, on the hosting of Miss
World Beauty Pageant in Abuja. The article published a few days to the
event had the following excerpts, which the Muslim faithful considered
offensive.
….As the idea became a reality, it also arouses dissent from

many groups of people. The Muslims thought it was
immoral to bring 92 women to Nigeria and ask them to
ravel in vanity. What would Mohammed think?
In all honesty, he would probably have chosen a wife from

one of them. The irony is that Algeria, an Islamic country,
is one of the countries participating in the contest.
The reaction of the Muslim faithful was swift. At the last count more
than 100 people had been killed and property worth millions of naira
destroyed. Commenting on the incident, eminent journalism teacher,
Ralph Akinfeleye (2003) blamed both the writer of the article and the
unruly faithful for not showing any kind of social responsibility.
133
Example 2
In 2005 a cartoon published by the Scandinarian country of Demark and

reproduced by some Western European newspapers, sparked off riots in
some parts of northern Nigeria. The so-called cartoon riots, which
resulted in the killing of hundreds of Southern Christians attracted
reprisal killing of northerners in the predominantly Christian south
eastern cities of Onitsha and Aba.
3.4.2 What are Media Monitors?
Media monitors are civil society groups and organizations which are
established for the sole purpose of monitoring or, as M’bayo (2006) put
it, “watching the watch dogs of society”. They are concerned mainly
with the ethical and unethical practices in journalistic performance,
thereby constituting what M’bayo calls the “fifth Estate of the realm”.
Some prominent media monitors are:
Media watch
Media alert
Media forum
Media ombudsman
Others include:
Centre for Media and Public Affairs

Columbia Journalism Review
Project for Excellence in Journalism
Media Channel.Org
Media Tenor
Media Centre Research Centre
News Watch Centre for Integration and Improvement
Slip Up.Com
The Tyndall Report
3.4.3 How Do Adequate Training And Remuneration For

Journalist Serve As Ethical Mechanism?
Adequate training for journalists has long been identified as an effective

mechanism for ensuring and maintaining ethical standards. Journalism
has come a long way from the days when all the skill needed to practise
it was picked up on the job. It took the academic world a long time to
accept journalism as a discipline to be studied in the university.
134
Woo (2003) tells the story of how the initial offer by Joseph Pulitzer to
fund a department of journalism at Columbia University was rejected.
Woo writes:
Why, people wondered, would any University want to train

journalists? They were mere ink-stained wretches who practiced
what at best was a craft, learned on the job. The idea that
journalists belonged in a community of humanists and scientists
seemed laughable. Pulitzer’s idea seemed far fetched.
With time however, the need for adequate formal training was
appreciated by the academia and wider society. And so began the war
against unethical behaviour by journalists. Formal training enables the
journalist to acquire the skills as well as the legal and ethical preparation
for the job. And anyone who has had a stint in journalism practice in
Nigeria at least, must have noticed the correlation between high ethical
conduct and education.
Similarly, it is also believed that the poor conditions under which many
Nigerian journalists operate partly account for the unethical behaviour
of some bad eggs. Consequently, it has been recommended at every
conference and workshop for practicing journalists that employers of
journalists in the country should improve their working conditions as a
way of curbing misconduct.
3.4.4 What are Legal Regulations as Ethical Mechanism?
As was pointed out in Module One, laws are regulations imposed by the
larger society with formal institutions for their enactment and
enforcement. The legal instruments which regulate media conduct
include the universal press laws such as defamation, sedition, contempt,
copyright etc. We have discussed all these in detail in the earlier
modules, so they do not need any repetition here.
Journalists are expected to operate within the confines of the laws of the
land in order to avoid litigation and prosecution. Ignorance of the law
led to the imprisonment of many journalists in the colonial era. The
journalists of the new dispensation are much better educated and
therefore better equipped to steer clear of trouble.
135
3.5 Ethical Case Studies
3.5.1 Case Study 1: Fairness and Balance
(The following is one of the complaints adjudicated by the Nigerian

Press Council)
NPC/COM/13/93: AYODELE KUPOLUYI Vs DAILY TIMES
The (Nigerian Press) Council reviewed the complaint of Mr. Ayodele

Kupoluyi against the Daily Times for wrongly publishing an article,
titled, “Why crucify IBB”, and published in the newspaper on August
12, 1993 with a different title, “lets join hands with IBB”.
The complainant alleges:
a. That the article was sent in December 1992and published in August

1993 and between the time lapse, significant political developments
had taken place in the country which made nonsense of the original
aim of the article.
b. That the publication of the said article, “Lets join hands with IBB”
on august 12, 1993, page 11 in the forum column of the Daily Times
was to achieve the papers political ends, Thereby portraying the
writer as a member of the Association for a Better Nigeria – (ABN).
c. That the article had not only embarrassed the writer, but had brought
him to contempt and ridiculed among his friends and relatives, and
subsequently led to the loss of his job in TELL Magazine.
d. That the said article was deftly edited such that the writer’s words
which read “remaining few months” were changed to “remaining
period” when it was only 14 days for IBB to quit office.
The council examined the submissions of the Daily Times through a

letter signed by its legal officer, Mr. T. Tamunekenbia. The content is
hereby summarized as follows :-
a. That Mr. Ayodele Kupoluyi had complained to the Daily Times

sometime last year about the article he sent and was published by the
paper.
b. That the Daily Times in reply to the complaint had written the
complaint solicitors, Messrs. Onabanjo and associates of 23, Alabi
street, Gbagada estate in which it averred, among others, that,
(i) That article subject of your clients complaints bore no date

and there was no specific request or instruction from your
client as to the specific time within which the article
136
should be published. Therefore, your client’s claim that he

sent it in December 1992 becomes irrelevant.
(ii) We suppose you know and your client too knows that an
editor has an unqualified privilege to publish any article
sent in by any contributor at a time he deems fit. He also
has the sole privilege of casting a head line he deems fit
for such articles.
(iii) The headline of the article was from the first sentence of
the last paragraph in your client’s article.
(iv) That the Daily Times had infact offered in his letter to the
complainants solicitors to publish an apology if he says
that he was sorry for the words and belief he held as at the
time he authorized it to publish his article.
(v) That the Daily Times maintained that its choice of date in
publishing Mr. Kupoluyi’s article was not actuated by
malice, bad faith or ill motive, as the complainant was not
known to us in person.
(vi) That it was not within the paper’s knowledge that Mr.
Kupoluyi was a reporter with Tell magazine.
ADJUDICATION
Having scrutinized the submissions of both Mr. Kupoluyi and the Daily
Times, Council observed that the article was sent to the Daily Times
with a covering letter dated December 13, 1992. A photocopy of the
covering letter accompanied the letter of the complaint sent to the
Nigerian Press Council by Mr. Kupoluyi. This contradicts the claim of
the Daily Times that the article bore no date.
The council is of the view that an article received in December ought

not to have been published eight months later particularly when the
editor knew that within that period, significant political developments
had taken place in the country to probably warrant the writer to have a
change of views.
The council is of the view that the action of the Daily Times in
publishing the material eight months after it was sent to it, knowing
fully well that political events in the country during that period did not
tally with the spirit of the article, is unethical and blame worthy. The
council recommends that the Daily Times should apologize to the
complainant in such a way as to reflect that the paper meant no harm in
publishing the opinion at the time it did.
However, a few assertive statements were made in reply of the legal

officer of the daily times and it is necessary to comment on them for the
guidance of the professionals:
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a. Time to publish a contribution.

A contribution to a paper is meant to be published to reflect the
opinion of the contributor at a time the issue being discussed is
still in focus or current. Like in a court proceeding, the
publication should be contemporaneous to the subject matter of
comment. Every editor knows that contributions sent to them are
meant to address issues that are current either by way of news
published or an on-going discussion of public interest. Once the
matter is out of focus, it is said to be stale.
b. Editor’s right to publish.

The right of an editor to publish any contribution is affected by
the right of the contributor not to be misrepresented through
editing the contribution out of context or publishing the
contribution at a time when the contribution will no longer be
contemporaneous with the events that gave rise to it.
c. The headline cast for a story must reflect the content and import of
the story and should not be meant to over-dramatize a point a
contributor intend to make.
Council does not agree that it is “unethical” to apologize for publishing

what a contributor sent if such a publication was made eight months
after it was sent and the time lag was such as would have made the
contributor believe that the contribution was not going to be published
the time he expected.
Find out from the Nigerian Press Council’s records another case study
which has to with fairness and balance. Summarize it.
3.5.2 Case Study 2: Right to Reply/Correction
(This is another complaint adjudicated by the Nigerian Press

Council)
NPC/COM/12/93: ALHAJI (DR) GARBA HAMZA Vs FAME

MAGAZINE
Alhaji (Dr.) Garba Hamza complained against the Fame magazine in a

letter to the council on October 2, 1993, over alleged defamatory and
untrue reports in the magazine’s March 2 – March 8, 1993 edition,
titled, “G. N. Hamza in Visa scandal” and September 28 – October 4,
The two reports complained against had said, among others:-
138
1. March 2-8, 1993 Edition
a. That G. N. Hamza procures visas for desperate Nigerians wishing to

travel abroad for a fee of between N15, 000 and N 50, 000.
b. That the visa racket operated at Hamza Holdings was run at two
fronts: one by Alhaji Hamza himself and the other one by one prince
Bade Tijani of the Nigerian Tourist Defence Corps
c. That Alhaji (Dr) Garba Hamza was paying more attention to the visa
racketeering because of his recent financial problem which
necessitated the auctioning of the property by John Knight Finance
Limited, Ikoyi, Lagos.
d. That those visa seekers who could not pay for the quick service are
referred to Prince Tijani who charges about N15, 000. That Prince
Tijani who calls himself commander-general, spoke to the Fame
correspondent who posed as a client and emphasized that if the visa
was not granted, the part payment would be refunded.
2. September 28- 0ctober 4, 1993 Edition
a. That the hush-hush romance between Alhaji (Dr) Garba Hamza and
a youngster had blown open, with the girl’s parents shouting blue
murder; and
b. That the girl’s mother is threatening to deal with Alhaji Hamza.
In accordance with the laid –down procedure for investigating

complaints, the secretariat of the council acknowledged receipt of the
complaint and advised the complainant to give the magazine enough
time to react. The complainant was also advised that if the response
from the magazine was unsatisfactory, he could then request the Council
to go ahead.
On November 29, 1993, the council received a letter from Dr. Hamza
urging it to proceed with its investigation.
On December 6, Fame magazine was put on notice to respond to the

complaint. On January 12, 1994, council sent a reminder to fame.
ADJUDICATION
The council noted the refusal of fame magazine to respond to its

inquiries and resolved to go on with the adjudication in accordance with
section 9 (1)(c) and (d) of its enabling law which empowers it to
consider and deal with any matter referred to it in the absence of any
party who has been duly summoned to appear before it.
139
Having reviewed the complaint, the council:
a. Views as reprehensive the refusal of fame magazine to respond to its

letter and reminder requesting the magazine’s reaction to the
complaint of Alhaji (Dr.) Garba Hamza over two publications
namely: “G. N. Hamza in visa scandal”, of September 28 – October
4, 1993 edition respectively;
b. Notes that the refusal of the magazine to respond to council’s
inquiries could leave the innocent bystander with no choice than to
conclude that the magazine has something to hide or is clearly in the
wrong.
c. Stresses that the code of conduct of the Nigerian Union of Journalists
emphatically states that it is the duty of every journalist to correct
any published information found to be incorrect;
d. Invites the magazine’s attention to the fact that failure to respect this
ethical imperative could open the profession to ridicule and dash the
hope of those who look up to the press as a credible source of
information through which public officials can be held accountable
for their actions; and
e. Re-emphasizes that there is nothing wrong or harmful for the press
to open up or make restitution if its reports turn out to be incorrect.
In conclusion, council’s view is that failure on the part of any

publication complained against to react to its inquiries in the bid to
adjudicate on the matter is not just a slight on the council but a
disservice to the profession of journalism and may well undermine the
present attempt for discipline to be maintained through moral suasion.
Council therefore condemns in the strongest terms, the negligent attitude
of Fame and directs that in the absence of any facts to the contrary, a
retraction of the publication as requested by the complainant be made
within one month of the release of this decision.
Write a brief essay about Fame Magazine, tracing its history and the
kind of stories it reports.
3.5.3 Case Study 3: Invasion Of Privacy
(This complaint was also adjudicated by the Nigerian Press Council)

NPC/COM/48/95: MRS. TAIWO OBASANJO Vs FAME
The council on November 15, 1995 received a complaint from Mrs.

Taiwo Obasanjo against Fame over publications entitled, “Taiwo
Obasanjo Battered and humiliated” (date of edition not included) and
140
“Taiwo Obasanjo falls in Love again” (October 31, - November 6, 1995

edition). She also said that Fame had been involved in a deliberate,
premeditated and orchestrated smear campaign of calumny against her
person.
Mrs. Obasanjo said that the falsehood published about her was titled
“Taiwo Obasanjo Battered, Disgraced and Humiliated”, In this story, it
was alleged that she went to Ota to pick up her children after General
Obasanjo was arrested in June and that the three wives of General
Obasanjo beat her up and threw her out of the farm, while she abused
and threw stones at them. She urged the council to conduct an
independent investigation, adding that it would find out that General
Obasanjo never kept two women under the same roof and there was no
wife living in Ota where her children were in boarding school.
The complainant stated that the second misinformation published about

her was titled “Taiwo Obasanjo falls in love again”, she said that in the
story, Fame alleged that she was seriously in love with one Mr.
Odiakose”.
Mrs. Obasanjo denied knowing any man with such a name, adding that
it was further alleged that she attended her church activities with the
“unknown Mr. Odiakose” and she broke up the relationship “between
Mr. Odiakose and his pregnant journalist woman”.
The council acknowledged her complaint on November 17, 1995 and

notified Fame of Mrs. Obasanjo’s complaint requesting it to state its
side of the matter.
On November 24, 1995, council received Fame’s letter dated November

22, acknowledging receipt of the complaint. The editor, Mr. Remi
Akintunde-Johnson said that in spite of the fact that “we are ready to
comply with your instructions, we want to notify the press council that
the complainant, Mrs. Obasanjo, has gone contrary to the council’s
handbook of instruction which provides for complaining ‘only when you
are satisfied that you have invited the attention of the medium concerned
to what you deem objectionable; and you are not satisfied with the way
the matter was handled by the medium’.
The magazine stated that the only letter received from Mrs. Obasanjo
was a copy of the letter addressed to the Executive Secretary of NPC
dated November 3, 1995, which it received on Wednesday November
15, 1995. It said that a day after, it received a strongly worded notice (on
Thursday November 16) from the chambers of Adesuyi Olateru-
Olagbegi & co. lawyers to Mrs. Obasanjo. The notice, Fame averred
advised it to publish an apology on or before November 27, 1995 as well
141
as pay the sum of one million naira to be dispersed to charity homes.

The magazine also claimed that the legal firm said that a libel suit of 5
million naira would be instituted against it if it failed to carry out the
request.
Mr. Akintunde-Johnson urged the council to note that Fame next date of
publication was November 27. The editor concluded that from the
foregoing and in consonance with the council’s established patterns of
adjudication, the magazine was not in the position to adequately respond
to the notice. The council wrote a letter to the complainant requesting to
know in writing if she had decided to handle the matter simultaneously
in court. Her attention was invited to the fact that council’s procedure
precluded it from handling any matter before the court or from
entertaining legal representation.
On December 18, council received a letter from solicitors to

Mrs.Obasanjo informing it of their client’s decision to stay further legal
action. Thus, Council was requested to proceed with the matter.
The editor explained that the magazine’s February 21, 1995 edition
“catalogued unabashed romantic notes between her and her lovers”. He
said that the complainant opened the can of worms through a-28-page
documentary she sent to Today’s choice magazine detailing several
escapades and preferences of controversial publisher, Dr. Daboh. Mr.
Akintunde-Jouhnson said that the story in Today’s choice was one-sided
and thus approached Daboh, who readily presented countless letters,
love-notes, cards and assorted materials lovers to the magazine.
Furthermore, he said Dr. Daboh’s two page exposure in Fame’s
February 21, 1995 edition was entitled, “it’s true, is it a crime to be in
love?”
Fame, the editor maintains, stands by its story that “Taiwo Obasanjo
was battered” contrary to the position of the complainant that it was
false. He explained that the Obasanjo family had been scandalized since
the escapades of Taiwo were published, adding that they (Obasanjo
family) had an opportunity to deal with her when she came to Ota.
“There is absolutely no doubt that Mrs. Taiwo Obasanjo was forcibly
stopped from seeing her children”, he maintained. He said that
“complainant had once shown us the General’s angry letter of
instructions forbidding her from moving near her kids, Bunmi and
Junwo”.
On the latest story: “Taiwo Obasanjo falls in love again” (October 31,
1995), the editor said that the magazine had suspected that Mrs.
Obasanjo and Ben had more than a casual relationship since August
1994. He said the paper’s society reporter once wrote a short one-
paragraph story in its famous people’s page of August 30, 1994, “I
142
wonder what sort of stunt Mrs. Taiwo Obasanjo was trying to perform a
few weeks back. Mrs. Obasanjo, a born again Christian, was in the car
when his driver sped at top speed near her Ikeja home. That was not the
story, however. The car stopped suddenly at a side street near German
Friendship specialist klinik, reversed a few meters and before you can
say Oba.. A man wearing an agbada had jumped into back seat and the
car sped off”.
The reporter, Mr. Akintunde-Johnson said, could only recognize the

lady, but on September 27, 1994 after some investigation he revealed in
follow-up: “Remember the gist about Mrs. Taiwo Obasanjo, wife of
former head of state, General Olusegun Obasanjo, one Chief Ben, a
Delta state indigene. He is actually a class mate of the born-again lady.
In fact, he’s regular at her Ikeja (lagos) home”. The editor further
explained that their source informed them about a “new affair” between
Mrs. Obasanjo and another man, they only took a fleeting interest. But
after studying the story outline, they decided to work on it because the
source was very reliable.
DECISION
Council after deliberating on Mrs. Obasanjo’s complaints and Fame’s

response:
a. Notes that the weekly has pleaded justification by citing the

widely published liaison between the complainant and Mr.
Godwin Daboh Adzuana which it believed had downgraded her
reputation.
b. Believes that by pleading justification in view of the much

publicized affair between the complainant and Mr. Daboh and the
arguments canvassed by its editor in his letter to council, the
magazine is, in effect adopting the trite legal dictum that a person
cannot defend a reputation which he does not possess in the first
place
c. Notes that because the press had a right to comment freely, fairly
and honestly on any matter of public interest, it is the exercise of
this right that press councils safeguard when dealing with
complaints of unfair reporting.
d. Invites attention to the fact that freedom of speech, whether it be

spoken, the written or the printed word in freedom under the law.
The law balances the right of the individual to his reputation
against the equally important right of the individual to his
143
reputation against the equally important right to express views

honestly and fearlessly on matters of public interest.
Council reminds journalists, be they reporters or editors, that a private

individual has the right to be left alone, and that invasion of privacy is
journalistically defensible only in special circumstances.
That journalists should bear in mind that in considering whether a report

should be published or not, it is important to remember that, in the event
of legal proceedings, a plea of justification means in effect, a further and
more detailed repetition of the report that is the subject of the complaint,
and if it is unsuccessful or is withdrawn at any point the damages will,
in all probability be considerably aggravated by the fact that the
respondent has persisted in his charges till the very last moment.
Council also notes that in a letter dated March 13, 1997, Fame was
requested to narrow its defence to the substantive issue raised in the
complaint, which is that the complainant was battered and humiliated
and that she had fallen in love again. It however decided to proceed with
the matter when it did not receive Fame’s response.
Council therefore holds that the report was a clear case of Journalistic
hounding.
Fame is blameworthy and should apologize to the complainant.
3.5.4 Case Study 4: Malice
(This is yet another complaint adjudicated by the NPC)
NPC/ABJ/COM/1/10/99: GOVERNMENT OF IMO STATE VS

THE EXAMINER NEWSPAPER
The Nigerian Press Council received a complaint from the Imo State
Government in respect of a publication in the publication in the
Examiner Newspaper of September 20-25, 1999. The publication titled,
“Governor, wife spends N100 million on overseas trips- legislator
alleges”, was a report of an interview given to the newspaper by a
Member of the Imo State House of Assembly. The publication said,
amongst others, that the governor bought two houses on the visit to the
United States and returned to the country without signing one agreement
with any prospective investor. The legislator who is from the same party
and senatorial district as the Governor, did not make the allegation in the
State House of Assembly. He is reported as having received the
information of the governor’s alleged purchase of buildings from the
legislator’s brother in the United States.
144
In a complaint by an officer of the Imo State Government, the allegation

was not only denied, but a claim was made that the Examiner must have
published the story because the state government would not meet the
demands of Editor- in- chief for patronage.
The Editor was in no doubt that all that was necessary to be done before
the story could be published had been done.
The council made some observations on both the allegations by the

government of Imo State and the reaction of the editor of the Examiner
Newspaper.
On the allegation that the Examiner’s publication was malicious because

the government had denied patronage to the paper, Council said it was
unable to establish the malice. It noted that the patronage sought was not
unusual in media establishment and operation. The request of the Editor-
in-chief to the Imo State Government that his newspaper be listed for
advertising and subscription was, in the view of council, a legitimate
business request. Council noted that the newspaper published not only a
reaction to the story complained of but an interview with the
Government which was favorable.
On the defense by the Editor that the story was fit for publication,
council disagreed. A story of that seriousness would be fit for
publication only if all the verifiable had been verified or if the occasion
of the making of the allegation was privileged. There was no proof that
the newspaper had facts to prove that the Governor and his wife
collected N100million and spent it in buying two houses in the United
States of America. The story was even more suspect when the legislator
interviewed by the newspaper claimed that the allegations he made were
based on the information his bother in the United States gave him.
The degree of proof acceptable in journalism is that which would show

proof of the expenditure as the courts of law would accept. The absence
of such effort in establishing the truth of the serious allegations against
the governor of Imo States and his family was unprofessional and
blameworthy.
Council also commented on the status of interviews granted by

legislators and how much protection they have under the code of
conduct for journalists. Council noted that statements of legislators are
only protected when made in the House. The Examiner would rightly
have claimed that its publication was professional because it would have
enjoyed the immunity which the House in session confers. But the
legislator’s allegations in this case have no such protection.
145
Council blamed the evident lack of exhibition of professionalism in the

collection of information that resulted in the publication and defective
judgment of the editor in publishing the story.
Council decided that the Examiners newspaper should publish a

retraction of the story and apologies to the Governor for the
embarrassment.
Write a brief history of the defunct The Examiner newspaper.
3.5.5 Case Study 5: Bribery
(This is a critical article about bribery in the Nigerian Press culled from
Ethics in the Media, a publication of the Public Affairs Section, U.S.
Consulate General, Lagos)
THE NIGERIAN HONORARIUM
By Kehinde Bamigbetan
Editor, The country
Nigeria
Should foreign journalists receive honoraria for attending a news

conference called by a government? Should news sources offer to re-
imburse reporters’ expenses? Should a foreign reporter publicly deny
that he accepted such an offer if it might jeopardize his ability to work in
a foreign country? How can a foreign reporter protect himself from a
government uncomfortable with his reports?
The above issues have remained on the front burner of discourse on

journalistic ethics in Nigeria since Stephen Farris, a TIME journalist,
visited the country earlier in 2002 and reported on corruption in the
media. In the article, “The whole Truth.” (TIME, International edition,
April 14, 2002), Farris cited an incident where the federal government
bribed foreign journalists to influence their coverage.
The background: In January, 2002, CNN reporter Jeff Koinange aired a

report on an inter-ethnic clash in Lagos. A few residents said a military
government would have done a better job of stopping the fighting. The
federal government was unhappy with this report because it gave the
impression that military dictatorship was still popular among Nigerians.
It responded by visiting European countries to assure the world the
146
democratic movement was on course, and by meeting with foreign

correspondents currently based in Lagos.
Farris reported that the Federal Ministry of Information invited foreign

journalists to a press conference in the capital, Abuja, at the end of the
session, each correspondent was given press packs in which “nestled” an
envelope containing 400 dollars.
The report embarrassed the government that took off in May 1999 by
declaring war on corruption and public officials who are guilty of graft.
President Obasanjo set up a committee headed by the Attorney General
and Minister of Justice, Mr. Kanu Agabi, to probe Farris’ allegation.
While some sections of the media berated the Minister for bribing
foreign journalists, others thought the gesture was a defensible public
relation initiative. Here is how one journalist, Waziri Adio, columnist
for the Thisday Newspaper put it: “This is where the real danger lies.
We have come to the day that too many journalists see nothing untoward
in the action of the government…That is the real insult and
embarrassment, not Mr. Farris’ report. “The journalists did not receive
an “honorarium”, because an honorarium is for a service rendered. Any
respectable news organization should pay for gathering news.
Moreover, the fact that it is a common practice does not make it right,
and the intention of the giver is not the issue. What matters is that
journalists follow a code of ethics. Finally, the fact that it is done openly
does not make it right. It only shows how large the problem has become.
The panel’s report exonerated the Information Minister and tried to
weaken the credibility of Farris’ report. It said the ministry had informed
each invited journalist that it would re-imburse their expenses. The
payments were to honor this pledge. It claimed that this was the practice
all over the world by international agencies such as the UN and the
United States Information Service (USIS). The panel accused Farris of
coming to Nigeria to engage in the defamation of Public officials, and
noted, “it is a criminal offence to publish such malicious falsehoods.”
The report claimed that only two reporters declined the money on the
grounds that they were in Abuja for another assignment, and only one
reporter returned the money later. It also claimed that Jeff Koinange
collected the honorarium and “there is no evidence that he returned the
money.” Neither Koinange nor CNN publicly refuted the claim at that
time. But, in response to my inquiry, Koinange told me that he had
returned the money and described the report as an attempt to scapegoat
him. A CNN public relations spokesman categorically denied the
accusation. In addition to CNN only two foreign media, Reuters and AP,
147
announced that they had rejected the money. That leaves quite a crowd
of sinners.
Would you consider this article too critical of the Nigerian Government
even though it is written by a Nigerian? Discuss.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see that the essence of self-regulatory mechanisms is for

journalistic insiders, as it were, to handle issues which arise from time to
time in the media, without the interference of outsiders. All over the
world, the other professions have similar arrangements for regulating the
ethical conduct of their members. This is to ensure that they continue to
serve the best interest of the society and that bad eggs among them will
not drag the name of the profession in the mud.
However, journalistic ethical conduct cannot be left to the journalists

alone. So the larger society imposes its own mechanisms for regulating
media performance. Journalists and mass media which fall short of
societal expectations are sanctioned accordingly. It therefore believes
the responsible journalist to be guided by his professional code of ethics
in the performance of his duty to the society. By so doing he will earn
societal respect and be free from trouble.
You can also see how ethical complaints against the press are
adjudicated by the Nigerian Press Council (NPC). Although the
aggrieved persons could have gone to court, they chose to complain to
the NPC so that the matter would be painstakingly investigated and in-
house cautioning of the offenders could be done, if they were found
culpable. This is the essence of the ethical mechanisms imposed and
enforced by the professionals themselves. How do you see adjudication
in each case?
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at some self-regulatory ethical mechanisms

in journalism. They include professional codes of ethics, press councils,
journalistic ombudsman, and peer groups.
In this unit, we also identified the ethical mechanisms imposed by

outsiders. We then discussed letters to the editors as an ethical
mechanism. Next, we explained how spontaneous public reactions to
media performance can serve as an ethical mechanism. We also
explained what media monitors do and listed some of them. We also
148
looked at adequate training and remuneration for journalists as ethical

mechanisms. We also discussed legal restrictions as ethical mechanisms
imposed by outsiders.
Lastly, in this unit, we have also reviewed four ethical case studies and
one critical essay on bribery in the Nigerian press. The purpose of this
review is for the student to understand how ethical issues are handled by
a regulatory body such as the Press Council.
1. Compare the Code of Ethics for Nigerian journalists with another

national code in the West African sub region
2. List and explain other ethical mechanisms imposed by outsiders,
which were not mentioned in this unit.
3. Go to the archives of the Nigerian Press Council (NPC), study
and summarize four ethical case studies under the subject
matters:
a. Abuse of Due Process

b. Innuendo
c. Gratification
d. Right of Publisher/Proprietor
Akinfeleye, R. (2003) “Fourth Estate of the Realm or Fourth Estate of

the Wreck: Imperative of Social Responsibility of the Press” An
Inaugural Lecture, University of Lagos.
M’bayo, R. (2003). “Tolerance, Freedom & Truth: The Bed rock of the
Ethics of Mass communication” A Paper Presented at the Times
Journalism Institute Media Conference, Lagos, Nigeria, June 15,
2006.
Momoh, T. (2002). Nigerian Media Law and Ethics, Lagos: Efua Media
Associates.
Nigerian Press Council (1998) Ethics in Nigerian Journalism, Abuja:

Nigerian Press Council
Nigerian Press Council (Not dated) The Nigerian Press Council

Experience
Okunna, C.S. (1995) Ethics of Mass Communication, Enugu: New

Generation Books
149
Seib, P. and K, Fitz-Patrick (1977) Journalism Ethics, New York:

Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
U.S. Consulate General (2003) Ethics in the Media, Lagos: A

Presentation of U.S. Public Affairs Section
Woo, W. (2003) “Journalism and Serving the Public Trust” in Ethics in

the Media, A Presentation By the Public Affairs Section, U.S.
Consulate General, Lagos
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JLS712 MEDIA LAW AND ETHICS

Course Code JLS712

Course Title Media Law And Ethics

Course Developer/Writer Innocent Okoye, Ph.D.

Course Editor Dr John Edemode

Programme Leader Christine I. Ofulue, Ph.D.

Course Coordinator Chidinma H. Onwubere

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

National Open University of Nigeria 2008

First Printed in 2008

All Rights Reserved

Module 1 The Purpose Of Law And Ethics In

Unit 1 The Meaning and Purpose of Law……………. 1-5

Module 2 Press Freedom And The Constitutional

Unit 1 Press Freedom: History, Definitions, Legal

Module 3 The Universal Press Laws………………….. 50

Unit 1 Defamation and its Essentials………………… 50-56

Module 4 Copyright, Contempt National Security

Unit 1 Copyright……………………………………... 71-77

Module 5 The Canons Of Journalism…………………. 99

Unit 1 Truth and Fairness……………………………. 99-105

Module 6 Ethical Problems, Ethical Mechanisms And

Unit 1 Ethical problems in Nigerian Journalism…….. 119-122

MODULE 1 THE PURPOSE OF LAW AND ETHICS IN

Unit 1 The Meaning and Purpose of Law

UNIT 1 THE MEANING AND PURPOSE OF LAW

In this unit, three topics will be in focus:

- Natural and man-made laws

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Understand the differences between natural and man-made laws

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Natural and Man-Made Laws

Laws are the set of rules established by nature or by human authorities,

But we are concerned in this study with man-made laws. Man-made

The following are generally true of man-made laws:

Man-made Laws Contrasted with Natural Laws:

In contrast to man-made laws, natural laws have no effective date, nor

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Identify 10 natural and 10 man-made laws in the town or village where

3.2 Divisions of Man-made Laws

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

3.3 The Purpose of Law in the Society

Ewelukwa (2004:1) identifies five important contributions of law to the

i) Regulation of human conduct

i) Regulation of Human Conduct

Law exists as a social control of customs and morality to ensure that

In an ideal society where citizens conduct themselves in a perfectly

ii) Reconciliation of the interest of the individual to that of the

Some people’s interest may be at variance with those of the community.

iii) Pointing out when interest exists

In a world of interdependence and interpersonal influence interests are

iv) Man owes his dignity to law

v) Change in economic, political, social and religious structures

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Identify five “bad” laws promulgated by the military governments

6.0 TUTOR – MARKED ASSIGNMENTS (TMAs)

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Ewelukwa, B.N. (2004). Introduction to Nigerian Press Law, Onitsha:

Malemi, E. (1999). Mass Media Law: Cases and Materials, Lagos: