societies

Article
A Communication Study of Young Adults and Online
Dependency during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Patrícia Silveira 1,2 , Ricardo Morais 1,3, * and Simone Petrella 2,4,5

1 Faculty of Design Technology and Communication (IADE), Universidade Europeia, 1600-604 Lisboa, Portugal;
patricia.silveira@universidadeeuropeia.pt
2 Communication and Society Research Center, University of Minho, 4710-457 Braga, Portugal; spetrella@ucp.pt
3 LabCom—Communication and Arts, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
4 Faculty of Philosophy and Social Science, Catholic University, 4710-297 Braga, Portugal
5 Centre for Philosophical and Humanistic Studies, Catholic University, 4710-297 Braga, Portugal
* Correspondence: ricardo.morais@labcom.ubi.pt

Abstract: People use digital media and the Internet daily. The time that young people spend
connected to digital devices will increase as technology advances, which could have severe health
risks and behavioral dependence implications. In the context of the current pandemic, in which
socializing, studying, and working is changing, this question has become particularly relevant.
Therefore, we propose to investigate the perceptions of young university adults—understood as
generation Z—regarding their digital media practices, particularly during the pandemic, and to study
the consequences of a permanent connection to these formats on the development of an addiction to
the Internet. Our quantitative method approach applied questionnaires to a sample of 407 young
university adults studying in Portugal. Through this survey, we could target a specific user group,
quantify their consumption, and measure their online experiences. The results point to an increase
in dependence on the Internet during confinement. While it is true that carrying out academic
Citation: Silveira, P.; Morais, R.; work is one of the reasons for this growth, it is noteworthy that the respondents sought the online
Petrella, S. A Communication Study world in a significan way to pass the time and escape their routine. In addition, they confess to
of Young Adults and Online experiencing some consequences of excessive use, such as sleep disturbances and adverse emotional
Dependency during the COVID-19 reactions—such as instabilities, depression, and nervousness—when not online. We conclude that the
Pandemic. Societies 2022, 12, 109. pandemic has intensified online dependence. However, above all that, it is necessary to look at the
https://doi.org/10.3390/
mental and general health consequences that this excessive use has brought, which may not be visible
soc12040109
or manifested by the youth in the short term, and may come to have consequences in the long term.
Academic Editors: Claudiu Coman
and Maria Cristina Bularca Keywords: generation Z; online dependency; pandemic; Portugal

Received: 10 June 2022

Accepted: 13 July 2022
Published: 19 July 2022
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
Recent studies have shown that Generation Z, born between 1995 and 2010, during
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
the emergence of the Internet and new technologies, experience their daily lives whilst
published maps and institutional affil-
permanently connected to online platforms and their contents [1]. The day-to-day of these
iations.
young adults is underscored by the presence of the new media, which has implications for
their personal, social, and professional lives. For developed societies, access to the Internet
and digital platforms is widespread. For example, over 3.7 million individuals have Internet
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. access in Portugal, according to PORDATA [2]. There is an upward trend based on the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. growth witnessed since 1997, when there were only 88,670 people with Internet access.
This article is an open access article Commenting on the Portuguese case, Simões et al. [3] stated that access to the new media
distributed under the terms and has increased significantly in recent years, particularly at home, where the media online
conditions of the Creative Commons practices mainly concern leisure (social media, videogames, and music). These findings
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// can carry over to other European countries such as Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Ireland,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ Italy, Spain, and Romania [4].
4.0/).

Societies 2022, 12, 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12040109 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/societies

Societies 2022, 12, 109 2 of 24

Young adults are immersed in this digital and technological ecosystem, actively con-
suming these platforms—this carries ramifications in terms of behavior reformulation both
at a personal and social level. In a study [5] describing online activity metrics among 1824
Portuguese children and youths in order to assess their digital media practices and online
consumption, the authors concluded that the everyday lives of these users are characterized
by intensive online engagement. Furthermore, the study also stated that juvenile culture is
built around digital platforms. The authors also ascertained that almost 90% of youths go
online daily, mainly through laptops or mobile phones. In the collective context of social-
ization, mediated through the online world, these practices emerge mostly as recreational
(listening to music online, watching videos online, or engaging in social media). Internet
usage as a means to academic ends is not prominent.
Understanding these matters regarding children and youths is a consistent goal within
national and international academia [3,4,6–9]. However, there is a need to delve deeper
into the online practices of young people who are now coming into adulthood, and their
ramifications in their personal, social, political, academic, and professional contexts. Within
the scope of this issue, we consider that it would be exciting to research further the pos-
sibility of the excessive consumption of the Internet [1] as a cause of risk for the users’
health. The use of technology may have its advantages, at the cognitive and motor levels,
for example, and as a learning aid [10]. However, technological advances and the ease of
access to these platforms in developed countries tend to significantly increase the time that
young people are connected to these devices, which in turn may have profound health
implications regarding behavioral dependency [11]. Gómez-Galán et al. [12] state that
University students are heavy Internet users. In certain situations, addiction to online social
networks can result from depression, harassment, and anxiety, affecting their daily lives,
including their academic responsibilities.
This subject is more relevant in light of the historical moment we live in, provoked
by the pandemic, which forced people into isolation. This new lifestyle increased the use
of media to engage with family and peers, and also caused new work dynamics and the
redefinition of time, space, and the dynamic of media consumption in our hyper-connected
homes [13–17].
This research concerns the perceptions of young adults who are university students,
understood as belonging to generation Z, regarding their digital media practices in a pan-
demic context. Furthermore, the study approaches the consequences of the permanent
connection to these new formats, such as the risk of developing behavioral dependence
expressed through risk factors such as mood swings, intolerance, irritability and depression,
sleep disorders, loss of concentration, emotional fragility, and social isolation, among others.
Contextualizing the approach within Communication Studies, this study is based on strik-
ing a balance between the premises of Mass Communication Research. More particularly,
we examine the possibility that access to media and technology carries health risks as well
as those of sociocultural theories, shifting the attention from technology to audiences, and
emphasizing personal and contextual circumstances as determinant elements for the uses
and the understanding of these, and the potentially negative consequences thereof.
On the other hand, although several studies have already been carried out on the
negative impacts of social media use [18,19], other studies also highlight the importance
of more academic inquiries into social media use [20–22]. The new studies are necessary
because the “COVID-19 crisis is still actual and novel (...) publications on online addictive
behaviors are unbalanced and limited, depending on countries, and some conclusions are
speculative” [23] (p. 16).
Finally, these issues have significant implications from the point of view of digital
literacy, calling for the implementation of measures to develop skills that allow young
people to get the most out of technology and learn to manage their relationship with digital
tools more positively, reversing or preventing possible health consequences. In this context,
and highlighted by the potential adverse effects of the new pandemic, active intervention
is requested from the primary mediating contexts: the family, formal learning spaces, and
Societies 2022, 12, 109 3 of 24

public health institutions and professionals working in psychology. This mediation can
hopefully be expressed through permanent monitoring and constructive and evaluative
awareness regarding the less-good adjuvant side of using the new media.

2. Generation Z: The Mundane, Technology, and Sociability

Generation Z includes all individuals born between 1995 and 2010, in the age of the
Internet and technology. The generation of digital natives was coined by Marc Prensky in
2001 in the On the Horizon journal. This generation is also known for its strong sense of
ethics and social responsibility, passion for travelling and discovering the world, online
social relationships, and difficulties in taking on work commitments and rules that limit
time and space. However, this group also faces work-related setbacks, as a product of the
transformations at the sociopolitical, geographical, and economic levels which are relevant
to organizations, respective operational models and employability policies. These issues
are reshaping their way of life, living the present, and planning the future. The Portuguese
National Institute of Statistics published a report titled “Young people in the labor market”
(“Jovens no mercado de trabalho” in Portuguese), in which it identified problems associated
with the experience of young people (aged 15 to 34 years) in terms of education and
employment. This analysis shows that qualification levels have gradually risen, i.e., the
number of young people pursuing higher education has increased. However, even if the
unemployment levels for this group have fallen, many still struggle to obtain their first job
and ensure job stability. The latter is a very worrying and prominent issue in the public
and political debate, where there is a clamoring for measures to help reduce uncertainty
and job insecurity. For this reason, we see, on the one hand, an increase in the number of
qualified young people choosing to leave their country of origin. On the other hand, we
see the possibility that those who stay will suffer repercussions in terms of physical and
mental health, with consequences for the family and social relationships, as has been noted
by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Agency for Safety and Health
at Work (OSHA).
In terms of access to and involvement with media and technology, young people
naturally see these platforms in their daily lives. They are used to having access to a world
of information like no other generation did, and are also qualified to help future generations
to use technologies while, at the same time, qualifying to be employed in organizations
with a solid commitment to this sector. “Transformed” by media and technology, this
generation, according to Prensky [24], has unique characteristics and digital literacy skills
acquired by the permanent use of platforms. However, from another perspective, which
we agree with, some authors are suspicious of the mechanistic approach characterizing
Prensky’s vision, and consider that the skills for the use of technology are not innately
acquired. Furthermore, these authors also consider that it is not enough to have grown up
with these platforms to develop digital skills.
Despite this apparent lack of consensus in the literature, it is undeniable that media
and technology increasingly occupy a place as agents of socialization from an early age, re-
configuring sociability and contributing, in their way, to the apprehension and assimilation
of aspects of the world. Although the concept of socialization is ambivalent and subject to
multiple debates [25], it is undeniable that it is a process of constructing the individual in
themselves and the world through appropriation, reinvention, and reproduction. Several
actors and contexts intervene. Moreover, in this context, from an early age, the media are
privileged elements in this journey. Studies have shown that the process of mediatization
marks the daily life of the new generations in such a way that an analysis of their worlds
that does not take into consideration the media in its most varied formats is insufficient
to understand how these generations appropriate reality and construct their visions of
themselves and the world. Therefore, the media function as knowledge networks of re-
ality [26], and as permanent references in growth, personal and social development, and
learning [27].
Societies 2022, 12, 109 4 of 24

Inês Amaral [28] recalls that new technologies undeniably influence individuals’
and societies’ lives. They are networks with direct implications for the construction of
representations about the world and how we relate to it and others. The author advocates
that the development of the technological and digital world promotes the emergence of
new forms of culture, new social relationships, communities in virtual environments, and
new behaviors:
There is an online social revolution underway regarding the use and appropria-
tion of technology. People change their behaviors: they work, live, and think in
networks. (...) The social Internet is understood as all the interactive devices that
allow communication and interaction in a collective model and explore multiple
innovations that induce social and communicational change through technology.
(...) The Internet introduced and has been maximizing the communicational
paradigm of individualization. [28] (pp. 19–20)
In this sense, younger generations know and maximize experiences in virtual con-
texts, and are precursors of new social, geographical, economic, cultural, and educational
frameworks. They express new ways of being, learning, working, consuming, relating, and
living, feeding new paradigms and academic debates that seek to effectively understand
what these new groups are and how they know the world and place themselves in it.
Thus, we are talking about a group with particular characteristics that simultaneously
drive transformations in distinct generational groups and, in general, society. When we
look at the evolutionary path of media and technology, we see that television has been
a significant milestone in the transformation of children and teenagers’ socialization by
allowing contact with contents and realities that, until then, were not part of the children’s
world. Therefore, this medium is a mediating element of diverse and distinct facts that
children and youngsters did not know, and a reference in the process of self-understanding.
Although television continues to be an integrated medium in children’s daily lives, it
is still very present in the domestic space and offers content that these audiences appreciate.
The growth in access to and use of the Internet by children and young people is also
remarkable. In this regard, the EU Kids Online project, which involved several international
partners, sought to understand better these practices related to the Internet and the digital
world of children and young people. The project was developed to inform the European
Commission and create policies aimed at safer Internet use by children and young people.
Furthermore, the project showed that the Internet is integrated into these users’ lives,
providing various services (such as doing homework, watching video clips, and sending
instant messages, among others). From research conducted between 2006 and 2015, in
which researchers from 25 European countries (including Portugal) were involved in
collecting empirical data on the use that children and young people (9–16 years old) make
of the Internet [29], the national results show that these users access this platform very
often, and increasingly early.
Moreover, they are the ones accessing the Internet from their laptop computer the
most. The national policies implemented between 2008 and 2011 in Portugal are seen as the
leading cause. Moreover, the democratization of early Internet access may have contributed
to the fact that the first use of the network by children up to 10 years old is, on average,
among the highest in the European context [30].
However, we emphasize that the evidence on children’s early access to computers
and the Internet does not necessarily imply that the practices are homogeneous, or that
these users have equal skills in working with these tools. For this reason, we believe that
research must incorporate a set of personal and sociodemographic variables that may have
implications for access practices and online consumption.

3. The Internet and Digital Platforms in Young People’s Lives

Within the field of Communication Sciences, in research developed in recent years
on the relationship between young people and the Internet and digital platforms, there
are different ways of approaching the subject. On the one hand, there are the studies
Societies 2022, 12, 109 5 of 24

closer to a mediacentric approach that emphasizes the Internet and—on the media and
digital platforms—delegating to a secondary place the users’ agency and their life contexts
as if these had little or no connection with the uses and meanings that are drawn from
the experience with the media [24]. On the other hand, socio-centric research focuses on
understanding the nature of interactions by considering a set of variables besides per-
sonal, social, and cultural circumstances [30–34]. From this perspective—and in particular,
regarding Internet access and use of this tool—studies show that although access and
use are widespread among younger people, the same cannot be said about the modes of
service and experiences, as they are affected by a set of variables and circumstances, from
the social origin and family morphology to the gender and age of users [2]. The authors
assume that users’ needs, preferences, acquired values and customs are also fundamental
to this involvement.
In recent decades, there have been a growing number of studies on access to the
Internet and social media and the nature of the uses of these tools [30,35–38]. The Pew
Research Center, a research and information center on behaviors, attitudes, and trends in
the life of American society and the world, periodically provides data on media use. In
a report published on 1 March 2018 [39], on the uses of the Internet and social media by
American young adults (18–24 years old), Snapchat, Instagram, and Twitter were pointed
out as the most popular platforms for this group, being accessed daily, and at various times,
mainly through mobile devices. Of these, 51% admit they would have difficulty giving up
these platforms, which decreases as the users’ age increases, indicating a predisposition for
less dependence. In another report from April 30 of the same year [40], with the same age
group, on the impact of the Internet and social media on society, the users provided positive
feedback regarding the presence of these platforms in their lives and the general context
of society. Of these, there is a tendency for those with higher education qualifications to
consider that the Internet impacts society positively. The reasons are mainly the ease and
speed of access to information and the possibility of connecting with family and friends
through digital platforms.
Overall, the younger generations have more Internet access than previous generations.
Of those, young adults with qualifications are more likely to access the Web and to prefer
digital platforms as part of their daily lives compared to those with lower qualification
levels [41,42]. These generational differences also stand out regarding the types of use and
preferences regarding digital media, with young adults favoring social media platforms.
Although the use of the network is part of the daily life of young people, particularly
in developed societies, it should be noted that this can translate into a set of practices with
implications for socialization and cultures. This also results in negative consequences for
the lives of these users when used in excess and in an unaware manner. Amaral et al. [28]
(p. 128) speak of an “umbilical relationship between digital consumption and socially
structuring practices for the formation of a youth culture”.
In recent decades, there has been a growing number of studies that have pointed
to the potential damage caused by Internet addiction [12,15,17,43–48], alerting us to the
importance of studying and preventing the consequences that can arise from excessive and
addictive Internet use. Such studies have defined addiction from a behavioral point of view,
based on man–machine interaction, passive or active, that can be considered excessive [49].
Such behavior interferes with daily life, bringing consequences to health such as sleep
problems, increased levels of anxiety, stress, depression, and low self-esteem—these end
up affecting family, social, and professional relationships [50,51]. In this regard, empirical
studies on Internet addiction highlight the impact of these factors on the performance
of essential functions in school and work settings, leading to a significant reduction in
academic and professional success rates [52]. Although there is consensus around the
associated risks of compulsive online behavior, Internet addiction is not unanimously
recognized within academia [53]. Controversies still exist regarding the factors at the
genesis of the addiction, the elements that compose it, and its path [54].
Societies 2022, 12, 109 6 of 24

Likewise, Internet addiction presents different typologies, sub-typologies and nuances,

making it difficult to standardize the research [55]. At the national level, research on
the subject is still poorly developed compared to the international panorama, focusing
mainly on social media and online videogames [2,56]. However, studies have shown
that—despite affecting a small percentage of individuals—Internet addiction is a reality
that, in Portugal, mainly affects teenagers and young adults in school and university, thus
requiring intervention and the prevention of addictive behaviors in these contexts [43,57].
In this sense, the pandemic context in which we live carries increased risks for young
people who have seen their freedom and sociability become limited to their homes and
dependent on the online world. Several studies at the international level have crossed
the field of psychology and communication to analyze possible changes in media use
during the pandemic, focusing on the potential consequences of excess or a lack of qual-
ity [12,14,15,17,45,57,58]. Although these were sometimes preliminary studies of an ongo-
ing phenomenon, they allow us to identify risk factors and issues that require attention and
long-term investigation by the academic community and public health authorities. Faced
with the dissemination of the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, the containment measures
taken by world authorities involved physical isolation, distancing, quarantine, and remote
work. Such efforts, prolonged in time and sometimes with no end in sight, led several
international organizations to warn of the potential negative impacts on physical and
mental health, with the risk of exacerbating already existing issues [59,60]. Indeed, recent
studies state that extended confinement at home endorses reduced levels of physical activ-
ity, exposure to daylight, and social contact, in turn provoking increased levels of stress,
feelings of uncertainty and control, and an inability to engage in rewarding leisure activi-
ties [61–63]. At the same time, it favors greater media consumption, namely of social media,
platforms that allow the mitigation of the effects of isolation, whether for informational
and recreational purposes or to cope with feelings of loneliness and anxiety [14,64].
It is also important to note that, during the pandemic, we watched the attempt to
transition to distance learning all over the globe. However, in many countries, teachers,
students and universities were not prepared for such developments from technological and
pedagogical perspectives [65]. In fact, until 2019, in general, distance learning took place
only in specific situations and with different audiences [66].
An ever-increasing number of studies argued that teaching and learning in an online
environment are very similar to education and learning in traditional classes [67–69]. They
claim that online classes can be as effective as face-to-face classes, but only if they are well
designed, implying technical, administrative, and pedagogical competencies. Besides this,
as stated by distance education specialist Marguerite Koole, today, we know that many
aspects must be considered in the transition from face-to-face to online learning, such as
differences in space, social presence, self-presentation through technologies, and interaction
patterns [70]. In addition, we must consider that some characteristics of distance learning
may increase feelings of frustration and stress, such as limited internet access, the lack of
face-to-face interactions, and motivation [66]. Since the COVID-19 pandemic reconfigured
physical and social interaction, “( . . . ) students may feel invisible, excluded, even when
participating via online technologies, and the designs of learning activities must take this
into consideration, especially during social distancing, when isolation affects all students,
regardless of age” [65] (p. 456).
An international quantitative study that aimed to evaluate internet addiction during
the pandemic [45] carried on with 2749 university students from seven countries (The Do-
minican Republic, Egypt, Guyana, India, Mexico, Pakistan and Sudan) found a direct
relationship between the pandemic and internet addiction, with a significant manifestation
in sleeping disorders. Moreover, the same study found that the university sector, smoking
history, and health status were significant predictors of Internet addiction. It should also be
noted that male participants scored higher on Internet addiction when compared to adults
and female participants. Participants with a smoking history and self-reported poor health
scored higher on Internet addiction.
Societies 2022, 12, 109 7 of 24

Another piece of research carried out with students attending university education in
Spain by Gómez-Galán et al. [12] showed a high consumption of social networks during
the pandemic, with significant incidences of addiction. The study used a descriptive
and quantitative methodology to understand the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on
excessive Internet use. The results show numerous interconnected variables in the analysis
of social network addiction. The fact that addiction to any of the factors on the applied
subscale influences the rest of the elements is noteworthy. However, “Lack of personal
control in social networks” and “Excessive use of social networks” are the most relevant
data. Furthermore, it has been shown that there is a link between different addictions, with
the diagnostic criteria being the same for both substance addiction and addiction without
substances. Concerning the excessive use of social networks, the type of knowledge and
age are the leading causes.
Thus, if a pandemic involves emotional and social problems through a reshaping
of routines and relational dynamics, teenagers and young adults—who are the most
dependent on social contact with peers—may find themselves in a position of greater risk
to physical and mental health. In this context, and given the scarcity of studies at a national
level, researching the media uses and practices of Portuguese youth in a pandemic context
is an urgent matter [71].

4. Methods
4.1. Research Questions and Aims
Based on the issues previously mentioned, this study seeks to understand and analyze,
from the perspective of young adults attending college in Portugal, the nature of interactions
with the media, particularly the Internet, during the pandemic period. The specific aims
are as follows:
1. To know the practices of the access to and use of media by young university students.
2. To identify and analyze the online practices of college students.
3. To understand and analyze how Internet-related practices interfere with the daily lives
of young college students, particularly regarding the implication in their academic,
family, and social contexts.
4. To understand whether and how online access habits and practices affect young
college students’ online dependence and lifestyles.
The text continues here.

4.2. Methodological Process

This study, which focused on the interactions between young university adults and
the Internet, was derived from an investigation during the pandemic, and took into account
studies that sought to assess Gen Z’s social media consumption and wellbeing during the
COVID-19 pandemic [72]. We conducted our quantitative study among 407 young adults
attending the European University, Lisbon, and the University of Beira Interior, Covilhã.
Both institutions are located in Portugal, with the former being a private higher education
college and the latter being a public institution.
Data collection occurred during the 2020/2021 academic year, specifically between
November 2020 and February 2021. During this period, because of the COVID-19 pandemic,
the Portuguese government decreed long periods of lockdown, resulting in people being
forced to stay inside their homes. Therefore, the attendance of teaching activities took
place primarily online, through the Blackboard tool. In this context, the questionnaire was
the data collection method for the empirical work. The survey was administered online
via Google Forms, targeting a non-probabilistic sample of young adults. Its use makes
it possible to obtain answers about “the when, where, who, how, and why of numerous
phenomena” [73] (p. 170), as well as being useful in analyzing a social phenomenon and
getting to know a population regarding ways of life, behaviors, values, and opinions. Its
use is efficient and recommended in order to understand certain aspects of social reality
Societies 2022, 12, 109 8 of 24

and human behavior, allowing the retrieval of past information from the respondents. In
addition, it is suitable for almost any population group [73].

4.3. Creation of the Instrument

The questionnaire survey sought to answer questions that would allow us to identify
and characterize the habits of access to and consumption of the Internet, the ways of
appropriation of this tool, and the platforms and contents it provides for young adults
attending university education throughout the pandemic (2020/2021).
For the development of the questionnaire, different sources were considered, which
helped in the elaboration of the questions and the selection of the data to be collected.
Therefore, on the one hand, we considered the Internet Addiction Diagnostic Questionnaire
(IADQ) [45] and the version adapted to the Portuguese reality [43]. With this scale, we
tried to assess the degree of dependence and the different dimensions of addiction. On
the other hand, addiction and dependency on the Internet were considered whilst taking
into account media consumption habits, emphasizing the increasing role that social media
plays in the daily lives of young adults, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic [21].
The questionnaire, consisting of 46 open-ended and closed-ended questions, was
organized into three thematic axes. The first aimed to draw a sociographic portrait of the
respondents, characterizing them in terms of gender, age, nationality, background, family
background, and level of qualification. The second axis referred to online consumption
habits and behavior, seeking to obtain data on the modes of access and use of the media,
in general, and the Internet, in particular. The third thematic axis, related to the percep-
tion of dependence on the online world, sought to characterize the types of Internet use,
understand the routines associated with its consumption, and understand perceptions
about the implications of online consumption during the pandemic period. Regarding the
instrument’s conceptualization, the following tables present the dimensions defined by the
thematic axis (Table 1) and the indicators by dimensions (Table 2).

Table 1. Dimensions according to the thematic axis.

Thematic Axis Dimensions

(a) Sociodemographic data
(i) Sociographic portrait
(b) Qualifications
(ii) Consumption habits and online behaviors (c) Media access and use
(iii) Dependency perception regarding the
(d) Online routines during the pandemic
online world
Source: The authors.

4.4. Data Processing

After administering the questionnaire surveys, all of the material was supervised
in order to determine whether any questionnaires were not valid, and to make certain
data processing decisions. The final sample consisted of 407 valid questionnaire surveys
(N = 407). The data were processed using the IBM SPSS program, version 28. Initially, a
univariate analysis was carried out to distribute the frequencies, followed by a bivariate
analysis with the crossing of variables in contingency tables (crosstabs) in order to compare
and understand how socio-demographic variables and others relevant to the research
influence consumption habits and online behavior, and the perception of dependence
on the online world, among other aspects. The frequency and the good percentage are
considered in presenting the results, considering only the valid cases. Data considered
missing (canceled, lacking an answer, not applicable) are ignored.
Societies 2022, 12, 109 9 of 24

Table 2. Metrics according to dimensions.

Dimensions Metrics
- Gender
- Age
(a) Sociodemographic data - Nationality
(b) Qualifications - Place of residence
- Composition of the household
- Level of education
- Frequency of access to the different media
- Preferences about the different media
- Frequency of Internet access
(c) Media access and use - Frequency of online activities
- Frequency of access to social media
- Frequency of offline activities
- Frequency of Internet access during the pandemic
- Place of the Internet in daily life
- Implication of Internet use on interpersonal
relationships
- Frequency of Internet access compared to other
activities
(d) Online routines during the pandemic - Perception of the feeling associated with excessive
online consumption
- Perception of the consequences of excessive
online consumption
- Implication of excessive online consumption for
health

The analysis provided in this research is by nature descriptive, as the intended pur-
poses of this study reside in first reading the data, organizing and describing it, and
highlighting differences, relationships, and patterns.

4.5. Sample Characterization

The study’s universe consists of 407 young adults attending college in Portugal, aged
between 18 and 30 years. In total, 73.5% of the respondents were female, and 26% were male.
Two respondents did not identify their gender. Most of the respondents (91.9%) were of
Portuguese nationality, and there were also respondents from Brazil, Angola, Mozambique,
Russia, and France. In total, 83% of the respondents lived with family members.

5. Results and Discussion

5.1. Social Habits and Media Practices
One of the aspects referred to in the questionnaire survey sought to assess activities
integrated into the leisure time of the respondents, with particular emphasis on the place
of the Internet and conventional media, such as television, radio, newspapers, books, and
videogame consoles.
Regarding conventional media, the data allow us to perceive that the newspaper
is the medium with which the interviewees spend less time. That, among the range of
other media they have at their disposal, is the one that least integrates their preferences,
followed, in increasing order, by videogame consoles, books, radio, television, computers
with Internet access, and smartphones with Internet access. Female respondents consume
more television, but the difference gets smaller as viewing time increases (to more than
three hours).
Female respondents read newspapers less than male respondents. Men listen to
the radio less than women, who listen for more than 1 h and between 2 and 3 h. The
videogame console is the medium consumed for more time by the respondents, with most
women only doing so for short periods, i.e., less than 30 min. The time spent with books
Societies 2022, 12, 109 10 of 24

is significant among female respondents. The time spent on the computer without the
Societies2022,
Societies 2022,12,
12,x xFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 1010out
ofof2424
Internet is practically equal. As for computers with the Internet, women stand in terms
of time spent on them, providing more data above the three-hour mark. Finally, as for
cell phones/smartphones, women dominate at all intervals, with men standing out when
phones/smartphones,
consuming them for
phones/smartphones, women
over three
women dominate
dominatehours. atatall
allintervals,
intervals,with withmen menstanding
standingout outwhen
whencon‐ con‐
suming them
Internet for over
suming them for over three hours.three
consumption hours.
is thus the most significant media-related activity in the respon-
dents’Internet
daily
Internet consumption
lives. In addition
consumption is thus
is thustothe the most
being—compared significant
most significant to media‐related
the other media
media‐related activity
activity in
listed—the the re‐
in the re‐only one
spondents’
spondents’
that meets daily
daily lives.InInaddition
lives.
consensus additionall
among totobeing—compared
being—compared
of the respondents, totothe
the
who other
other media
media
admit that listed—the
listed—the
they access only
only this tool
one
oneeverythat meets
that meets consensus
consensus
day (99.8%), among
it isamong
the one all
allwithof
of thethe respondents,
respondents,
which they spend who
whothe admit
admitmost that
that
time. they
theyThisaccess
accesstool this
this
is mainly
tool
tool every
every
used day(99.8%),
day
to carry (99.8%), ititisisthe
out academic the onewith
one
work, with which
which
connect theyspend
tothey
social spend
media, theand
the most
most time.This
time.
socialize. This toolis
tool
There isisa clear
mainly used to carry out academic work, connect to social media, and
mainly used toamong
preference carry out academic
females work,online
for these connect to socialcompared
activities media, and males. There isis
socialize.
tosocialize. There
a clear preference
a clear preference among
among femalesfemales for these online activities compared to males.
The data presented showfor that these
the online
percentage activities
of thecompared
respondents to males.who admit to spend-
The data presented show that the percentage of the respondents who admit tospend‐spend‐
ingThe datathan
more presented
five hoursshowa that day the
on percentage
the Internetofisthe respondents
surprising; who admit
notably, 9% ofto the respondents
ing
ingsay more
more than
than five hours
five more
hours than a day on
a day12onhthe the Internet
Internet is surprising;
is surprising; notably, 9% of the respond‐
they spend online (Figure 1). These notably,
first data9% onoftimethe respond‐
spent online are
entssay
ents saythey
theyspend
spendmore morethan than1212hhonline
online(Figure
(Figure1). 1).These
Thesefirst
firstdata
dataon ontimetimespent online
spentonline
interesting because they help us to understand how the pandemic has transformed the
are interesting
areroutines
interesting because
because they they help us to understand
help us tocontributing
understand how how the
the pandemic
pandemic has transformed
has number
transformed the
the
of students
routinesofofstudents
themselves,
studentsthemselves,
themselves,contributing
contributingtotoan
to an
anincrease
increase
increaseininthe
in the
thenumber
numberofofhours
of
hoursspent
hours
spent
spent
routines
online,especially
online, especially compared
compared to to what
what happened
happened before before
the the pandemic,
pandemic, as as indicated
indicated by some by some
online, especially compared to what happened before the pandemic, as indicated by some
of the studies carried out
of the studies carried out [14–17,74,75]. [14–17,74,75].
of the studies carried out [14–17,74,75].

Figure
Figure
Figure 1. Average
1.1.Average
Average hours
hours
hours per
perday
per day spent
dayspent
spent onInternet.
onthe
on the the Internet.
Internet.

OfOf
Of the
the the
407 407
407 young
young
young adults
adults
adults surveyed,
surveyed,
surveyed, 42%
42%admit
42% admit
admit to being
totobeing
being permanently
permanently
permanently connected,
connected,
connected, asas as
shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2. 2.
TheThe smartphone
smartphone is is
the the preferred
preferred device
device through
through
shown in Figure 2. The smartphone is the preferred device through which respondents which which respondents
respondents
access
access
access the
the the Internet
Internet
Internet (74.7%),
(74.7%),
(74.7%), followed
followed
followed bybythebylaptop
the the laptop
laptop (15.7%),
(15.7%),
(15.7%), the desktop
thedesktop
the desktopatathome
homeat(8.6%),
home
(8.6%),(8.6%),
the
the tablet
tablet (0.7%,
(0.7%, corresponding
corresponding to to
threethree respondents),
respondents), and and
the the desktop
desktop at
the tablet (0.7%, corresponding to three respondents), and the desktop at the educational the at the educational
educational
institution
institution (0.2%, corresponding
(0.2%, corresponding to one
to respondent).
one
institution (0.2%, corresponding to one respondent). respondent).

Figure2.2.Period
Figure
Figure Period
2. ofofthe
Period theday
of dayday
the when
when youspend
when
you spend
you themost
spend
the most timeconnected
the time
most connected
time inina arow.
connected row.
in a row.

We
We We can
cancan observe
observe
observe that
that ininterms
that interms
terms ofoftime
oftime
time spent
spent
spent online, thethe
online,
online, the women
womenwomen from
from fromour
our sample
our sample
sample de‐declare
de‐
clare
clare spending
spending
spending more more
time
more time
time than than
than men, men,
men, with with
with29.5% 29.5%
29.5% spending
spending
spending 5 5to
5 to 8toh,
8 8h,
h,whilst
whilst
whilst the
thethe
malemale
male re‐
respondents’
re‐
spondents’ ismajority
majority majority
spondents’ isisat
at 10.3% inat10.3%
10.3%
the inin4the
1 to the1 1totoday
h per 4 4hhper
perday
slot dayslot
slot
(Table (Table
3). 3).Moreover,
Moreover,
(Table 3). Moreover,
we canwe wecan
also can
seealso
that those
also
seethat
see thatthose
thosefemale
femalerespondents
respondentsdeclare declarespending
spendingmoremorehours
hoursonline
onlinethan
thantheir
theirmale
male
Societies 2022, 12, 109 11 of 24

female respondents declare spending more hours online than their male counterparts. The
second category answered by women was 9 to 12 h, while the male respondents’ second
most answered category was between 5 and 8 h. Both the males and females of the sample
do not particularly distinguish a time of day in which they are connected, as most of the
females (32.7%) and males (8.6%) of our sample declare that they are constantly online.
For both genders in our sample, we can also observe that the second time of the day these
respondents spend online is the afternoon (17.2% females and 8.4% males).

Table 3. Average hours per day spent on the Internet and the periods thereof, by gender.

Female Male Did Not Identify

Gender
299 (73.5%) 105 (25.8%) 2 (0.5%)
Average hours spent online:
Less than 1 h 0 (0%) 1 (0.2%) -
Between 1 and 4 h 71 (17.4%) 42 (10.3%) -
Between 5 and 8 h 120 (29.5%) 37 (9.1%) -
Between 9 and 12 h 77 (18.9%) 16 (3.9%) -
More than 12 h 25 (6.1%) 9 (2.2%) -
Does not know 6 (1.5%) 1 (0.2%) -
Time of the day most spent online:
Early morning 6 (1.5%) 1 (0.2%) -
Mornings 16 (3.9%) 3 (0.7%) -
Afternoon 61 (15%) 33 (8.1%) -
Night 70 (17.2%) 34 (8.4%)
Constantly online 133 (32.7%) 35 (8.6%) -
Does not know 13 (3.2%) 0 (0%) -
Total 407 (100%)
Source: The authors.

Regarding offline activities, such as playing sports, chatting with friends, hanging out
with family members, listening to music, travelling, and going to shows, the preferences
are for hanging out with friends and listening to music. In total, 40% of young adults
admit to hanging out and talking with friends often, and 21% do it daily. In total, 57%
of the respondents admit to listening to music every day. However, the percentage of
the respondents who mention walking around and hanging out with friends and family
relatively often during the pandemic is surprising (Figure 3). The responses of the young
people surveyed show some changes in offline activities, which is not surprising consid-
ering that quarantines and curfews multiplied during 2021, and many outdoor activities
were limited [14–17]. However, it is interesting to note that some activities are dominant
among young people, such as listening to music, a daily practice, which, according to a
report by one of the leading players in the area of sound, is increasingly emerging as a form
of stress relief. According to data from Culture Next, Spotify Advertising’s annual study, in
2021, 71% of Gen Zs used audio to reduce stress levels. Among millennials, there is also
the idea that audio can help promote mental health [76]. In this context, it is essential to
highlight the growth in the consumption of podcasts [59], which can help explain young
people’s responses.
 Societies 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 24
Societies 2022, 12, 109 12 of 24

Figure 3. Frequency
Figure 3. ofperforming
Frequency of performingactivities
activities offline.
offline.

The
The data obtained
obtainedallow
allowus ustotoverify
verify that
that being
being onon
thethe Internet
Internet is the
is the mostmost significant
significant
media-related activityin
media‐related activity inthe
therespondents’
respondents’ daily
daily lives,
lives, together
together withwith
otherother activities
activities suchsuch
asbeing
as being with with friends
friends and
andlistening
listeningtotomusic.
music.The Theeveryday
everyday lifelife
of the young
of the university
young university
students in
students in the survey seemstotobebemainly
surveyseems mainlyorganized
organized according
according to actions thatthat
to actions gratify themthem
gratify
andalign
and align with their
their personal
personalchoices
choicesandandpreferences.
preferences.
ItIt should
should also
also be
be noted
noted that
that the
the main
main reasons
reasonsfor forusing
usingthetheInternet,
Internet,ininorder
orderofofim‐
impor-
portance, are, for the female respondents, the following: to pass the
tance, are, for the female respondents, the following: to pass the time/escapism; to search time/escapism; to
search
for for information
information on personal/professional
on personal/professional matters,
matters, to carry
to carry outout research
research onon curiosi‐ to
curiosities,
ties, to do academic work, and to access social media. The
do academic work, and to access social media. The respondents’ reasons are as respondents’ reasons arefollows,
as
follows, also in order of importance: spending time/escapism, researching
also in order of importance: spending time/escapism, researching information on per- information on
personal/professional
sonal/professional matters,researching
matters, researchingcuriosities,
curiosities, doing
doing academic
academicwork,work,and andaccess‐
accessing
ing social media. It is essential to highlight that the Internet is decisive in the occupation
social media. It is essential to highlight that the Internet is decisive in the occupation of
of time for young people during confinement, which justifies the concern identified in the
time for young people during confinement, which justifies the concern identified in the
various studies that carried out similar analyses and made psychological wellbeing de‐
various studies that carried out similar analyses and made psychological wellbeing depend
pend on this permanent connection [12,15,17,45,75]. The fact that they remain locked for
on this permanent connection [12,15,17,45,75]. The fact that they remain locked for longer
longer has increased the time they spend online, along with new signs of potential de‐
has increased the time they spend online, along with new signs of potential dependence,
pendence, such as sleep disturbances or anxiety, as we will see later.
such as sleep disturbances or anxiety, as we will see later.
5.2. Routines and Online Consumption
5.2. Routines and Online Consumption
In line with the data mentioned in the previous topic, another question asked is re‐
In line with the data mentioned in the previous topic, another question asked is related
lated to the association between the pandemic and the frequency of Internet use, with
to the association
88.0% between
of the respondents the pandemic
admitting and theduring
that it increased frequency of Internet
the pandemic use, mainly
period, with 88.0%
of
due to its relevance in the context of academic activities in lockdown periods. However, due
the respondents admitting that it increased during the pandemic period, mainly
to its relevance
2.9% in theacknowledge
of young adults context of academic
not knowingactivities inwas,
if there lockdown
in fact,periods. However,
an increase. In total,2.9%
of
60% even consider that using the Internet has become more indispensable since thetotal,
young adults acknowledge not knowing if there was, in fact, an increase. In pan‐ 60%
even consider that using the Internet has become more indispensable
demic’s beginning, although 30.2% mention that it is just as necessary. since the pandemic’s
beginning, although 30.2% mention that it is just as necessary.
When
When we we inquired
inquired about the possible increase
increase in in their
their internet
internet consumption
consumptionduringduring the
pandemic, all of the respondents, including those who preferred not to
the pandemic, all of the respondents, including those who preferred not to identify theiridentify their gender,
gender,on
agreed agreed
such on an such an increase
increase (88% of (88% of the sample).
the sample). On theOn the hand,
other other hand, the distribu‐
the distribution across
tion acrossin
categories categories in each
each gender is gender is alsoin
also similar similar
termsinofterms
theirofneed
theirfor
need for internet
internet con‐
consumption
sumption
since since the beginning
the beginning of the pandemic,
of the pandemic, with bothwith both
female andfemale
maleand male respondents
respondents deeming the
deemingmore
Internet the Internet more indispensable
indispensable (61% of the(61% of theand
sample), sample), and inplace,
in second second place, choos‐
choosing “same as
ing “same
before” as before”
as an option as an option
(30% (30% sample)
of the total of the total sample)
(Table (Table 4). Moreover,
4). Moreover, all of the all of the also
genders
genders
agree thatalso
theagree that the
pandemic madepandemic
them moremadeinternet-dependent,
them more internet‐dependent,
with more than with65%more of the
than sample
total 65% of the total sample
agreeing agreeing
with that idea, with
againstthatless
idea, against
than 23% less than
of the 23% ofdenying
sample the sample
it.
denying it.
Societies 2022, 12, 109 13 of 24
Societies 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

Table 4. Internet consumption, the pandemic, and internet dependency by gender.

Table 4. Internet consumption, the pandemic, and internet dependency by gender.
Increase in Internet Consumption during the Pandemic
Increase in Internet Consumption during the Pandemic
Female Male Did Not Identify
Female Male Did Not Identify
Yes
Yes 267267
(65.6%)
(65.6%) 89 (21.9%)2 (0.5%)
89 (21.9%) 2 (0.5%)
No 24 (5.9%) 13 (3.2%) 0 (0%)
No 24 (5.9%) 13 (3.2%) 0 (0%)
Does not know 8 (2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Does not know 8 (2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Internet More
Internet Indispensable
More Indispensablesincesince
the Beginning of theof
the Beginning Pandemic
the
Female
Pandemic Male Did Not Identify
More indispensable 186Female
(45.7%) Male57 (14%) Did Not Identify 1 (0.2%)
Lessindispensable
More indispensable 30 (7.4%)
186 (45.7%) 9 (2.2%) 1 (0.2%)
57 (14%) 0 (0%)
Same
Less as before
indispensable 83 (20.4%)
30 (7.4%) 39 (9.6%) 0 (0%)
9 (2.2%) 1 (0.2%)
Same as before 83 (20.4%)
Consider 39 (9.6%) Made1 them
that the Pandemic (0.2%)More Internet-Dependent
Consider that the Pandemic
Female Male Made them More DidInternet‐
Not Identify
Dependent
Yes 200 (49.1%) 66 (16.2%) 2 (0.5%)
No Female
67 (16.5%) Male24 (5.9%) Did Not Identify 0 (0%)
Yes
Does not know 200 (49.1%)
28 (6.9%) 66 (16.2%)
16 (3.9%) 2 (0.5%) 0 (0%)
No
Source: The authors. 67 (16.5%) 24 (5.9%) 0 (0%)
Does not know 28 (6.9%) 16 (3.9%) 0 (0%)
Source:However,
The authors.
it should be noted that 38% consider that the Internet is always essen-
tial to their lives. In comparison, 51% stress that it is necessary on some occasions, as
shownHowever,
in Figure it should be notedmost
4. Although that 38% consider
students that that
believe the Internet is always
the Internet essential
played a decisive
to their lives. In comparison, 51% stress that it is necessary on some occasions,
role during confinement, it is vital to highlight the percentage of the respondents as shown who
in Figure
think that4. itAlthough mostinstudents
is essential believe
their lives. that the
These Internet are
responses played
not adirectly
decisiverelated
role during
to its use
confinement, it is vital tobut
during the pandemic highlight thesomething
rather as percentagemore
of thepermanent,
respondentswithout
who think that it
which theis students’
es‐
sential in their lives. These responses are not directly related to its use during the pandemic
lives would not be the same, which helps to explain the preoccupation in terms of depen-
but rather as something more permanent, without which the students’ lives would not be the
dence [12,14,15,17,45,61]. These answers also allow us to understand that the pandemic has
same, which helps to explain the preoccupation in terms of dependence [12,14,15,17,45,61].
only worsened a situation that had already occurred previously. Thus, we can understand
These answers also allow us to understand that the pandemic has only worsened a situation
how important it is to find solutions that help solve Internet addiction, which is a more
that had already occurred previously. Thus, we can understand how important it is to find
structural problem.
solutions that help solve Internet addiction, which is a more structural problem.

Figure
Figure4.4.Do
Doyou
youthink thethe
think Internet is indispensable
Internet in your
is indispensable life? life?
in your

The
Theprimary
primaryoccasions
occasionspointed
pointedout outby
byboth
bothgenders
genderswhere
wherethe theInternet
Internetisisindispen‐
indispensable
sable
is at work and in academic life. Women are the ones who consider that
is at work and in academic life. Women are the ones who consider thatthe
theInternet
Internet has
has become
become more more vital
vital since
since thethe beginning
beginning of the
of the pandemic,
pandemic, and and men
men areare
thethe ones
ones whowhothink it
think it has remained the
has remained the same. This indispensability aspect is evident when being on thethe
same. This indispensability aspect is evident when being on Internet
Internet
becomesbecomes a preferential
a preferential activityactivity
comparedcompared to activities,
to other other activities, such
such as as being
being with with a
a partner or
partner or friends, as some respondents, particularly males, admit. In this regard,
friends, as some respondents, particularly males, admit. In this regard, even though 31.4% even
though 31.4% of the young adults surveyed are not in a romantic relationship, of those
of the young adults surveyed are not in a romantic relationship, of those who are, and
who are, and even a not very significant percentage (6.4%), admit that they occasionally
even a not very significant percentage (6.4%), admit that they occasionally prefer to be on
the Internet than with their partner. The same applies to being with friends (see Figure 5).
 prefer to be on the Internet than with their partner. The same applies to being with friends
(see Figure 5). Although the percentage is low, these data point to other symptoms that
end up being associated with Internet addiction, such as a lack of self‐esteem, or even
Societies 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24
Societies 2022, 12, 109 depression [55,75]. 14 of 24
In total, 48% of the respondents state that they never prefer to replace the company
of their boyfriend/girlfriend with Internet consumption, and 52% mention the same about
prefer to be
friends. on the Internet
However, the datathan with their
presented partner.
show Thesome
that, for samerespondents,
applies to being with
being onfriends
the In‐
Although
(see Figure
ternet the
may5). percentage
Although
replace the is low,of these
percentage
the relevance is data pointdata
low, these
expressive to other
point
relationships symptoms
tothose
with otherwith that
symptomsendthat
whom up being
they
associated
end up being
maintain with Internetwith
associated
a close addiction,
relationship. Internetsuch as a lack
addiction, of self-esteem,
such as a lack of or even depression
self‐esteem, or even[55,75].
depression [55,75].
In total, 48% of the respondents state that they never prefer to replace the company
of their boyfriend/girlfriend with Internet consumption, and 52% mention the same about
friends. However, the data presented show that, for some respondents, being on the In‐
ternet may replace the relevance of expressive relationships with those with whom they
maintain a close relationship.

Figure
Figure5.5.Preference
Preferenceforfor
being online
being overover
online being withwith
being a boyfriend/girlfriend or going
a boyfriend/girlfriend orout without
going friends.
with friends.

ItInshould
total, 48% of the however,
be noted, respondents thatstate that theyofnever
the creation new prefer
online to replace the
friendships doescompany
not of
their to
seem boyfriend/girlfriend
be significant for thewith Internet
majority of theconsumption, and 52%
respondents (23.8% mention
never createthe
new same
rela‐about
tionships, and 41.0% the
friends. However, do itdatararely), although
presented 24.6%
show admit
that, fortosome
meeting new onlinebeing
respondents, friendson the
occasionally,
Internet mayand 7.4% the
replace do itrelevance
frequently. of In total, 2.2%,
expressive corresponding
relationships to nine
with thoserespondents,
with whom they
Figure 5. Preference
recognize
maintain that for
they
a close being online
almost always
relationship. overestablish
being withthese
a boyfriend/girlfriend
new relationships,or going
andouttwo with friends.
respondents
admitIttoshould
alwaysbedoing it.
noted, however, that the creation of new online friendships does not seem
ItAnother
should relevant
be noted,data
to be significant for thehowever,
majority that the
point shows
of thethe creation
priority of
respondents new
of (23.8% onlinesocial
accessingneverfriendships
media
create new does
and not
e‐mail
relationships,
seem
in to be
favor of significant
other for theInmajority
activities. total, of the
37.8% of respondents
the respondents(23.8% never
admit that create
they new rela‐
frequently
and 41.0% do it rarely), although 24.6% admit to meeting new online friends occasionally,
tionships,
access andmedia
these 41.0%before
do it rarely),
performingalthough
other24.6%
tasks,admit
24.8%toassume
meeting new
they doonline friends
it almost con‐
and 7.4% do it frequently. In total, 2.2%, corresponding to nine respondents, recognize
occasionally,
stantly, and and 7.4%
21.9% saydo
they it frequently.
always do In as
it, total, 2.2%,
shown incorresponding
Figure 6. to nine respondents,
that they almost always establish these new relationships, and two respondents admit to
recognize that they almost always establish these new relationships, and two respondents
always doing it.
admit to always doing it.
Another relevant data point shows the priority of accessing social media and e-mail in
Another relevant data point shows the priority of accessing social media and e‐mail
infavor
favorofofother
otheractivities.
activities.In Intotal,
total,37.8%
37.8%of ofthe
therespondents
respondentsadmitadmit that
that they
they frequently
frequently access
these media before performing other tasks, 24.8% assume
access these media before performing other tasks, 24.8% assume they do it almost they do it almost constantly,
con‐ and
21.9% say they always do it, as shown in Figure
stantly, and 21.9% say they always do it, as shown in Figure 6. 6.

Figure 6. How often you check email and/or social media before doing other things.

Figure6. 6.
Figure HowHow often
often youyou check
check email
email and/or
and/or socialsocial
mediamedia
beforebefore
doing doing other things.
other things.

5.3. The Pandemic and Online Dependency

In the previous topic, questions related to routines associated with Internet access
and use were addressed, focusing on the pandemic period. We now intend to identify and
understand how these online practices and access habits affect the respondents’ Internet
 Societies 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24

Societies 2022, 12, 109 5.3. The Pandemic and Online Dependency 15 of 24
In the previous topic, questions related to routines associated with Internet access
and use were addressed, focusing on the pandemic period. We now intend to identify and
understand how these online practices and access habits affect the respondents’ Internet
addiction and lifestyles. The results arising from the question about how often respondents
addiction and lifestyles. The results arising from the question about how often respond‐
notice that they have been online for too long reveal that there seems to be some awareness
ents notice that they have been online for too long reveal that there seems to be some
that the time spent on the Internet is excessive, as shown in Figure 7, as there is a significant
awareness that the time spent on the Internet is excessive, as shown in Figure 7, as there
percentage of young adults who often and occasionally notice that they have been online
is a significant percentage of young adults who often and occasionally notice that they
for toobeen
have long.online for too long.

Figure7.7.Perceptions
Figure Perceptions and
and attitudes
attitudesabout
abouttime
timespent
spentonline.
online.

The
Thedata
datacollected
collectedareareininline
linewith
withother
other studies
studiesthat
thatalso identified
also identifiedanan
increase in online
increase in
online
time time the
during during the pandemic,
pandemic, and sometimes
and sometimes a lack ofa lack of perception
perception about staying
about staying con‐ [75].
connected
Onnected [75]. On
the other thethe
hand, other hand, the
students’ students’
answers alsoanswers
highlightalsothehighlight
importancethe importance
of the peopleof the
around
peoplenamely
them, aroundparents,
them, namely parents,
in drawing in drawing
attention attention
to and to andtheir
regulating regulating their time
time online [75,77].
online [75,77].
However, However,
despite despite the
the perception perceptiontime
of excessive of excessive
being spent timeonline,
being spent online,
it should it
be noted
should be noted that only 22% of the respondents state that others
that only 22% of the respondents state that others occasionally question them due to the occasionally question
themthey
time duespent
to theon
timethethey spent on
Internet. the Internet.
In total, 7% admit In total, 7% admit
that this happens thatfrequently;
this happens 2% fre‐
of the
quently; 2% of the respondents, state that it occurs almost constantly, while
respondents, state that it occurs almost constantly, while 1% states that they are continually 1% states that
they are continually
questioned due to this.questioned
In total, due
39%to ofthis. In total, 39% of
the respondents the respondents
admit admit called
to it rarely being to it to
rarely being called to attention, and 29%
attention, and 29% mention that they are never asked.mention that they are never asked.
The sample was also asked about their general awareness of their relationship with the
The sample was also asked about their general awareness of their relationship with
online, with 51% of both genders agreeing that the internet is sometimes indispensable for
the online, with 51% of both genders agreeing that the internet is sometimes indispensable
them, leaving less than 5% of the sample to disagree with that statement. Interestingly, female
for them, leaving less than 5% of the sample to disagree with that statement. Interestingly,
respondents declare, at 23%, that they often realize they have been online for too long, whilst
female respondents declare, at 23%, that they often realize they have been online for too
the males’ higher percentage corresponds to “occasionally”, with 12% (Table 5).
long, whilst the males’ higher percentage corresponds to “occasionally”, with 12% (Table 5).
The data also show that the percentage of young adults who have a defensive attitude
or hide what they are doing online when asked about their activities is not very significant,
as seen in Figure 8.
Regarding the question “How often do you complain or get irritated when you are
online and are bothered?”, 54% of the respondents say that they never complain or get
irritated; 32% do it rarely; 11% assume they do it occasionally; 2% do it frequently; 1%,
assume they do it almost constantly, and one respondent does it consistently.
The data from the questionnaire survey revealed that even though some respondents
make an effort, albeit unsuccessfully, to reduce the amount of time they spend online
(Figure 9), 64% assume that they never try to hide the amount of time they spend online.
 Societies 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24

Table 5. Indispensability of the Internet and awareness of being online for too long by gender.
Societies 2022, 12, 109 16 of 24
Consider Internet Indispensable for Their Life
Female Male Did Not Identify
Yes, 5.
Table always 109 (26.8%)
Indispensability of the Internet 42
and(10.3%) 2 (0.5%)
awareness of being online for too long by gender.
Yes, sometimes 155 (38.1%) 52 (12.8%) 0 (0%)
No Consider Internet
15 (3.7%) 4 (1%)Indispensable 0for Their Life
(0%)
Does not know 20 (4.9%) Female 7 (1.7%) Male 0 (0%) Did Not Identify
Yes, always Frequency to
109 (26.8%)Which Respondents Are
42 (10.3%) Aware They Have Been
2 (0.5%)
Yes, sometimes Online 155for(38.1%)
Too Long 52 (12.8%) 0 (0%)
No Female 15 (3.7%) Male 4 (1%) Did Not Identify 0 (0%)
Does
Alwaysnot know 20
17 (4.7%) (4.9%) 3 (0.7%) 7 (1.7%) 1 (0.2%) 0 (0%)
Almost always 46 (11.3%) Frequency to 10
Which Respondents0 Are
(2.5%) (0%)Aware They Have Been
Often Online for Too
94 (23.1%) 21Long
(5.2%) 1 (0.2%)
Occasionally 90 (22.1%)
Female 48 (11.8%) Male 0 (0%) Did Not Identify
Rarely
Always 39 (9.6%)
17 (4.7%) 18 (4.4%) 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.2%)
Never always 13 (3.2%)
Almost 46 (11.3%) 5 (1.2%) 10 (2.5%)0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Source: The authors.
Often 94 (23.1%) 21 (5.2%) 1 (0.2%)
Occasionally 90 (22.1%) 48 (11.8%) 0 (0%)
Rarely The data also show39 that the percentage of young
(9.6%) adults who have a 0defensive
18 (4.4%) (0%) attitude
Never
or hide what they are doing13 (3.2%) 5 (1.2%)
online when asked about 0 (0%)
their activities is not very significant,
as seen
Source: Theinauthors.
Figure 8.

Societies 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24

Figure8.8.Attitudes
Figure Attitudes towards time spent
towards time spentonline.
online.

Regarding the question “How often do you complain or get irritated when you are
online and are bothered?”, 54% of the respondents say that they never complain or get
irritated; 32% do it rarely; 11% assume they do it occasionally; 2% do it frequently; 1%,
assume they do it almost constantly, and one respondent does it consistently.
The data from the questionnaire survey revealed that even though some respondents
make an effort, albeit unsuccessfully, to reduce the amount of time they spend online (Figure
9), 64% assume that they never try to hide the amount of time they spend online.

Figure
Figure 9. How often
9. How oftenyou
youtry
trytotohide
hideand
and reduce
reduce thethe time
time youyou spend
spend online.
online.

Also significantisisthe
Also significant thepercentage
percentage ofof
thethe respondents
respondents (33.7%),
(33.7%), particularly
particularly males,
males, who who
assume
assume that their
theiracademic
academicperformance
performanceis is impaired
impaired duedue to the
to the amount
amount of time
of time theythey
spendspend
online. Althoughthis
online. Although thisisisa aminority,
minority, compared
compared to to
thethe percentage
percentage of respondents
of the the respondents (65.8%)
(65.8%)
who say
who say that their
their academic
academicperformance
performance is is
notnothindered
hinderedbecause
becauseof their timetime
of their spentspent
on on
the Internet,
the Internet, it
it is
is still
stillaaremarkable
remarkablefigure.
figure.InInline with
line previous
with previousstudies, these
studies, datadata
these also also
highlight the
highlight the importance
importanceofofreflecting
reflecting onon
thetherelationship between
relationship betweentimetime
spent online
spent and and
online
academic success [52]. This problem, which emerged before the COVID‐19 pandemic,
gained new contours to be discussed during quarantine and curfews because—whilst
closed at home—the Internet became essential in order for students to attend online clas‐
ses. However, this is also the moment to look at this data and think about how we can
balance Internet use in contexts like the one we live during the pandemic, in which the
Societies 2022, 12, 109 17 of 24

academic success [52]. This problem, which emerged before the COVID-19 pandemic,
gained new contours to be discussed during quarantine and curfews because—whilst
closed at home—the Internet became essential in order for students to attend online classes.
However, this is also the moment to look at this data and think about how we can balance
Internet use in contexts like the one we live during the pandemic, in which the online is
vital for distance education [65,75].
Students were also asked about their efforts in reducing their online consumption
and hiding such consumption from their entourage. For female respondents, the highest
category was “rarely” (22%), considering their attempts to reduce their consumption, and
“occasionally” for males (9%). As for the second topic, respondents majorly agreed that
they never try to hide their online consumption, with 64% denying any hiding across the
sample (Table 6).

Table 6. Trying to reduce time spent online without succeeding, and hiding consumption, by gender.

Try Reducing Time Online but Cannot Succeed

Female Male Did not identify
Always 5 (1.2%) 0 (0 %) 0 (0%)
Almost always 10 (2.5%) 4 (1%) 0 (0%)
Often 40 (9.8%) 6 (1.5%) 0 (0%)
Occasionally 84 (20.6%) 36 (8.8%) 2 (0.5%)
Rarely 89 (21.9%) 31 (7.6%) 0 (0%)
Never 71 (17.4%) 28 (6.9%) 0 (0%)
Trying to Hide the Amount of Time Spent Online
Female Male Did Not Identify
Always 2 (0.5%) 0 (0 %) 0 (0%)
Almost always 2 (0.5%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Often 5 (1.2 %) 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%)
Occasionally 21 (5.2 %) 6 (1.5 %) 0 (0%)
Rarely 82 (20.1 %) 24 (5.9 %) 0 (0%)
Never 187 (45.9 %) 72(17.7 %) 2 (0.5%)
Source: The authors.

Regarding the perception of the health consequences of excessive online consumption

and the feelings associated with it, among the various questions asked, the most significant
results obtained relate to the implication of excessive online use, especially at night, on sleep
quality. According to the results obtained, it is assumed that there is an association between
online consumption and sleep disorders for almost half of the young adults surveyed. In
total, 23.8% of the respondents acknowledge that they suffer from this disorder occasionally;
18.7% admit that they suffer from it frequently; 5.4% of the young adults suffer from it
almost always; and 1.2%, corresponding to five respondents, reveal that constant access
to the Internet always has an impact on their sleep disorders. In total, 27.5% indicate that
their sleep is rarely disturbed due to excessive Internet access, while 23.1% assume that
this never happens. These data also confirm results from studies made in other contexts,
and alert us to a relationship between the time young people spent connected during the
pandemic and their sleep problems [45,64].
Although it is less expressive than the results mentioned above, it is noteworthy
that the respondents admit that they experience negative feelings and adverse emotional
reactions, such as instability and nervousness, when they are not online. In this regard,
when confronted with the question “How often do you feel depressed, unstable, and
nervous when you are not online and feel good again when you are back online?”, the
data obtained show that the majority (60.4%) of the respondents never experience the
listed feelings. However, it is noteworthy that young adults admit to feeling adverse
emotional reactions when they are not connected, with greater relevance in the case of
women (Figure 10).
 the respondents admit that they experience negative feelings and adverse emotional reac‐
tions, such as instability and nervousness, when they are not online. In this regard, when
confronted with the question “How often do you feel depressed, unstable, and nervous when
you are not online and feel good again when you are back online?”, the data obtained show
that the majority (60.4%) of the respondents never experience the listed feelings. However, it
Societies 2022, 12, 109 18 of 24
is noteworthy that young adults admit to feeling adverse emotional reactions when they are
not connected, with greater relevance in the case of women (Figure 10).

Figure 10.10.Attitudes
Figure Attitudestowards
towardsnot
not being
being online.
online.

TheTheresults
resultsalso
alsoshow
show that
that the
the percentage
percentage of ofthe
therespondents
respondents whowho assume
assume thatthat
thethe
Internet is a means of escape from everyday life is similar to that of
Internet is a means of escape from everyday life is similar to that of the respondents who the respondents who
dodo not consider
not consider it.it.
InInthisthisregard,
regard,as asshown
shown in in Figure
Figure 10, 10, the
thedata
dataobtained
obtainedalso also show
show that
that 5%5% of the
of the
respondents, with a higher incidence of female respondents, admit
respondents, with higher incidence of female respondents, admit feeling frequently anx‐ feeling frequently
anxious
ious until until they
they go back
go back online;
online; 19% experience
19% experience that occasionally;
that feeling feeling occasionally;
3% realize3% realize
feeling
feeling worried about being offline; and 1% recognize that
worried about being offline; and 1% recognize that they always feel anxious. they always feel anxious.
It Itshould
shouldalso
alsobebenoted
noted that
that although
although the thepercentage
percentageofofthe therespondents
respondents who who reveal
reveal
feeling
feeling worriedabout
worried aboutwhatwhatisishappening
happening online when when they
theyarearenot
notconnected
connectedisis not statis‐
not statisti-
tically
cally significant,
significant, 14%14%admitadmit to feeling
to feeling thisthis concern
concern occasionally;
occasionally; 5%5% assume
assume feeling
feeling it
it often;
1%often;
mention 1% mention
that thisthat this concern
concern manifestsmanifests itself almost
itself almost always. always.
Although,according
Although, according to tothetheresults
resultspresented,
presented, online consumption
online consumptionmay havemaylesshavepos‐less
itive consequences
positive consequences forfor
thethe
daily life of
daily lifethe
ofrespondents,
the respondents,for example, in terms
for example, in of sleepofdis‐
terms sleep
disorders and experiencing adverse emotional reactions, the results of the questionnaire
survey show that a higher percentage of the respondents consider that using the Internet
has more advantages than disadvantages. On the other hand, most of the respondents
believe that the benefits and advantages of the Internet are equal.
Deeper into the survey, students were also asked if their academic performance could
be impacted by the time spent online. The vast majority of the sample disagreed with this
idea (66%), whilst only one-third (33%) agreed that their internet consumption impacted
their academic performance.
As for the consequences that may result from excessive internet use, the first category
chosen by female respondents was “real-life social isolation” (29%) and more excellent
knowledge and acquisition of information by their male counterparts (12%). We can observe
a more positively inclined view of such consequences by men, although the same category
reached second place for female respondents (28%) (Table 7).
In order of relevance, we can also highlight the consequences of excessive Internet use
for female respondents: social isolation, increased acquisition of knowledge and informa-
tion, and addiction to social media. The same results for male respondents highlight the
following consequences in order of relevance: acquisition of knowledge and information,
isolation, and addiction to social media. In order to understand these results, we must con-
sider that—in a pandemic context—students feel that there are many advantages, namely
following online classes and socialising in isolation. However, it is also essential to highlight
the perception of the potential isolation caused by addiction to the Internet [12,14,61–64].
Societies 2022, 12, 109 19 of 24

Table 7. Impact on academic performance and consequences of excessive Internet use by gender.

Academic Performance Is Impacted Due to Time Spent Online

Female Male Did Not Identify
Yes, it is impacted 100 (24.6%) 37 (9.1%) 0 (0%)
No impact 198 (48.6%) 68 (16.7%) 2 (0.5%)
Consequences That May Result from Excessive Internet Use
Female Male Did Not Identify
Greater knowledge and acquisition of information 114 (28%) 49 (12%) 1 (0.2%)
Greater socialization (virtual life) 16 (3.9%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.2%)
Social isolation (real life) 118 (29%) 34 (8.4%) 0 (0%)
Addiction to social media 23 (5.7%) 7 (1.7%) 0 (0%)
Online gaming addiction 2 (0.5%) 2 (0.5%) 0 (0%)
Addiction to purchases of goods and services 3 (0.7%) 2 (0.5%) 0 (0%)
Sleep disturbance 11 (2.7%) 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%)
Anxiety 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Losing complete control (not being able to stop sharing
7 (1.7%) 1(0.2%) 0 (0%)
content and spending time online)
Other 1 (0.2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Source: The authors.

6. Conclusions
The data collected allow us to perceive that the Internet is a fundamental element in
the daily life of the respondents, with this importance intensifying during the pandemic.
This may be because, during the pandemic period, when the data collection took place, long
periods of lockdown were experienced, forcing the population to remain inside their homes,
thus reducing the possibility of travelling to outdoor spaces and carrying out activities in
the offline world. On the other hand, it should be noted that during this period, the model
of online education and remote work was adopted so that the respondents’ academic and,
in some cases, work activities took place over the Internet, as demonstrated by the results
obtained. Alongside this consumption, it should be noted that during the pandemic period,
there was also an intensification of dependence on the online, as demonstrated by the 65.8%
of the respondents who assumed that the pandemic made them more dependent on the
Internet, with particular prevalence in the case of female respondents.
We conclude, therefore, that during the pandemic period, the access to, time of use
of, and dependence on the Internet intensified. These data become more worrying when
it is verified that online consumption interferes with the health of users, namely in terms
of sleep disorders and the experience of adverse emotional reactions—such as instabil-
ities, depression, and nervousness—when not online, which dissipate when connected
once again.
Internet access is achieved through smartphones daily, especially at night, as this is a
privileged leisure time for respondents in their professional and academic activities during
the day. Instagram and WhatsApp are the preferred social media for these users, a data
point which is in line with other international studies [66,67]. It can even be mentioned that
the priority given to access to social media and email, to the detriment of activities in the
offline world, was visible in the results obtained. There is even priority in accessing these
platforms, to the detriment of other activities such as watching television, playing sports,
being with friends and family, listening to music, travelling, or going to shows. We recall,
in this sense, that 37.8% of young adults assumed that they often access the Internet before
doing other activities, and 21.9% even thought that they do it all the time.
In this sense, specifically concerning expressive relationships, there is a conclusion
that reveals that there were those who assume that, occasionally, they prefer to be online
than with their friends and partner, especially in the case of male respondents. This is
surprising data, showing that being on the Internet is, for some respondents, more relevant
than being in the company of people with whom they have built a relationship.
Societies 2022, 12, 109 20 of 24

Despite the interference of the Internet in daily life—which, for almost all of the young
adults surveyed, is seen as a form of escape—at the same time, there is the perception
that its consumption may result in less favorable effects on the personal life of individuals.
However, significant numbers show an attempt to spend less time online and a specific
awareness that the time spent online can be excessive. The respondents reported that,
sometimes, they notice that they have been online for too long. However, only a tiny
percentage of the surveyed users admitted that attention is called to this by others due to
their time on the Internet.
Despite the less-positive effects of Internet use, more respondents associated the
Internet use with advantages than disadvantages. More significant was the percentage of
the respondents recognizing that the advantages and disadvantages of online consumption
are similar.

7. Limitations and Paths for Further Research

This research had some limitations, such as the small size of the study group, which
was constituted by a convenience sample of undergraduate students from Lisbon and
the Beira Interior regions. The subjectivity of the respondents in the online self-report
survey represents another critical point once the data collected are subject to method biases.
The type of analysis conducted, basically descriptive, can also be considered a limitation.
Nevertheless, the objective was to obtain a first reading of the data, not proceeding to
inferential analyses, correlations or the application of other statistical tests, as it is not our
goal to infer results from the sample to the population.
However, and although the results obtained are not representative of students attend-
ing higher education institutions in Portugal, the issues presented and discussed in this
exploratory article emphasize the need to develop more studies on the theme of Internet
addiction, with particular emphasis on the younger generations for whom the online world
is not only an essential element of their daily life and leisure time but also integrates a set
of socialization agents, with particular relevance for the way social representations about
the world are developed. At this level, there is a problem evident in this article and other
relevant studies in the areas of psychology and medicine, which concerns the consequences
that excessive Internet use can have on young people’s physical and mental health.
We also emphasize the need for communication studies to incorporate this theme,
making itself more robust in this area of knowledge, contributing to a field of analysis that
makes visible a holistic approach with repercussions for the transfer of knowledge between
academia and society, with relevance to the life contexts of the youngest. The studies of
audiences and media and digital literacy constitute an approach of particular significance
by incorporating not only scientific knowledge about the nature of the appropriation of
online contexts by the younger generations but also by designing strategies that are effective
in the development of skills that allow these users to maximize the benefits and minimize
the harms arising from the use of these media, thereby embodying a more critical and
healthy relationship, enhancing the positive side of these platforms. This is a relevant issue,
especially in cases like the COVID-19 pandemic. This can intensify the risks related to the
Internet and digital technologies.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.S. and S.P.; methodology, R.M. and P.S.; investigation,
P.S., S.P. and R.M.; writing—original draft preparation, P.S., S.P. and R.M.; writing—review and
editing, P.S., S.P. and R.M.; project administration, R.M.; funding acquisition, P.S. and R.M. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Universidade Europeia, Faculty of Design, Technology
and Communication—IADE. The translation was funded by LabCom—Communication and Arts,
University of Beira Interior.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Ethical review and approval were waived for this study due
to the fact that survey participants are all over eighteen years old. The data were treated anonymously,
and students participated willingly and without coercion or legal obligation.
Societies 2022, 12, 109 21 of 24

Informed Consent Statement: All of the subjects involved in the study agreed to participate in it.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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