Lasers for industrial

applications.

LASERLINE®. Global gas solutions.

02 Contents Introduction 03

Contents. Introduction.

03 Introduction 16 Beam guidance and shaping

The beam guidance system

04 The term “laser” Fibre optics
Processing head
Materials handling
05 Properties of laser radiation

Monochromaticity, coherence and divergence 20 Laser processing of materials

Intensity distribution and mode order
Quality feature of laser radiation Laser cutting
The K and M2 quality parameters Laser welding
Surface treatment with lasers

07 Generation of the laser beam

23 Laser processing in competition with
other technologies
08 Elements of a laser beam source
Thermal cutting and mechanical cutting
The laser-active medium Welding Nowadays, it is impossible to imagine living without the use of lasers. This technical information aims to provide an introduction to laser
The resonator Everybody has something to do with laser technologies every day, be technology. It will pro vide a simplified presentation of essential
Excitation it while phoning, watching TV or surfing on the Internet, where data physical basic principles of the beam gene ration process and explain
Cooling 25 Notes on safety are transferred via laser diodes and fibre optics, be it while shopping the structure of lasers and how they work. Technical gases are often
Other elements (product labels and scanner cash registers) or while driving. We could used in practical laser application, be it as laser gases for generating
Laser radiation also mention laser cutting, laser welding and laser marking in vehicle laser ra diation or as process gases that support the cutting process or
Electrical power supply production, or laser diodes as indicators in headlights, traffic lights etc. welding process. The spe cification of type and purity of these gases
10 Operational conditions of a laser Cutting and welding emissions Most of the lasers (diodes) used are not very powerful and consequently can significantly influence the economic effi ciency of laser facilities
Gases and gas supply unsuitable for materials processing. and should meet the demands placed on quality in the respective
application. This and other technical information documents (see
11 Industrial laser beam sources The structure of these lasers and how they work do not, however, differ “Bibliography“, page 27) aim to provide assistance with reference to
27 Bibliography fundamentally from powerful lasers that are used for laser cutting, laser this subject.
The CO2 laser welding and similar tasks in many areas of industrial production. Here,
The YAG laser the laser beam is powerful enough to spon taneously melt and even
The fibre laser vaporise the workpiece. Laser cutting is the most frequently used laser
The excimer laser method for thermal cutting of steels, stainless steels, aluminium, copper
etc., but also for cutting non-metals, such as plastics, wood, paper,
textiles, and so on. Laser technology has not only replaced existing
methods in welding, it has also opened up entire ly new applications,
such as welding of tailored blanks. Today, it also plays an important role
in surface treatment, hardening, labelling and drilling.

LASERLINE® is a registered trademark of Linde plc.

04 The term “laser” Properties of laser radiation 05

The term “laser”. Properties of laser radiation.

Fig. 1: Non-directional light from a light bulb and directional,

monochromatic, coherent laser light Fig. 2: Distribution of intensity in the laser beam

Intensity Intensity

Bulb 100 W Effect = 1

Laser 1 mW Effect = 107

Danger! Gaussian mode TEM00 Inferior (higher-order) mode

The term “laser“ is an acronym for the descrip tion of the laser process: A laser generates light with particular proper ties that spreads out in the Intensity distribution and mode order
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. In other words: form of an electromagnetic wave. Laser light’s special properties are its
A beam of light is amplified by supply ing a laser-active medium with monochromaticity, coherence and the low divergence. Distribution of beam power across the beam (beam intensity) depends
energy, excit ing it and then using already existing radiation to stimulate on numerous factors, such as the structure of the resonator, the optics
it to emit radiation itself. This radiation is not always in the visible range, The energy of the radiation depends on the frequency in accordance and apertures used, and is des cribed by the so-called mode order.
and particularly the laser beams used in materials processing radiate in
the infrared and ultraviolet ranges, so that they are not visible. light photons. Therefore, we have an electromagnetic wave that, so to The ideal distribution of energy would be Gaussian-shaped with a high
say, effectively carries energy in small portions or pellets (photons). This intensity at the centre of the beam and a decrease in intensity toward
simplified concept can serve as a satisfactory explanation for numerous the edges (see fig. 2). This mode order or distribution of intensity is
phenomena, such as the photoelectric effect, for example. Other referred to as TEM 00
phenomena, such as interference, tend to be better described by the and called the basic mode or Gaussian mode. This mode would be
pure wave character of light. particularly suitable in laser cutting due to the fact that the mode is
radially sym metric to its centre and cutting results will be independent
of the cutting direction. Nevertheless, a different distribution of energy
Monochromaticity, coherence and divergence in the beam may be advantageous in other applications.

Both natural light and light from a light bulb are composed of radiation
of many different wavelengths, a phenomenon that becomes vivid in
a rainbow. Light from a light bulb spreads out in all directions, so that
it is non-directional (see fig. 1). As a result, the intensity of light is
very low at a specific point. Laser light is only composed of radiation
of a single wavelength (monochromati city), all of the waves have the
same phase position (coherence) and they spread out almost in parallel
(low divergence). There fore, in tensity in the laser beam is very high,
even at long distances. Laser beams can consequently be bundled in a
small focal spot of often less than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) diameter at a long
distance from the source of radiation, for example 20 m (60 ft), so that
a concentra tion of energy can be obtained that is sufficient for melting
and vaporising steel.
06 Properties of laser radiation Generation of the laser beam 07

Generation of the laser beam.

Fig. 4: Atomic model, excitation, spontaneous emission,
Fig. 3: Focusing ability of laser radiation

Laser beam Laser beam

4a: Atomic model 4b: Excitation

e E
D D e

Focusing lens Focusing lens AN AN

E1 E2 E1 E2
f

Depth of focus Zf f
4c: Spontaneous emission T = 10-8 s 4d: Stimulated emission T<<10-8 s

E E
Depth of focus Zf
E

e e E

AN AN
Spot size Spot size
E1 E2 E1 E2
df df
Short focal distance Long focal distance AN: atomic nucleus, e: electron, E: energy, E1 and E2: energy levels

Quality feature of laser radiation The K and M2 quality parameters In order to generate a laser beam, you need a laser-active medium, Einstein was the first person to identify the basic prerequisite for lasers
which may be gaseous, solid or liquid, which is stimulated by some kind to function: Emission of stored energy can be induced or stimulated in
As just described, the ideal distribution of energy in the beam would In laser cutting, the grade of laser radiation has a direct influence on the of energy, such as electrical discharge, high frequency or radiation. a targeted fashion before the characteristic dwell time is reached. It
be Gaussian when the laser radiation oscillates in the basic mode TEM 00. achievable qual ity of cut and productivity. Different cutting lasers can be may sound like a paradox, but the way to achieve this is to hit atoms or
2
However, the mode is subject to time-related changes and only serves compared relatively simply on the basis of the K or M quality parameters This medium consists of atoms with a nucleus and surrounding electrons molecules that have already been excited with additional energy, e. g.
2 2
as one criterion for the quality of the beam. (M is common in the USA and UK, K = 1/M ). K describes the ability to (see fig. 4a). If the medium is supplied with energy (E), its atoms or in the form of radiation. Instead of storing the additional energy, the
focus the laser radia tion in a small focal spot in accordance with: molecules take on a state of higher energy – they are “excited.” In the atoms or molecules will release their energy and fall back to the lowest
The divergence of the laser radiation is anoth er criterion. Even though process, its electrons are transferred to a higher level of energy (E1 –> energy level. The radiation released during this stimulated emission
divergence is only very slight, it is present all the time. There fore, as the E2, see fig. 4b). Molecules start to oscillate as a result of the energy travels in the direction of the incoming energy (see fig. 4d). In contrast
distance from the laser increases, the laser beam widens independently f 1 input. However, this so-called excited state is not stable, and the excited to spontaneous emission, it is not released in a random direction.
of construc tion and design. This is why tele scopes are often inserted in K = x x particles always want to return to their own original position (lowest Therefore, the process of stimulated emission amplifies the radiation
the beam path in pro cessing systems with flying optics. They compensate D df level of energy). They do so after characteristic dwell times in E2 ranging coming in: The direction of the emitted radiation is identical to that of
–7 –8
for the divergence and produce uniform beam parameters along the from 10 to 10 s and emit the stored energy in the form of heat or the incoming radiation. If there are enough stimulated atoms/molecules
beam propagation or beam path, thereby enabling constant proc essing impulse energy or in the form of light again (E2 –> E1, see fig. 4c). This and if reinforcements are ensured by a supply of energy, the stimulated
results. process is called spontane ous emission. emission can lead to amplification of the radiation with a snowball
length of the lens, D the diameter of the raw beam and d f the diameter effect. The radiation produced is characterised by uniform wavelength,
The beam pa rameter product, as a product of beam radius and beam of the focus (see fig. 3). Accordingly, K is essentially determined by D uniform phase position and uniform direction of dispersion.
divergence, forms the quality feature for beam quality that takes account and df, i. e. the diameter of the unfocused laser beam and that of the
of both the divergence of the radiation and the diam eter of the beam. focused beam. There fore, the divergence of the beam is also covered.
Generally, the greater the power of the laser, the greater the beam
parameter product and, accordingly, the poorer the beam quality. K = 1 for an ideal Gaussian beam and
Typical values for cutting lasers in metal processing range from 3 to K < 1 for real laser radiation.
30 mm • mrad.
Multi-kW CO 2 lasers for laser cutting usually have a K factor of 0.5– 0.8
which is equal to M = 1.25–2. In this power range, the beam quality of
Nd:YAG lasers is usually inferior to that of CO 2 lasers.
08 Elements of a laser beam source Elements of a laser beam source 09

Elements of a laser beam source. Fig. 5: Basic structure of a resonator (example: CO2 laser)

DC excitation
Partially reflecting mirror
(outcoupling plate)

Reflecting
Laser-active medium
mirror

Cooling Circulating
Gas Vacuum
pump
supply pump

The following components form parts of a laser beam source: The resonator High-frequency excitation, i. e. RF (= radio frequency) excitation, in the The diodes of the diode laser are also mounted directly on a heat
a laser-active medium, a resonator, excitation and cooling. range of a few megahertz takes place through electromagnetic fields exchanger, which ensures good cooling.
Components required to generate laser radiation are contained in the that are produced by electrodes placed outside of the resonator. While
resonator. In the simplest solution, the resonator is built from two the atoms and molecules inside the laser-active medium try to follow A fibre laser is comprised of numerous fibres that only convert relatively
The laser-active medium mirrors between which the laser radiation is reflected back and forth the changing polarity of the field, they eventually heat up, collide with low power indi vidually. In addition, the efficiency of this laser is close to
(see fig. 5). One of the mirrors is fully reflecting, while the other one, each other and eventually get excited. This set-up avoids electrode 50 %, so that there is less overall thermal waste than in other systems.
Media emit the stored energy again in diverse forms. Laser-active media via which the usable laser radiation is outcoupled (leaked), is partially erosion and permits good pulsing ability, but is associated with a higher Accordingly, these systems can usually operate up to laser powers of
are materials that send out part of the emission energy in the form of transmissive. investment cost. some kW without water cooling.
laser radiation. When processing materials using laser radiation, these
media are predominantly carbon dioxide as part of CO 2 gas lasers and a The geometry of the mirrors, diameter and length of the resonator must When using solid-state lasers, excitation is realised by the use of lamps
fluorine/halogen or chlorine/halogen mixture in excimer gas lasers. In match in order to achieve high beam per formance along with good beam or laser diodes or, as applicable, via electrical energy in diode lasers. Other elements
solid-state lasers, the laser-active medium is a doped crystal such as quality. If beam performance is high and the resonator is correspondingly
an yttrium-aluminium-garnet (crystal) enriched with neodymium or, if long, the resonator will be folded several times, e. g. in the shape of a Although other elements such as a control are needed to operate the
applicable, with ytterbium in Nd:YAG and Yt:YAG lasers. Diode lasers triangle or a square. Cooling laser, we will only concentrate on the components that are a minimum
consist of numerous laser diodes that are excited by electrical energy requirement for beam generation.
in a semi conductor. The rather new fibre laser is another example of a Since only a minor portion of the energy used is actually converted into
solid-state laser. In this laser, an element from the “rare earths” group, Excitation laser radiation, it is important to cool the laser medium effectively. Most
e. g. ytterbium, is embedded in the centre of an optical fibre as a laser- of the energy is unfortunately converted into heat and must be taken out
active medium. Diverse forms of energy, such as electrical energy, light photons, of the medium as heat interferes with the generation of laser radiation.
chemical reactions, and so on, are used to stimulate the laser -active Circulation of the laser gas, which is passed through a heat exchanger, is
We should not forget the helium-neon (HeNe) laser, a gas laser with only medium. In CO 2 gas lasers, the energy is fed directly into the laser-active used to cool the laser-active medium in CO 2
low power. However, in contrast to the other lasers mentioned, it radi - medium in the form of a direct current, using electrodes or trans ferred also be removed through the resonator wall without having the laser gas
ates in the visible spectrum and is useful in a laser machine to position capacitively through the resonator wall by means of electromagnetic circulate (diffusion cooling). However, the energy that can be drawn off
material relative to the beam. Laser diodes have replaced helium-neon fields. this way is limited.
lasers in modern laser systems. The high-power laser beam is generally
blocked away when the set-up laser beam becomes visible. When DC (direct current) excitation is used, gas is discharged if a In Nd:YAG lasers, the laser crystal can only be cooled from the outside,
direct current of several kilovolts is applied between the electrodes which also restricts heat removal and limits maximum laser per formance.
By contrast, the Yt:YAG crystal is mounted directly on a heat exchanger
which can cause erosion (electrode erosion). The ability to pulse is in a disc laser, with the effect that higher laser performances and better
limited to a frequency of approx. 1 kilohertz, but the super-pulse mode beam quality compared to Nd:YAG lasers can be achieved as a result of
is possible (please refer to “Operational conditions of a laser”, page 10, direct cooling.
for details).
10 Operational conditions of a laser Industrial laser beam sources 11

Operational conditions of a laser. Industrial laser beam sources.

Fig. 6: cw operation, pulsing and super-pulsing Fig. 7: Advantages of pulsing when cutting sharp corners Fig. 8: Absorption rate for laser radiation in cold metal

cw Super-pulsing
Power Nd:YAG laser: 1.06 µm
Diode laser: 0.8–1.0 µm CO2 laser: 10.6 µm
30
Absorption rate [%]
25

20

15

10

Time 5

0
Wavelength [µm] 1 10

Lasers operate continuously or pulsed. In continuous or cw operation In normal-pulse mode, the laser is basically switched on and off very The productivity of a laser beam process is essentially determined by By comparison, the radiation of diode lasers and solid-state lasers is
(continuous wave), a constant level of laser beam power is provided. quickly (see fig. 6). Common pulse frequencies range from 100 Hz to the laser beam power, although the quality of the laser beam pro vided absorbed better by cold metal. However, the absorption rate improves
10 kHz. The pulsing makes it possible to reduce the average energy input is also important for production quality, especially in applications such noticeably as the temperature increases, all the way to almost complete
The level of power output is adjustable. In actual practice, this means into the workpiece. For example, during cutting, this en ables the energy as high-pre cision cutting and drilling. The rela tionship of the absorption absorption of the entire laser beam power at melting temperatures of
that a laser beam that reflects back and forth between the resonator to be adjusted to the feed rate and the shape of contour, so that sharp rate of the workpiece for the laser radiation used and its wave length the workpiece.
mirrors is generated continuously in the resonator. Part of this radiation corners and filigree structures will not overheat and burn uncontrol lably form another aspect to be considered.
exits the resonator continuously through the output window or output (see fig. 7). Pulsing is often used for piercing as well. The absorption of laser radiation in different materials correlates with
coupler. The absorption of CO 2 laser radiation by cold metallic materials is the wavelength of the laser light. Accordingly, different materials can
In normal-pulsing, the peak pulse power approximately corresponds to relatively poor (see fig. 8). Which means in return that a large portion
During breaks, the resonator is either turned off or preferably operated the laser’s cw power. When super-pulsing is used, the peak power can of the initial laser radiation is reflected (refer to “Notes on safety”, absorbed relatively well by steels, plastics and plywood and moderately
at low power, because the optical elements in the laser can handle a be a multiple of cw power (see fig. 6), if the laser is suited for super- page 25). well by light metals. Nd:YAG laser radiation is absorbed well by steels
low constant thermal load easier than rapid cooling and heating cycles. pulse mode. Super-pulsing can be achieved by using special resonators and non-ferrous metals, but barely ab sorbed by plastics or plywood
The generated low power beam is cooled away. When a workpiece is that can be operated in an oscillator-amplifier configuration. Here, a (see table 1).
processed, power is increased accordingly, and the outcoupled beam, high-grade but low-power laser beam is generated in an oscillator part.
which is now high-powered, is used for operation. It is amplified many times over by the excited medium in the amplifier.
Super-pulsing can further re duce the thermal load on the workpiece. Table 1: Cutting suitability of different materials
Superb cutting quality can be achieved in the pulsing mode and
particularly in the super-pulsing mode, although the attainable cutting Material Wavelength (micrometre)
speed is very low due to fact that the average power is very low. Nd:YAG laser: 1.06 CO2 laser: 10.6
Construction steel highly highly
Stainless steel highly highly
Aluminium well well
Copper well difficult
Gold well not possible
Titanium well well
Ceramics difficult well
Perspex meanly highly
Polyethylene meanly highly
Polycarbonate meanly well
Plywood meanly highly
12 Industrial laser beam sources Industrial laser beam sources 13

Fig. 9: Fast axial gas flow CO2 laser Fig. 10: Transverse gas flow CO2 laser Fig. 11: Diffusion-cooled CO2 laser

Mirrors Mirrors Beam shaping unit RF excitation

Output mirror Cooling water

Elecric discharge

Laser-active
medium Rear
mirror

RF-excited
discharge
Electrodes

Gas flow Electric discharge

Gas flow
Laser beam axis Laser beam axis Laser beam

There are many types of lasers with lots of different applications, most of Fresh laser gas mixture is continuously fed into the systems in order to Transverse gas flow CO2 laser TEA laser
them, however, only deliver very low laser beam power and therefore compensate for losses, change in composition and increasing levels of Even greater cooling performance can be achieved by exchanging the TEA stands for Transversely Excited Atmospheric pressure. The TEA
are not suitable for materials processing. Lasers for industrial applications contaminations. Beyond that, the resonator is flooded with nitrogen laser gas mixture perpendicular to the laser beam axis, as is done in the laser is also a CO 2 laser, although it is not operated at the low pressure
include gas lasers, such as CO 2 or excimer, and solid-state lasers, such as upon shut-down or purged with nitrogen upon restart in various lasers. case of the transverse gas flow laser (see fig. 10). Circulation is effected associated with other CO 2 lasers, but rather at approx. atmospheric
YAG or fibre. by a blower and the laser gas mixture is cooled by a heat exchanger. The pressure. This laser is always operated in pulsed mode, the laser gas
Axial gas flow CO2 laser large resonator volume and efficient cooling make it possible to achieve mixture is cooled convectively and the gas mixture is only exchanged a
In this type of laser, the laser mixture flows in the direction of the laser high laser beam powers in excess of 50 kW. This type of laser is normally few times per year. It produces only a few 100 W and is primarily used
The CO2 laser beam in the resonator (see fig. 9). Slow-flow lasers operate with a gas excited by direct current. Based on the perpendicular temperature for marking, for example, production data and expiration data.
flow rate of approx. 5 m/s (16 ft/s) and are usually excited by a direct gradient, the beam quality is inferior to that of axial gas flow lasers and
As the name implies, carbon dioxide is the laser-active component in current. Cooling is normally accomplished via the reso nator wall, with insufficient for laser beam cutting, but suited for welding and particularly
the CO2 laser’s gas mixture, which also contains helium and nitro gen as the effect that no more than a few 100 W of laser beam power per metre well suited for surface treatment.
additional main components. Besides these main components, a few CO 2 of resonator length can be generated. Accordingly, high laser beam
lasers require admixing of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and/or powers require longer resonators, and the resonators are folded in order Diffusion-cooled CO2 laser
xenon, which additionally support the physical and chemical processes to obtain a compact structure. The slow-flow laser provides high beam A diffusion-cooled laser is equipped with a resonator, in which the laser
in beam generation. The laser gases must meet stringent purity require - quality up to laser beam powers in the range of 1 kW. Precision cutting gas mixture is contained between two flat, water-cooled electrodes,
ments. Even small amounts of contamination, such as moisture and and precision drilling are ex amples of areas of application for this laser. which also act as heat exchangers. Energy is transferred via high-
hydrocarbon com pounds, interfere with beam generation, reduce power frequency excitation (see fig. 11). The gas flow in the resonator is
and lead to inferior beam quality. Heat removal could be improved significantly in the fast-flow laser, controlled by the temperature differ ence only, cooling is effected
where the laser gas mixture is driven by Roots pumps or turbines, convectively via the heat exchanger plates. This laser is very compact as
The laser gas mixture is positioned in glass tubes between the resonator circulated at over 500 m/s (1,640 ft/s) and cooled by a heat exchanger a result of the missing gas circulation, blower, external heat exchanger
mirrors. The glass tubes are connected to a pipe system which is used (see figs. 9 and 5). This makes it possible to build very compact lasers etc. Today, laser powers of up to approx. 8 kW are achieved with a
to circulate the laser gas mix ture from the resonator into the heat with a high output of more than 20 kW. Exci tation is effected by means good beam quality. Recently, a new diffusion-cooled laser has been
exchanger and back into the resonator (see fig. 5). The laser gas can of direct current or high frequency. Most of the lasers used in materials developed, which uses a tubular resonator for convection cooling of the
flow in different ways: in the direction of the laser beam (axial gas flow) processing function according to this principle. laser gas mixture.
or perpendicular to the same (trans verse gas flow), at high or low speed.
Every system has specific advantages and disadvantages. The laser gas
tube can also have a flat, elongated shape, with its walls serving as
heat exchangers and thereby making circulation of the laser gas mixture
obsolete (diffusion-cooled laser).
14 Industrial laser beam sources Industrial laser beam sources 15

Fig. 12: Nd:YAG laser, lamp-pumped Fig. 13: Nd:YAG laser, diode-pumped Fig. 14: Yt:YAG laser (disc laser) Fig. 15: Fibre laser (fibre diameter: 260 µm)

Resonator Flash lamp Laser beam axis Resonator Parabolic mirror Multiple reflection Laser beam
Diode arrays
mirror mirror of pump beams
Nd:YAG crystal Nd:YAG crystal
Resonator Resonator Pump beams
mirror mirror from laser
Outcoupling Inner cladding
diodes
mirror

Heat sink with Laser nucleus

laser disc

Pump beams Outer cladding/polymer

from laser
Reflector
Electricity supply Electricity supply diodes

Cavity mirror Cavity mirror

The YAG laser Nd:YAG laser The fibre laser The excimer laser
The laser crystals are rod-shaped and several laser rods are placed in a
The laser-active medium of the YAG laser is an artificially grown YAG The fibre laser consists of laser diodes and optical fibres, the core or The term “excimer” is short for excited dimer (molecule with 2 atoms,
monocrystal (yttrium-aluminium garnet = yttrium-aluminium crystal) 12) or diode bars (see fig. 13). Each crystal or laser rod produces laser laser nucleus of which is enriched (doped) with a laser-active medium. excited). The excimer laser is also a gas laser, and the laser-active
in which the neodyme (Nd:YAG) or ytterbium (Yt:YAG) is embedded. power of approx. 500 W (lamp excitation) or 750 W (diode excitation). This “laser core” is surrounded by the “pump coat,” into which the light medium is an artificial molecule consisting of an inert gas (Ar, Kr, Xe)
Accordingly, the YAG laser is a solid-state laser that does not require any Heat is exchanged con vectively via the housing. However, at high from the laser diode is radiated from one end. Multiple reflection on the and a halogen (Fl, Cl). This molecule does not exist under “normal”
gas in order to generate laser radiation. The crystals are excited by light powers, heat tensions affecting beam quality and limiting power occur in outer edge of the pump coat causes the pump light to be sent through conditions, but it can be formed in electric discharge and releases bond
energy from lamps or by radiation from laser diodes. the crystals. Lamps have a limited life of a few 100 hours to over 1,000 the laser core repeatedly where the laser-active medium is located. This energy in the form of laser radiation when it dissociates. Fluorine and
hours, depending on use. High laser beam powers and short periods of stimulates it and emits laser radiation. chlorine are toxic and corrosive (especially in contact with moisture)
use contribute significantly to the ageing of lamps. Diode bars contain and require special measures for the arrangement of the gas supply
numerous low-power laser diodes with a useful life of over 10,000 Special plugs at the fibre ends serve as the “end mirror” of the fibre system and the handling of waste laser gas. The radiation from excimer
hours, which is much longer than that of lamps, but require a higher resonator. They prevent the generated laser light from radiating back lasers interacts with the atomic bonds of the material, which are broken
investment. The effectiveness of diode-pumped lasers is higher than into the pump diode and allow part of the laser radiation to leave the up, causing removal of material (so-called “cold” removal). Excimer
that of lamp-pumped ones, and beam quality is better at high powers. resonator. Therefore, the fibre serves as a resonator for beam generation lasers are widely used for corrective eye surgery, but there are also
and beam amplification and, at the same time, as a beam delivery individual applications in materials processing, such as the production
Yt:YAG laser (disc laser) system. Individual fibres generate laser beam powers of up to 500 W of special structures on the workpiece (masking technology), cleaning
The laser crystal has the shape of a narrow disc and is mounted on a with good beam quality and high effectiveness, consequently cooling and paint removal, and the production of microchips in a process called
heat exchanger. This ensures effective and even cooling and largely demands are less strong and water cooling often unnecessary. Higher stereolithography.
avoids thermal tension. A Yt:YAG crystal emits laser radiation of laser beam powers are achieved by bundling the fibres together. This,
significantly more than 1 kW, and the laser radiation is marked by higher however, reduces beam quality.
beam quality than Nd:YAG laser radiation. Yt:YAG lasers are pumped
by diode laser radiation which is reflected many times in the direction
of the crystal. Here, too, we encounter the typical resonator structure:
The cooling body behind the crystal also acts as the total reflector,
the outcoupling mirror lets part of the radiation through for processing

via optical elements in a common beam path.

16 Beam guidance and shaping Beam guidance and shaping 17

Beam guidance and shaping.

Fig. 16: Beam guidance system with a processing head Fig. 17: Fibre optics with a beam coupler and a focusing unit

Mirror
Flexible
Purging gas robot arm

Laser Laser
beam Housing

Lens Focusing unit

Cutting gas

Solid-state laser
Example: laser cutting
Optical fibre Beam coupler

The laser radiation produced by the laser is guided along a path of The beam guidance system Fibre optics
variable length to the processing site. Glass fibres, mirrors, telescopes
and other optical elements are used in this process to guide and shape The laser beam is guided from the laser to the processing site by a Optical fibres can also be used to guide the laser light from the laser to
the beam. A machine tool is often used to handle the workpieces. so-called beam guidance system (beam delivery system, beam path, the process. Optical fibres are flexible glass fibres that conduct the laser
beam cabinet). It utilises diverse optical elements in order to obtain the light of YAG lasers or fibre lasers to a focusing head that might well be
required beam properties. The laser beam and the optical elements are mounted on a robot (see fig. 17). The fibres come in different diameters
normally protected by protective enclosures or bellows (see fig. 16). of less than 100 µm and up to approx. 1,000 µm. The laser beam is
reflected multiple times by the walls of the fibre, thereby losing its low
The beam guidance system requires a special gas atmosphere that harms divergence and good focusing properties.
neither the mirrors nor the beam. The mirrors are normally cooled by
water, so that foreign gases, such as moisture or hydrocarbons, can As a rule of thumb, a laser beam delivered through a fibre can be
condense on the mirror and alter the mirror’s reflection properties. The focused in a focal spot, whose minimum diameter equals that of the
laser beam itself can also be impaired by foreign gases, depending fibre. However, there is a limit to the use of increasingly fine fibres, as
on the beam’s inten sity, changing for example its diameter (“thermal the laser beam produced must be coupled into the fibre first, whereby
blooming” = enlarged beam dia meter), so that it can damage and even specific intensity values cannot be exceeded. The laser beam can also
ignite the mountings of the mirrors and elements of the enclosure. be distributed to a number of fibres as an interesting alternative to the
Argon, CO 2, hydrocarbons, moisture solvents and electronegative gases flexible control of the fibre by a handling system. Here, the available
can come into play here and must be excluded, particularly when laser laser beam power is divided among individual fibres and stations, or the
beam quality is high and power is greater than approx. 3 kW. In this entire power can be assigned to one processing station in each case.
case, high-purity nitrogen should be used as a purging gas for the beam Laser beams from several lasers can also be bundled in one fibre.
cabinet. Com pressed air can be used instead of nitrogen at low beam
intensities, but it needs to be free of hydrocarbons and moisture.
18 Beam guidance and shaping Beam guidance and shaping 19

Fig. 18: Coaxial gas feed and lateral gas feed via Plasma Jet supported by Cross Jet Fig. 19: Multi-station operation with a divided laser beam

Laser beam Laser beam Movable mirrors

Welding Cross Jet

gas supply

Nozzle Plasma Jet

Laser x-y table Rotation table Robot

Processing head In lateral feed, an additional gas nozzle is used (Plasma Jet), which Materials handling
guides the process gas directly into the process area without in tense
The laser beam is focused in the processing head at the end of the beam contact with the laser beam. An additional gas nozzle is needed to A relative movement between the workpiece and the laser beam (called
delivery or the optical fibre with the aid of mirrors or lenses. The optical protect the optics. This is done by placing a sharp gas jet, the Cross Jet, feed or travel) is needed in order to process a specific surface. This can
elements in the head must be pro tected from foreign gases and particles which effectively blows fumes and spatter from the weld pool laterally be done by hand if the workpiece is very small, e. g. in the jewellery
such as smoke and spatter. In many cases, process gas must be supplied away, directly beneath the optics (18). The Cross Jet must not interfere industry, but large work pieces are often fed on an x-y table under
as well. Different kinds of gas feed systems with coaxial action or lateral with the process gas atmosphere as a result of inaccurate ad justment. the laser processing head, with the head as suming height adjustment
action are used in many cases. (z-axis). Particularly large workpieces can also be stationary and the
Originally, the Plasma Jet was designed to affect the plasma formation. It processing head travels in all dimensions, e. g. in a portal system.
In coaxial feed, the laser beam and the gas jet follow the same path, so produces a strong, narrow, turbulent gas jet and injection of surrounding
that the gas has intense contact with the laser beam and can be ionised air is very likely to happen. As a result, there would be limited or no Systems where the processing head moves in all directions are called
(see fig. 18). On the other hand, only one gas is needed, as it can act shield ing of the weld pool at all. A better solution is a nozzle with a “flying optics systems.” In 3D applications, the workpiece can be
both as a shielding gas and a process gas; plus there is the advantage of larger opening in the same po sition, pro ducing a smooth laminar gas stationary and the laser beam is moved, for example, via robot. It is
the direction of the feed being irrelevant. flow. also possible to move the workpiece in all directions under a fixed laser
beam. Moving the beam as well as the workpiece may be required to cut
When “almost” lateral gas feed is used, a number of holes are drilled in complex structures.
the body of the coaxial nozzle, and the shielding gas exits outside the
centre and through several channels on the underside of the nozzle. This Processing time of a workpiece may be very short in the entire cycle
design overcomes the dependency on direction. A Cross Jet is normally time, depending on degree of automation and size of job per workpiece.
needed addition ally to ward off dust and smoke. That is why sometimes more than one processing unit is supplied by the
same laser beam source where the laser beam can be switched from one
20 Laser processing of materials Laser processing of materials 21

Laser processing of materials.

Fig. 20: The basic difference between laser cutting with oxygen and laser cutting with nitrogen

Laser beam Laser beam

Cutting gas: Cutting gas:

oxygen nitrogen

Laser beams are used in cutting, welding and also in surface processing Laser cutting Laser cutting with nitrogen Laser cutting with air
techniques such as hardening, remelting and removal. The temperatures When cutting with nitrogen, the energy needed to melt the workpiece Cutting of non-metals with air has been around for a long time. It has not
required for igniting, melting and vaporising the material can be In laser cutting, we principally distinguish between laser cutting with must be provided fully by the laser beam, with the non-reactive gas jet found many appli cations with regard to cutting of metals.
achieved by focusing the laser beam in a very small focal spot, using a oxygen and laser cutting with a non-reactive gas such as nitro gen merely serving to blow out the melt (see fig. 20).
lens or the mirrors of the processing head. or argon. Cutting quality is exceptionally high here (so-called “laser The main reasons are that, first of all, cut quality is gen erally inferior to
quality”): precise contours, parallel cutting edges, little roughness of the The cutting of stainless steel in the thickness range of less than 1 mm the quality achieved with oxygen and nitrogen, especially when cutting
The focal spot is positioned at varying heights relative to the work-piece, cutting surface, no adhesions (burrs), no caving etc. (0.040 in) to 25 mm (1 in) and the cutting of other high-alloy steels material thicker than 1.5 mm (0.06 in). Secondly, the lifetime of the
e. g. at the upper surface of the workpiece during laser cutting with and non-ferrous metals constitute the main field of application. Here, focusing lens is generally shortened due to contaminants (oil, moisture,
oxygen, in the workpiece during laser welding or close to the underside Laser sublimation cutting tends to be used more on non-metals. Please stainless steels are cut with high-purity nitrogen, which maintains the particles), which are always present in shop air. Last but not least,
of the workpiece during laser cutting with nitrogen. One can, however, refer to the technical information “The laser cutting process” for further corrosion resistance of the material. Certain nitride-forming materials changing air quality would result in frequent parameter adjustments,
deviate significantly from these general rules when certain materials, notes and information. such as titanium and zirconium can only be cut with argon in an argon which are generally disregarded, especially if the machine is supposed
the desired production quality, the production process or the available atmosphere. to run unattended or in a light-out cycle. In some cases, however, cutting
beam intensity mandate a different focal position. Laser cutting with oxygen with air can meet the required cut quality.
In laser cutting, similar to oxyfuel cutting, the workpiece is heated to Mild steel is also cut with nitrogen occa sionally, if the oxide layer which
Focusing can be entirely unnecessary in hardening and other surface ignition temperature directly by the laser beam and then burned in forms during cutting with oxygen must be avoided, e. g. for a subse quent Nevertheless, thorough calculations should include compressed air
treatment proc esses where the laser beam is unfocused and processes a an oxygen jet (see fig. 20). High cutting speeds on sheet metal with a painting or powder coating procedure. (electricity, mainten ance, spare parts for the compressor), optics, system
large surface per operation. thickness be tween 1 mm (0.040 in) and over 25 mm (1 in) are attained shut-down and production failure rate.
as a result of the exothermic reaction and the additional generation of
energy. Laser cutting with oxygen is primarily used for un alloyed and Laser sublimation cutting
low-alloyed steels. The purity of the cutting oxygen used is reflected In laser sublimation cutting, the material is vaporised spontaneously.
directly in the attainable cutting speed. This method is used, for example, for cutting wood or fabrics. In metal
processing, very high inten sities, which could only be provided using
super-pulse operation, would be needed. The method is only used in
special cases due to the low feed rate it is associated with.
22 Laser processing of materials Laser processing in competition with other technologies 23

Laser processing in competition with other

technologies.
Fig. 21: The basic difference between laser welding without a keyhole
(heat conduction welding) and with a keyhole (deep penetration welding)

Conduction mode welding Keyhole welding

Laser beam Laser beam

Weld pool Plasma cloud

Weld pool
Solid weld
metal Metal vapour/plasma
in the keyhole

Solid weld
metal

Welding direction Welding direction

(moving laser beam) (moving laser beam)

Laser welding Surface treatment with lasers Lasers and laser materials processing are relatively new technologies When a decision is made in favour of a laser unit, the cutting process
exhibiting advan tages over existing technologies, for example flexibility itself is often not the only thing taken into account. The overall
Two or more materials are usually joined in laser welding. Depending on We distinguish between several different processes in surface of power adjustment and precision of energy input into the material to production chain is also considered. In that respect, the laser unit can,
the thickness of the material, a flat, broad weld seam may be sufficient, processing, such as laser transformation hardening, surface modification, be treated. On the other hand, the investment and capacity utilisation for example, reduce preliminary work or follow-up work, perhaps make
like the one produced in heat conduction welding with lower-power/ laser alloying and laser coating. Hard layers of a precisely defined required may pose a disadvantage. A laser unit is not a universal tool other steps in production partly superfluous, or create entirely new
intensity lasers (see fig. 21). If intensity in the focus is sufficiently high, width and depth can be produced in transformation hardening. Surface that can perform all of the tasks in a company economi cally. Today, it is perspectives due to filigree structures and precise contours. More than
a keyhole is formed that enab les deep penetration by the laser beam modification can, for example, refer to remelting or tempering. still important to determine the production quality demanded and how 40,000 systems installed worldwide speak for themselves. Capacity
(so-called “deep penetration welding”), so that thicker materials can be that demand can be met with the best economic efficiency. Here, laser utilisation and tooling should be analysed critically when making
welded (see fig. 21). During alloying, gaseous materials or solid materials are brought into technology is certainly one of a number of options. preliminary considerations in favour of or against a laser unit. Minimum
the surface in order to selectively change properties of the surface layer. capacity utilisation should generally be guaranteed and loading should
Formation of a plasma cloud over the welding spot that can absorb and When coating, a layer is applied to a workpiece in order to improve be more or less automatic, depending on the parts spectrum, in order to
deflect laser radiation is associated with the forming of the keyhole. corrosion resistance or wear resistance. Argon is the most commonly Thermal cutting and mechanical cutting permit longer, effective processing times by the laser unit.
The higher the intensity of laser radiation and the thicker the resulting used shielding gas in these processes, which are often associated with
plasma cloud, the stronger the absorption and deflection of the laser the lower intensity of an unfocused or defocused beam. Please refer to Mild steels within a sheet metal thickness range of up to 10 mm (0.40 in)
radiation by the plasma cloud. the technical information “The laser welding process” for further notes are predominantly processed in the manufacturing industry. The thermal
and information. cutting methods of oxyfuel cutting, plasma cutting and laser cutting, in
The thickness of the plasma cloud can be in fluenced by the welding addition to the mechanical processes of punching, nibbling, shearing,
gas. Helium reduces the plasma cloud, argon in turn causes the plasma and water jet cutting are available here. Lasers, with their special
cloud to expand. The welding gas also serves to protect the welding advantages, such as cutting speed and cutting quality, are tools with
area, with the heavy and inert argon ensuring that air in the welding no wear and tear, which can espe cially excel within the sheet thickness
area is displaced effectively (flat position). By comparison, helium is a range of up to 15 mm (0.6 in) and over, and position them selves well
very light, inert gas that easily rises from the welding area. Both gases compared to all other methods (including plasma cutting) when it comes
are used as a welding gas mixture (3 kW and higher in CO 2 lasers) if to stainless steel processing as a major emphasis. In punching, a special
laser radiation and intensity are high in order to meet both requirements tool is needed for each contour element, which is not economical unless
for the welding gas, namely good blanketing of the weld and plasma a larger series of uniform contour elements are being processed. This is
reduction. Please refer to the technical information “The laser welding where lasers as a single-head unit or dual-head unit offer much greater
process” for further notes and information. flexibility, so that punching is increasingly being pushed out of the
market.
24 Laser processing in competition with other technologies Notes on safety 25

Notes on safety.

Welding Actually, however, lasers are their own worst enemies here: The tiny Lasers are associated with potential sources of hazards, such as laser Misdirected radiation and reflections must be blocked off. That is why
energy beam requires very precise seam preparation or it would pass radiation, electric power supply and by-products, resulting in laser the law stipulates that the laser beam and the work zone must be in an
When it comes to joining processes, we could list many more methods, over common joining gaps with no transfer of energy. The solution to materials processing that requires special care and corresponding safety enclosure. Beyond that, all those present, and the machine operators in
but the laser is pre dominantly forced to compete against methods of this problem is precise seam preparation (almost no gap) and labour- systems. The gas cylinders, cylinder bundles and tanks normally used for parti cular, should wear protective goggles that are appropriate for the
welding technology that can be mechanised, such as the MIG, MAG, TIG, intensive clamping tech nology. Another “solution” is presented by the gas supply also need to be handled prudently and require appropriate laser radiation being used. YAG laser radiation and fibre laser radiation
plasma, and electron beam welding processes. We could also mention combination of laser welding and shielded gas welding in a so-called accident prevention measures. are very dangerous to the eye and require special protective measures
flame welding here, although it does not represent any real competition. hybrid process. Here, the shielded gas method makes sure that the seam and approved safety goggles. Standard protective goggles made of glass
There are numerous interesting laser applications in laser welding, but flanges are processed and delivers the additional material. The laser or acrylic glass are not suitable at all, as glass and acrylic glass allow YAG
it would be wrong to talk about a breakthrough like that in the field of permits deep penetration and the welding speed is significantly higher Laser radiation laser radiation and fibre laser radiation to pass through.
cutting. than when using shielded gas welding on its own.
Lasers used in materials processing radiate in the infrared or ultraviolet
Existing welding standards form an other obstacle on the path to lasers Electrical power supply
as universal tools. For example, the precise energy beam produces high an HeNe laser or a laser diode, both low-power lasers that radiate in the
grades of hardness at high weld ing speeds and corresponding cooling visible spectrum, are switched into the beam path when equipping a Laser units contain current-carrying and storage components and parts.
rates, but in a much narrower range than when conventional welding laser machine. There is a threat of burns, shock, or death as a result of an electric shock
methods are used, so that existing limit values need to be reconsidered. if the enclosure of a laser is opened without cutting the power and
TTT diagrams and mechanical-technological test procedures are geared The intensive laser light of the materials processing laser is especially discharging certain elements. Therefore, service and maintenance of
to cooling rates and seam widths of conventional welding methods and dangerous to the eye. CO 2 laser radiation is absorbed by the cornea, lasers should always be performed by authorised personnel only.
are barely suited for laser seams. YAG laser radiation and fibre laser radiation penetrate through to the
retina, which can be destroyed irrevocably by relatively little radiation.
There are completely new applications that have been made possible Misdirected laser radiation can come directly from the laser and threaten Cutting and welding emissions
by lasers, such as tailored blanks welding. These patchwork sheet the eyes as a result of a faulty parameter setting, an opened cover, a
metal boards made of sheets of varying thicknesses and composition displaced mirror, etc. Other hazards include skin burn or inflammation Depending on the materials being used, dust and smoke that are
are formed into, for example, a car door after laser welding, with the from combustible materials as a result of misdirected laser radiation. hazardous to health can occur in laser welding, and particularly in laser
material strength being selected in accordance with the transfer of force. cutting. Therefore, it is important to always extract fumes and dust from
No other process permits productivity and formability of seams matching The greatest hazard, however, usually stems from reflected laser the work zone and constantly provide sufficient fresh air. Cutting plastics
those of laser welding. radiation. As you will recall: the major share of the laser radiation is is especi ally critical, as corrosive and toxic gases can be formed. They
reflected by cold material first (see fig. 8 on page 11). To this we can add must be extracted and trans ported to the outside of the building. During
reflections of workpiece edges as a result of turbulence in the weld pool laser cutting of plastics and metals in one laser unit, the extraction filters
etc. must be replaced every time the material is changed in order to prevent
an explosion.
26 Notes on safety Bibliography 27

Fig. 22: The spectral ranges of light and different lasers

Visible light
UV
UV IR
IR

Excimer
Excimer HeNe
HeNe Diode
Diode
KrF
KrF Ruby
Ruby Nd:YAG CO
CO22

0.1
0.1 11 110
0

Wavelength[µm]
Wavelength [µm]

Gases and gas supply The gases themselves are contained in the air we breathe, which is
harmless as such. Nevertheless, the oxygen concentration in the ambient Bibliography.
Gases for laser materials processing are supplied in gaseous form in gas air should not be changed. A re duction of the oxygen level can lead to
cylinders or cylinder bundles, or in liquid form in cryogenic vessels, or, as fainting and even, in extreme cases, to death as a result of suffocation,
applicable, in a tank. Gas cylinders and cylinder bundles may be stored and an oxygen enrichment significantly increases the risk of ex plosion. LASERLINE®. Laser gases and services. Further reading
in well-ventilated places only. Cylinders must always be secured, so that For example, a change in oxygen concen tration can occur when cutting
they cannot fall over as this can cause injury or damage to the cylinder with oxygen (enrichment) or nitrogen (displacement) in a confined With the Linde LASERLINE® programme, we offer our customers a “Laser gases and gas supply systems“
valve. space that is not exhausted and not provided with sufficient fresh air. complete package consisting of appropriate gases, customised gas “The laser cutting process“
supply systems and comprehensive customer service. “The laser welding process“
When gas is being withdrawn, its pressure must be decreased to Carbon dioxide is a heavy gas that can collect in basins and basement “Evaluation of costs in laser processing“
operating pressure, which can be done using the corresponding cylinder rooms and then displace respiratory oxygen. Therefore, attention should For a selection of other technical information documents, please
pressure regulator and/or the point-of-use regulators provided. They be paid to effective extraction or, as applicable, good ventilation when contact your local Linde representative.
must be suited for the respective purity of the gas being used and carbon dioxide is being used as a process gas.
opened slowly in order to avoid a pressure shock that would damage
subsequent installations. The cylinder must be resealed when the work Picture credits
is finished. Pressure regulators should only be connected and replaced Please contact Linde for additional safety information.
by authorised personnel. Safety valves settings and safeguards may not Image on page 16: IFSW, Stuttgart, Germany
be changed at all.

Authors

Dr.-Ing. J. Berkmanns, Linde Inc., NJ, USA

Dr.-Ing. M. Faerber, Linde AG, Linde Gases Division,
Hamburg, Germany
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