MICROANATOMY LECTURE REVIEWER Cell Division Binary Fission Mitosis/Meiosis

Plasma Membrane (Cell membrane or

PREPARED BY: NAOMI MAGDALINE A. CHIN plasmalemma) – Function as a selective barrier
regulating the passage of materials into and out of
the cell.
Histology – Study of the tissues of the body and
how these tissues are arranged to constitute - Double phospholipid layer with
organs. embedded proteins (TRILAMINAR)
- Membrane transport - selectively
• “Histo” means “tissue” or “web” permeable membrane
- osmosis
- protein channels
LESSON 1: CELL - active transport
Cell – The basic unit of biological organization - fluid mosaic model
• Is the lipid bilayer with the embedded
Basic composition proteins that surrounds a cell and is seen
1. Protoplasm/ Cytoplasm only with the TEM.
- colloidal • The lipid bilayer forms from the
- with organelles, inclusions, and amphipathic phospholipids, stabilized by
cytoskeleton cholesterol and contains many embedded
2. Cell membrane (integral) proteins and many peripheral
- trilaminar proteins on its cytoplasmic surface.
- semipermeable • Membrane proteins move laterally within
3. Nucleus the lipid bilayer, with less movement in
- with DNA in the form of: areas referred to as lipid rafts, which have
a. heterochromatin (inactive) higher concentrations of cholestherol and
b. euchromatin (active) saturated fatty acids.
• Integral membrane proteins include
Types of cell receptors for external ligands, channels for
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes passive or active movement of molecules
Organism Bacteria Protist, Fungi, across the membrane and pumps for active
Plants and membrane transport
Animals. • Endocytosis – is cellular uptake of
Organelles Few/none Nucleus, macromolecules or fluid by plasma
mitochondria, membrane engulfment or invagination,
endoplasmic followed by the pinching of a filled
reticulum, etc. membranous vesicle in the cytoplasm.
DNA Circular / in the Linear/ circular • Exocytosis – Type of cellular secretion in
cytoplasm bounded by a which cytoplasmic membrane vesicles fuse
membrane with the plasma membrane and release
RNA and RNA and RNA and
their contents to the extracellular space.
Protein protein synthesized in
synthesize in the nucleus/ Simple diffusion - Movement of solute from an area
the same protein in the of high solute concentration to an area of low
compartment cytoplasm solute concentration.
Facilitated Diffusion - Movement of solute from an organelles or for exocytosis; RER is always
area of high solute concentration to an area of well developed in cells actively secreting
low solute concentration with a CARRIER. proteins.
- for protein synthesis attached ribosomeS
Osmosis - Movement of solvent (WATER) from an
(protein-EXTRACELLULAR USE)
area of LOW solute concentration to an area of
• Smooth ER (SER) – lacks ribosomes, but
HIGH solute concentration.
includes enzymes for lipid and glycogen
Active Transport - Movement of solute from an metabolism, for detoxification reactions.
area of LOW solute concentration to an area of - fat transport and sex hormone
HIGH solute concentration. synthesis,HCL synthesis, release and
recapture Ca+ in skeletal muscles
Cytoplasm - Mostly water with chemical 4. Golgi Apparatus (Dictyosomes)– Collection
compounds in solution or colloid of flat saclike cisternae
- Solution: atoms or ions distributed in - Concentration and collection of cellular
medium compounds
- Polar compounds go into solution - Storage warehouses of the cell
- Nonpolar compounds go into colloidal - Carbohydrate synthesis site
suspension - “packaging”
- With organelles, inclusions, cytoskeleton 5. Lysosomes - Digestive enzyme packages
- With acid hydrolases
ORGANELLES - Lack oxidases and catalases
1. Mitochondria (chondriosome) - - Functions:
Powerhouses of the cell a. play role in cellular defense
- Cristae - inner folds where cellular b. digest stored food
respiration occurs c. maintenance and repair of
- Synthesize ATP organelles
- Energy requirements of cell determine d. suicide agents for old or weak cells
cristae number 6. Peroxisomes/Microbodies - CONTAIN:
- Also accumulate Ca+,synthesize nucleic - CATALASE – converts H2O2 into H2O and
acids and proteins,oxidation of fatty acids O2
2. Ribosomes – Distributed throughout - OXIDASE
cytoplasm 7. Melanosomes
- Attached to rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 8. Secretory Granules
- No membrane covering CYTOSKELETON
- Site of protein synthesis
free ribosomes- protein for intracellular use 1. MICROFILAMENTS (7 nm in dia.) -
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum – System of Microfilaments are short, flexible, highly
membranes that makes up channels dynamic filaments of actin subunits, in
- Connects with outer nuclear and cell which changes in length and interactions
membranes with binding proteins regulate cytoplasmic
• Rough Er has a granular, basophilic viscosity and movement.
cytoplasmic surface due to the presence of 2. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS (10 nm in dia.) -
polysomes making most membrane Intermediate filaments are the most stable
proteins, proteins in certain other
 cytoskeletal component, conferring strong - Nuclear membrane has pores to allow
mechanical stability to cells. substances passage
• Keratin- epithelial cells - Chromatin - genetic material inside
• Vimentin- mesenchymal cells nucleoplasm
• Desmin- muscle cells - Nucleolus - site of ribosome formation
• Glial fibrillary protein- glial cells of
INCLUSIONS
nervous system
• Neurofilaments- neurons - Unlike organelles, inclusions are not
3. MICROTUBULES (25 nm in dia.) - metabolically active and are primarily
Microtubules are semirigid tubular storage sites, such as lipid droplets,
structures with walls composed of glycogen granules, pigment granules, or
polymerized tubulin heterodimers; their residual bodies (also called lipofuscin).
structure is often very dynamic, with steady
addition and dissociation of tubulin
- Microtubules are important in
LESSON 2 : CELL DIVISION
maintaining cell shape and as tracks for
transport of vesicles and organelles by Chromosomes – mostly highly condensed form of
the motor proteins kinesin and dynein chromatin materials which are often visible during
a) centrioles- determine polarity of mitosis.
cell
b) basal bodies- anchoring points of • These are the structural units of genetic
cilia and flagella materials of the cell
c) cilia – line respiratory tract • Humans have 22 pair of autosomal and a
d) flagella- tail of spermatozoa pair of sex chromosomes.

CENTRIOLES Interphase – The period in between the cell division

Centrosome - two centrioles at right angles to each • Lasts for 18-24 hours
other • Inactive / resting phase
a. G1 phase (Gap 1) – follows telophase of
- composed of nine sets of triplet fibers mitosis
- Form spindle fibers during cell division • No DNA synthesis occurs but RNA and
- Guide duplicated chromosomes to daughter protein synthesis do occur.
cells • Each daughter cell grows the size of the
CILIA AND FLAGELLA - Hairlike protrusions from cell parents
membrane • Longest and most variable phase of the cell
cycle
- Nine double fibrils around two single b. G0 phase
central fibrils • cells pull out of the cycle
- Cilia - move materials across cell surface c. S Phase – Synthesis phase
- Flagellum - propels cell through a medium • Replication of DNA occurs and centrioles
THE NUCLEUS self- duplicate during this phase.
d. G2 Phase (Gap 2) – final preparation for the
- Control center of the cell cell division occurs during this phase.
 • Synthesis of tubulin and accumulation of Prophase – chromosomes progressively shorten
ATP. and thicken to form double structures
• Further increase in cell volume and
- Nucleolus gradually disappears
synthesis of enzymes and other proteins
- Mitotic apparatus begins to form
Mitosis – brief continuous process of cell division - Degeneration of the nuclear membrane
which is divided into 4 phases
Metaphase – chromatids align at the equatorial
- A division undergone by autosomal plane
chromosomes
Anaphase – separation of the sister chromatids and
- Daughter cells produced have diploid
migrate towards the opposite poles by the
number of chromosomes.
translocation of the spindle microtubules.
KARYOTYPE – knowing the chromosomes the cell
Telophase – nucleoli and nuclear membranes
contains.
reappear at the opposite ends of the cell.
- 23 pairs
- Mitotic apparatus gradually disappears
- 22 pairs: autosomes and 1 pair: sex
- A purse string constriction of bands of
chromosome. (XX: female and XY: male)
microfilaments appear at the equatorial
COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS plate dividing the cytoplasm and eventually
the daughter cells.
Mitosis – Two daughter cells with exactly the same
genetic material Cytokinesis – Process where the two cells will
separate from each other, to form two exactly cell
- Cellular division for growth maintenance from the parent cell.
and repair
Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis – Four daughter cells with half the genetic
material Meiotic Division 1 – End up forming the haploid
chromosomes and haploid DNA.
- Cellular division for reproduction
MITOSIS MEIOSIS - Recombination – process where in the
End result Diploid Haploid characteristics traits are trading so that
Type of Cells Somatic Gametes hopefully there will be a better product.
Genetically Yes No
same as Spermatogenesis – 4 sperm
parent Oogenesis – 1 egg plus 3 polar bodies
Crossing over No Yes
happens Chromosomal Disorders
Pairing of No Yes
1. Down’s Syndrome – Trisomy 21
Homologous
Chromosomes 2. Klinefelter Syndrome – Extra X in Males;
Function Growth / Reproduction XXY, XXXY, XXXXY, etc.
Repair 3. Turner Syndrome – lacking one X in Female
(X0)
4. Triple X Syndrome – Extra X in Female
PHASES OF MITOSIS 5. Jacob’s Syndrome – Extra Y in Male
LESSON 3: EPITHELIAL TISSUE b. Acts scaffolding which regenerating
epithelial cells can migrate
Epithelial Tissue – Rests on Basement Membrane - The reticular lamina contains type III
- Avascular – No blood vessels collagen and anchoring fibrils of VII
collagen, all secreted by cells of the
- Regenerative (replaces lost cell by cell
division) immediately adjacent connective tissue.
- Covers body surfaces, Hollow and form - Basal lamina and reticular layers of the
glands. underlying connective tissue deep to it from
- Outside surface of the body the basement membrane.
- Lining of digestive, respiratory and - Together, these components attach
urogenital systems epithelia to connective tissue, regulate
(filter) substances passing from connective
- Heart and blood vessels
- Lining of manu body cavities tissue into epithelia, provide a guide or
scaffold during tissue regeneration after
Functions of epithelia injury, and compartmentalize epithelial cells
from other tissues
- Protecting underlying structures; e.g.,
a. Surface Epithelium
epithelium lining the mouth
• Number of cell layers
- Acting as Barrier; e.g., Skin
1. Simple – One layer of cells. Each
- Permitting the passage of substances; e.g.,
extends from basement membrane to
cells lining air sacs in lungs and nephrons in
the free surface.
kidney
2. Stratified – More than one layer.
- Secreting substances; e.g., Pancreatic cells
3. Pseudostratified – Tissue appears to be
- Absorbing substances; e.g., Lining of
stratified but all cells contact basement
stomach and small intestine
membrane so it is in fact simple.
Basement Membrane • Shape of cells
1. Squamous- flat, scale-like
- The basement membrane of all epithelia is
2. Cuboidal – About equal in height and
a thin extracellular layer of specialized
width
proteins, usually having two parts: a basal
3. Columnar – Taller than wide
lamina and a more fibrous reticular lamina.
- The basal lamina is a thin meshwork of type Simple Squamous Epithelium –Single layer of
IV collagen and laminin produced by the flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei
epithelial cells. and sparse cytoplasm; the simplest of the
epithelia
Noncellular supporting sheet between
the epithelium and the connective Function: Allows passage of materials by
tissue deep to it. diffusion and filtration in sites where
protection is not important; secretes
Consists of proteins secreted by the
lubricating substances in serosae.
epithelial cells
Location: Kidney glomeruli and corpuscles;
a. Acts as a selective filter,
air sacs of lungs; lining of heart; blood
determining which molecules from
vessels, and lymphatic vessels; lining of
capillaries enter the epithelium
ventral body cavity.
Simple cuboidal Epithelial – Single layer of cube - Deeper layers of cells appear cuboidal
like cells with large, spherical central nuclei. or columnar
- Thickest epithelial tissue – adapted for
Function: Secretion and absorption
protection
Location: Kidney tubules; ducts and - Specific types
secretory portions of small glands; ovary Keratinized – contain the protective
surface. protein keratin
- Surface cells are dead and full of keratin
Simple columnar Epithelial – Single layer of tall
cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear Non-keratinized – forms moist lining of
cilia; layer may contain mucus-secreting body openings.
unicellular glands (goblet cells).
Functions- protects underlying tissue in
Functions: Absorption; secretion of mucus, areas subject to abrasion
enzymes, and other substances; ciliated
Location: keratinized- forms epidermis
type propels mucus (or reproductive cells)
by ciliary action. Non-keratinized – forms lining of
esophagus, mouth and vagina.
Location: Nonciliated type lines most of the
digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), Transitional epithelial – resembles both
gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal;
glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, basal cells cuboidal or columnar; surface cells
uterine tubes and some regions of the dome shaped or squamous like, depending on
uterus. degree of organ stretch.

Pseudostratified Columnar epithelial – Single Function: Stretches readily and permits

layer of differing heights, some not reaching the distension of urinary organ by contained
free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may urine.
contain goblet cells and bear cilia.
Location: lines the urethra, bladder and part
Function: Secretion, particulary of mucus; of urethra.
propulsion of mucus by ciliary action.
b. Glandular Epithelium – a gland is one or more
Location: Nonciliated type in Male’s sperm cells that makes and secretes an aqueous fluid.
carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; • 2 TYPES OF GLANDS FORMED BY INFOLDING OF
ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of EPITHELIUM
the upper respiratory tract. Endocrine – No contact with the exterior of
body ; ductless gland; produces hormones
Stratified epithelia – contain two or more
(pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas)
layers of cells
Exocrine – open to exterior of body via ducts
- Regenerate from below (sweat,oil)
- Major role is protection - Exocrine glands classified either by
- Named according to the shape of cells at structure or by the method of secretion
apical layer • Classified by structure
Unicellular : Goblet cells
Sratified squamous epithelial– Many layers of
Multicellular: Sweat, oil, pituitary and adrenal
cells – squamous in shape
 1. Multicellular Exocrine Glands – classified on function to increase epithelial cells’ apical
the basis of types of ducts or mode of surface area for absorption.
secretion 2. Stereocilia - are long microvilli with
- Types of ducts specialized mechanosensory function in
• Simple – ducts with few branches cells of the inner ear and for absorption in
• Compound – ducts with many branches tissues of the male reproductive tract.
o If ducts end in tubules or sac- like 3. Cilia – whip-like, highly motile extensions of
structures: acini. Pancreas apical surface membrane
o If ducts end in simple sacs: alveoli. - are larger projecting structures with a well-
Lungs organized core of microtubules (in a 9 + 2
arrangement called the axoneme) in which
LATERAL SURFACE FEATURES restricted, dynein-based sliding of
1. Tight or occluding junctions – Integral microtubules causes ciliary movement that
proteins of adjacent cells fuse together propel material along an epithelial surface.
- Completely encircle the cell and form an
adhesion belt
- Form an impermeable junction
LESSON 4: CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Common near apical regiom • Connective tissue is specialized to physically
- are formed by interacting transmembrane support and connect other tissues and
proteins such as claudin and occludin; linear maintain the water required for metabolite
arrangements of these linked proteins diffusion to and from cell
surround the apical ends of the cells and • Connective tissues all consist primarily of
prevent paracellular passage of substances extracellular material rather than cells.
(between the cells.) • Within most organs connective tissue
2. Desmosome – Linker proteins extend from proper forms the supportive stroma, which
plaque like teeth of a zipper. Intermediate supports the organ’s unique functional
filaments extend across width of cell components or parenchyma.
- Common in superficial layers of skin; skin • The ECM of connective tissue proper usually
peels after a sunburn consists of both large protein fibers and
3. Hemidesmosomes - composed of nonfibrous areas of unstained ground
transmembrane integrins attach cells to substance rich in various GAGs and water.
proteins of the basal lamina.
• All adult connective tissues are derived
4. Gap or communicating junctions - are
from an embryonic form of connective
points of cell contact where both plasma
tissue called mesenchyme, which contains
membranes have numerous hexameric
uniformly undifferentiated cells scattered in
complexes of transmembrane connexons,
a gel-like matrix.
each forming a channel allowing passage of
small molecules from one cell to the other. Fibrous Connective Tissue - the most common cells
in connective tissue proper, produce and maintain
Apical Structures of Epithelial Cells
most of the tissue’s extracellular components.
1. Microvilli - finger-like extensions of plasma
SUBTYPES OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
membrane
- are small membrane projections with 1. Dense Regular CT - Dense regular
cores of actin filaments that generally connective tissue, prominent in tendons
 and ligaments, features bundles of 1. Mesenchymal CT – A tissue developing
essentially parallel type I collagen, providing mainly from the middle layer of the
great strength (but little stretch) in binding embryo, the mesoderm. Mesenchyme
together components of the consists largely of viscous ground substance
musculoskeletal system. with few collagen fibers. Mesenchymal cells
EX. Tendons or Stem Cells are undifferentiated and have
2. Dense Irregular CT - Dense irregular large nuclei, with prominent nucleoli and
connective tissue is filled primarily with fine chromatin. They are often said to be
randomly distributed bundles of type I “spindle-shaped,” with their scant
collagen, with some elastic fibers, providing cytoplasm extended as two or more thin
resistance to tearing from all directions as cytoplasmic processes.
well as some elasticity. • Contains stem/progenitor cells for all adult
EX. (Reticular Layer) Dermis connective tissue cells
3. Loose (Areolar) CT - Loose connective tissue EX: Pig Embryo (Dermomyotome)
(or areolar tissue) has relatively more 2. Mucous CT – is the principal component of
ground substance than collagen, and it the fetal umbilical cord, where it is referred
typically surrounds small blood vessels and to as Wharton’s jelly. With abundant
occupies areas adjacent to other types of ground substance composed chiefly of
epithelia. hyaluronan, mucoid tissue is gelatinous,
• Supports microvasculature, nerves, and with sparse collagen fibers and scattered
immune defense cells fibroblast.
EX. Lamina Propria (Stomach) • When wharton’s jelly is exposed to change
4. Elastic CT – Elastic Connective Tissue is of temperature such as when the baby is
characterized by the presence of born it collapses the structure within the
abundant elastic fibers within the matrix. umbilical cord and that provides
EX. Tunica Media (Aorta) physiological cramping of the cord
preventing bleeding.
SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Supports and cushions large blood vessels
1. Reticular CT – Consists of delicate networks EX: Umbilical Cord
of type III collagen and is most abundant in
CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISUE
certain lymphoid organs where the fibers
form attachment sites for lymphocytes and 1. Fibroblasts (fibrocytes) - the major cells of
other immune cells. connective tissue proper, are elongated,
• Supports blood-forming cells, many irregularly shaped cells with oval nuclei that
secretory cells, and lymphocytes in most synthesize and secrete most components of
lymphoid organs the ECM.
EX. Lymph Node 2. Adipocytes (Fat cell or Signet ring)- are very
2. Adipose CT– The defining cells of adipose large cells specialized for storage of
tissue (fat), adipocytes, are very large cells triglycerides; they predominate in a
derived from mesenchyme and specialized specialized form of connective tissue called
for energy storage in lipid droplet(s) with adipose tissue.
triglycerides. 3. Macrophages - are short-lived cells that
EX. Hypodermis (Skin) differentiate in connective tissue from
precursor cells called monocytes circulating
EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 in the blood; they function in ECM turnover, • The basophilia of the ground substance is
phagocytosis of dead cells and debris, and greater in the are immediately surrounding
antigen presentation to lymphocytes. the lacunae (territorial matrix). This area
4. Mast cells - also originate from blood cell contains few collagen fibrils.
precursors and are filled with granules for • The interterritorial matrix located outside
the release of various vasoactive agents and the territorial matrix contains a greater
other substances during inflammatory and number of collagen fibrils.
allergic reactions.
5. Plasma cells - are short-lived cells that CARTILAGE BASIC STRUCTURE
differentiate from B lymphocytes and are • Cells of cartilage, chondrocytes, make up a
specialized for the abundant secretion of small percentage of the tissue’s mass, which
specific antibodies (immunoglobulins). is mainly a flexible mass of extracellular
• Besides macrophages and plasma cells, matrix (ECM).
other leukocytes normally wander through • Chondrocytes are embedded within lacunae
all types of connective tissue proper, surrounded by the Extracellular matrix
providing surveillance against bacterial (ECM).
invaders and stimulating tissue • Cartilage ECM typically includes collagen as
well as abundant proteoglycans, notably
aggrecan, which bind a large amount of
LESSON 5: BONES AND CARTILAGES
water.
Hard Connective tissue • Cartilage always lacks blood vessels,
lymphatics, and nerves, but it is usually
3 Components surrounded by a dense connective tissue
1. Cell perichondrium that is vascularised.
2. Fibers COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF CARTILAGE
3. Ground Substance
• A common characteristics of all types of
Cartilage – A tough, resilient type of connective
cartilages is the absence of capillaries
tissue that structurally supports certain soft tissues,
running within it.
notably in the respiratory tract, and provides
• Therefore, the chondrocytes must receive
cushioned, low-friction surfaces in joints.
nutritive substances from blood vessels in
COMPONENTS OF CARTILAGE the connective tissue surrounding the
cartilage by diffusion through the ground
1. Cell – All types of cartilage are comprised of substance.
cells called Chondrocytes.
• Chondrocytes occupy lacunae which are CARTILAGE HISTOPHYSIOLOGY AND
located within the matrix HISTOPHATHOLOGY:
2. Fibers – Mainly Collagen
• Cartilage can undergo calcification with age
• Type II Connective Tissue
(similar to endochondral bone formation).
3. Ground Substance – Principal component is
• Deficiencies in the supply of precursors,
chondroitin sulfates.
minerals and Vitamins A, C and D can lead
• Chondroitin sulfates are acidic
to abnormal growth and maturation of
proteoglycans that are responsible for the
cartilage.
basophilic staining of the matrix.
 • Abnormal production of growth hormone • Fibers - Made up of Type II collagen (about
by the anterior pituitary gland, thyroxin by 40% of dry weight)
the thyroid, testosterone and estrogen by - Fine fibrils (100-200 nm diameter)
the gonads, and cortisone by the adrenal which form an interlacing network in
glands can also produce abnormal growth the matrix
of cartilage. • Ground substance – mainly chondroitin
sulfates.
CARTILAGE COVERINGS
2. Elastic – found in the external ear (auricle),
• The perichondrium consists of two layers: auditory tube and epiglottis.
• Innercellular layer – consists of - Cells – Chondrocytes are located in lacunae,
chondrogenic cells that, in young cartilage, similar to those seen in hyaline cartilage.
contribute to the appositional growth of - Elastic cartilage grows by both
cartilage. interstitial and appositional growth.
• Outer Fibrous layer – consisting of densely - Fibers – In addition to collagenous fibers,
woven collagenous fibers and blood vessels. elastic cartilage contains a meshwork of
• In adult cartilage, the fibrous layer is the Elastic fibrils that give the cartilage a yellow
ony layer that is apparent. appearance in the living state.
- Elastic fibers gives this cartilage type
METHODS OF GROWTH OF CARTILAGE more flexibility that hyaline or
1. Interstitial Growth – Active chondrocytes fibrocartilage
within the cartilaginous mass can undergo - Ground substance – Principally chondroitin
mitosis. sulfates.
• Each daughter cells produces fibers and 3. Fibrous – also known as Fibrocartilage.
ground substance around itself so that the Found in intervertebral discs, articular discs,
cartilage expands from the within the symphysis pubis and at the insertions of
matrix. tendons and ligaments.
- No perichondrium
• Groups of these daughter cells which arise
- Instead of Isogenous, the cells are in
from a common chondrocyte retain a close
linear arrangement.
relationship and form isogenous groups.
- Cells – chondrocytes are oriented between
2. Appositional Growth – Chondrogenic cells
large collagenous fiber bundles or appear
located in the perichondrium surrounding
singly in an isolated fashion within lacunae
the cartilage can migrate into the
- There is no identifiable perichondrium
cartilaginous matrix and differentiate into
surrounding fibrocartilage, therefore, it
chondrocytes.
apparently grows by interstitial growth
TYPES OF CARTILAGES only.
- Fibers – an abundance of collagen type I
1. Hyaline – found on articular surfaces of the
fibrils that are visible in routine
bone, on the sternal ends of ribs, in the
preparations.
trachea and larynx, in the nose, in the
external auditory meatus and in the fetal BONES
skeleton.
• Bone is the most rigid form of the connective
• Cells – Chondrocytes
tissue
- Hyaline cartilage grows by both
interstitial and appositional growth
• It forms the skeleton, provides support and • Osteocytes – cells occupy lacunae and
protection for vital organs (E.g., brain, heart, are somewhat evenly distributed
and lungs). thoughout the bone tissue.
• Serves for the attachment of muscles and • Osteoblasts – Young Cells , Bone
encloses the marrow cavity where blood forming cells
development occurs. • Osteoclasts – Bone destroying cells
- Large multinucleated cells with
Similar to cartilage in that:
acidophilic cytoplasm that occupy
1. It is a firm tissue Howship’s lacunae etched, by
2. Its cells are located in lacunae enzymatic action, into the surface of
3. It has an intercellular matrix possessing a bone that is being resorbed.
protein-polysaccharide rich ground - These cells secrete acids, collagenase
substance containing chondroitin sulphate and other proteolytic enzymes.
4. It contains collagen fibrils.
Organization of lamellae:
Differs from cartilage in that:
Compact bone – consists of:
1. Inorganic salts are deposited in the bone - Concentric lamellae arranged in
matrix haverisan systems and Interstitial
2. Its cell can not receive nutrients by diffusion lamellae between the haversian
through the inorganic matrix systems.
3. Canaliculi link the lacunae and serve as a 2. Spongy Bone – irregular, thin plates =
means for the passage of nutrients trabeculae
4. The collagen fibrils are organized into
Organization of lamellae
lamellae.
5. Bones grows only appositionally. - Spicules and trabeculae consists of
1. Compact Bone – Dense and solid several lamellae
• Coverings and linings - Since the canalicular system can only
1. Periosteum – Dense fibrous provide nutrients to osteocytes within
covering of bone 0.2 mm from the blood supply,
- Some of the coarse collagenous fibers trabeculae and spicule are usually not
extend into the bone as sharpey’s fibers more than 0.4 mm in thickness.
which help to anchor tendons and
Endosteum- consists of a fine reticular
ligaments.
connective tissue containing
- Regions of periosteum adjacent to bone
osteoprogenitor cells which may be
are rich in osteoprogenitor cells and
transformed into osteoblasts.
osteoblasts that mediate much bone
growth and remodeling. Types & Organization of Bone
2. Endosteum – Inner boundary
• Circumferential lamellae • Dense bone immediately beneath the
1. Outer Circumferential – lamellae lie periosteum is called compact bone; deep to
next to the periosteum and the compact bone are small bony
oriented parallel to it. trabeculae or spicules of cancellous (or
2. Inner circumferential – lamellae lie spongy) bone.
next to the endosteum.
 • In long bones of the limbs, these two types - Albumin - the most abundant plasma
of mature bone tissue occur in both the protein, is made in the liver and serves
knobby, bulbous ends, called epiphyses,
and in the intervening shaft or diaphysis. primarily to maintain the osmotic
• Immature bone, called woven bone, is pressure of the blood.
formed during osteogenesis or repair and
- Globulin – made by the liver and other
has a calcified matrix with randomly
arranged collagen fibers. cells, include transferring and other
• By the action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, transport factors; fibronectin;
woven bone undergoes rapid turnover and
prothrombin and other coagulation
is remodeled into lamellar bone with new
matrix deposited in distinct layers with factors; lipoproteins and other proteins
parallel collagen bundles; both compact and
entering blood from tissues
cancellous bone is lamellar bone.
• Most lamellar bone consists of lamellae - Fibrinogen –the largest plasma protein
organized concentrically around small (340 kD), also made in the liver, which,
central canals containing blood vessels and
during clotting, polymerizes as
nerves; this organization is called an osteon
or Haversian system. insoluble, cross-linked fibers of fibrin
• Within each osteon osteocytic lacunae that block blood loss from small vessels.
occur between the lamellae, with canaliculi
radiating through the lamellae, which allow Serum – plasma minus fibrinogen
all cells to communicate with the central
canal. Formed elements – whole cell, cell fragments

LESSON 6: BLOOD AND LYMPH a. RBC (Red Blood Cell) – erythrocyte

Blood – A specialized connective tissue - Erythrocytes (red blood cells [RBCs]) are
Average adult – 7-9% of total body weight terminally differentiated structures

Male: 5-6 liters lacking nuclei and completely filled with

the O2 -carrying protein hemoglobin.
Female: 4-5 liters
RBCs are the only blood cells whose
Functions of the blood
function does not require them to leave
1. Transport
2. Protection the vasculature.
3. Regulation - 7 to 8 um in diameter
COMPONENTS OF BLOOD - Male - 5.5 million/cu. mm.

1. Plasma – liquid portion - Female – 4.9 million/cu.mm.

a. Water – 90% - Shape – Biconcave Disc
b. Plasma proteins - Anucleated – No Nucleus
 - Contains oxygen carrying protein b. WBC (White Blood Cell) – leukocyte
haemoglobin that gives blood its red - 5,000-10,000/cc
color. - Has nucleus
- Life span – 120 days - Less numerous and larger than RBC
- Microcytosis – RBC less than 6 um - Most live in few days except
- Macrocytosis – RBC is greater than 9 um lymphocyte which can live for several
- Anisocytosis – Erythrocytes with months or year
variable sizes - Combats pathogen by phagocytosis and
- Reticulocytes – immature RBC released immune response.
from the bone marrow before
TYPES OF WBC
completion of erythropoiesis
- 1-2 % of RBC in peripheral circulation. 1. Neutrophils
- Also known as Polymorphonuclear
Rouleaux formation – stacking up in aggregates
Leukocytes.
of RBC in small vessels
- Cell size and quantity: 60-70%
1. Hemoglobin (Hgb) – oxygen - BARR body – “drumstick” appearance at
carrying protein of blood one end of nucleus
- Male – 14-16 gm - Inactive X chromosome found only in
- Female – 12-14 gjm female neutrophils
- Male has higher Hgb because - First line of defense – responds quickly
testosterone in male stimulates to bacterial infection
synthesis of EPO. 2. Eosinophils
2. Hct - Hematocrit (to separate) – - 2-4% - second most numerous
number of RBC in whole blood granulocyte
- Male- 45-52 % - Phagocytize Ag-Ab complexes formed in
- Female – 37-48% allergies
- Destroy certain parasitic worm
RBC DISORDERS
3. Basophils
1. Anemia – Decreasing number of - 0.5-1% - least commonly encountered
erythrocytes. granulocyte
2. Polycythemia – increasing number - Coarse large granules which stain dark
of erythrocytes. blue obscuring S-shaped nucleus
 - Granules contain : - Stays in the bloodstream only for 3 days
• Release histamine and heparin - Capable of phagocytosis as it
• Also release slow reacting transforms to macrophages.
substance of anaphylaxis – SRS- c. Platelets – thrombocytes
A - 150,000-400,000/uL
- Anucleated
NON GRANULAR LEUKOCYTES
- Membrane bounded fragments of cells
1. Lymphocytes - Are shed from the surface of
- 20-25% (28%) megakaryocytes in red bone marrow
- Most numerous agranular leukocyte - Approximately 2 to 4 um in diameter
- Have minimal cytoplasm and lack and often appear in clumps
specific granules
BLOOD TYPES AND ANTIGENS
- Acute viral and chronic bacterial
infection TYPE A TYPE B TYPE AB TYPE O
- Produce antibodies (Universal
- TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTES Donor)
• B- cell ANTIGEN A ANTIGEN ANTIGEN NEITHER
➔ Plasma cells -> Antibodies B A AND B ANTIGEN
(Humoral mediated immunity) A NOR B
Memory Anti-B Anti-A Neither Anti-A and
• T-cell antibody antibody Anti-A nor Anti-B
➔ Cytotoxic killer cells Anti-B Antibodies
T helper cells (CD4) Antibodies
(Cell mediated)
Memory
ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS: (FROM THE BOOK)
• NK Cells or Natural Killer Cells
Attack virus infected cells, • The liquid portion of circulating blood is

transplanted cells plasma, while the cells and platelets

2. Monocytes comprise the formed elements; upon

- 3-8% (5%) clotting, some proteins are removed from

- Kidney-shaped or U-shaped nucleus plasma and others are released from

- Largest of formed elements 12-20 um

 platelets, forming a new liquid termed - Lymph returns proteins and excess fluid
serum. to the blood stream
• Important protein components of plasma - Transport fats from the digestive
include albumin, diverse α- and β-globulins, system
proteins of the complement system, and - Clear fluid made up of wbc, mostly
fibrinogen, all of which are secreted within lymphocytes
the liver, as well as the immunoglobulins.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
• RBCs or erythrocytes, which make up the
hematocrit portion (~45%) of a blood COMPONENTS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM:

sample, are enucleated, biconcave discs 7.5 1. Lymphatic vessels

μm in diameter, filled with hemoglobin for 2. Lymphatic organs- Lympohocytes
the uptake, transport, and release of O2 ,
and with a normal life span of about 120 FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
days
1. Returns fluids that leaked from
• WBCs or leukocytes are broadly grouped as vascular system back to the blood
granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, 2. Protects the body by removing
foreign material from the lymph
basophils) or agranulocytes (lymphocytes, 3. immune surveillance
monocytes).
a. Thoracic duct
• All leukocytes become active outside the
circulation, specifically leaving the - originates from cisterna chyli
microvasculature in a process involving - which empties into the left
subclavian vein at its junction with
cytokines, selective adhesion, changes in the left internal jugular vein
the endothelium, and transendothelial
b. Right lymphatic duct
migration or diapedesis.
• All granulocytes have specialized lysosomes - which empties into the right
called azurophilic granules and smaller
subclavian vein at its junction with
the right internal jugular vein.
specific granules with proteins for various
cell-specific functions LYMPHATIC ORGANS

LYMPH 1. Lymph Node

- Fluid that flows to the lymphatic system - Located along lymphatic vessels
- Macrophages that phagocytize
- Similar to blood plasma
bacteria
 - Lymphocytes mounting immune microorganisms. This is called
response Waldeyer’s ring.
- Filters the lymph - the components of this ring are:

2. Thymus a. palatine tonsils

b. nasopharyngeal tonsil
- is a flat, pinkish-gray, two lobed c. lingual tonsils
organ lying high in the chest anterior
to the aorta and posterior to the 5. Peyer’s Patches
sternum.
- increases its size during childhood Gut associated lymphatic tissue (GALT)
- characteristic feature is hassal’s or
thymic corpuscles - Clusters of nodules in the ileum
- In the thymus the lymphoid tissue is - Macrophages are in ideal
not arranged in nodules position to capture and destroy
bacteria, preventing them from
3. Spleen reaching the intestinal wall.

- largest lymphatic organ IMMUNE RESPONSE

- located at the left hypochondriac region
- graveyard for senescent or aged RBC IMMUNITY- defense of the body against
- filters the blood disease causing agents like transplant, blood
- produces lymphocytes and plasma cells transfusion, autoimmune, allergies,

STRUCTURE OF THE SPLEEN - AIDS

- specific or non specific
- Encapsulated
- Contains lymphocytes, TYPES OF IMMUNITY
macrophages, RBC
- Red pulp a. Innate Immunity (Non Specific Immune
Response)
• contains abundant RBC and
macrophages - Present at birth
- Non specific
- White pulp - Does not become efficient upon the
• contains lymphocytes second exposure to same organism
- Skin, mucous membrane, phagocytes,
4. Tonsils natural killer cell, inflammatory
response, interferon, complement,
- several groups of tonsils forming a fever
ring of lymphoid tissue, guard the
entrance of the alimentary and b. Acquired (Adaptive/Specific) Immune
respiratory tracts from invasion by Response
- Following certain infection IgE – less than 1% of Ig; exists as a
- Antigen and antibody reaction monomer, mediates allergic and parasitic
- B lymphocytes humoral /antibody reaction; does not fix Ig to be made by the
mediated immunity fetus
- T lymphocyte cell mediated immunity
IgD - < 1% exists only as a monomer, main
TYPES OF MATURE LYMPHOCYTES Ab on the surface of lymphocytes of
newborn
• T CELL

- The maturity of T cells occurs in Thymus

- helper T cell- (+) other T cells GOODLUCK EVERYONEEE <3
- cytotoxic T cell- attack the infected cells,
virus, cancer cells, foreign body
- Suppressor T cell- terminate normal
immune response

• B CELL

- Maturity of B cells occurs in Bone

Marrow
- Involved in humoral immunity
- Primary immune response
- Secondary immune response

Note: Memory cell are found in both T cell

and B cell

IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSES

IgG – 75% of Ig, All IgG are monomers;

crosses the placenta; weakly activates the
complement system, most abundant

IgA – 15% of Ig; Serum IgA found in

secretions is a dimer, the major class of Ig in
secretions – tears, saliva colostrum, mucus

IgM – 7-10%; largest size; exists as a

pentamer, most potent activator of
complement system: IgM is the first Ig to be
made by the fetus; IgM is the first antibody
during an infectious process