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Comment 2020, 10(6), 574; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10060574 (https://doi.org/10.3390/min10060574)
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Abstract
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Carbonate reservoirs, especially dolomite reservoirs, contain large reserves of oil and gas. The complex diagenesis is quite challenging
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to document the dolomite reservoirs formation and evolution mechanism. Porosity development and evolution in dolomite reservoirs
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primarily reflect the comprehensive effect of mineral dissolution/precipitation during dolomitization. In this study, multicomponent
multiphase flow and solute transport simulation was employed to investigate dolomitization in the deep carbonate strata of the Tarim
Basin, Northwest China, where active exploration is currently under way. One- and two-dimensional numerical models with various
temperatures, fluid compositions and hydrodynamic characteristics were established to quantificationally study Show details
dolomitization and its
effect on porosity. After determining the main control factors, detailed petrologic characteristics in the studied area were also analyzed
to establish four corresponding diagenetic numerical models under different sedimentary environments. These models enabled a
systematic analysis of mineral dissolution/precipitation and a quantitative recovery of porosity evolution during various sedimentation-
diagenesis processes. The results allowed for a quantitative evaluation and prediction of reservoir porosity, which would provide a basis
for further oil and gas exploration in deep carbonate reservoirs.
Keywords: carbonate reservoirs (/search?q=carbonate+reservoirs); sedimentation (/search?q=sedimentation); diagenesis
(/search?q=diagenesis); dolomitization (/search?q=dolomitization); porosity (/search?q=porosity)
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Carbonate reservoirs are widely distributed over the world and crucial for oil and gas exploration because of their proven reserves.
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However, carbonate
Geological Backgroundreservoirs are usually developed with complicated crack/pores during diagenesis, which make the reservoir
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prediction difficult and hinder the development of oil and gas exploration [1,2,3,4,5,6,7] It is of great importance to understand the effect
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diagenesis
This websiteon the cookies
uses reservoir porosity evolution as it is one of the key factors affecting the reservoir quality.
lens The useformation
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content and ads,porosity aresocial
to provide the topic
mediaof carbonate
features and toreservoir research
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lensefficiency improvement of oil and gas exploration [5,8,9,10]. In carbonate reservoirs, reservoir porosity evolution is mainly the result of
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lenscarbonate
providedminerals
to them ordissolution
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use of dolomitization
services. [11,12,13,14]. Fluid–rock reactions are usually the main factor
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the inporosity evolution because it results in carbonates dissolving to form voids, although in some cases minerals may precipitate to
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such voids [2,15,16]. However, the reservoir condition (e.g., temperature, pressure, mineral species, formation water hydrochemistry
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lensand fluid dynamics) is crucial to the porosity evolution during the long process of diagenesis [9,17,18,19,20,21,22].
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As the most important carbonate reservoir, dolomite has received wide attention [13,23,24,25]. With the continuous exploration and
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discovery of oil and gas in deep-buried dolomite formations, a string of new issues has arisen. The most important issue is how
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dolomitization affects the reservoir porosity during various sedimentation–diagenesis processes [26,27,28,29]. This, however, has not
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received notable attention as the majority of previous research works focused on qualitative testing and analysis of dolomitization,
which did not provide a systematic description of carbonate minerals under different burial conditions during the whole diagenetic
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process
Comment [30].
In this study, the deep strata of the Tarim Basin in Northwestern China were selected to establish a number of one- and two-
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dimensional numerical models under various diagenetic conditions. This allowed us to analyze the effect of temperature, fluid and
hydrodynamic conditions on dolomitization, and for the quantitative evaluation of the reservoir porosity change induced by
dolomitization. Then, quantitative recovery of porosity evolution during various sedimentation–diagenesis processes was successfully
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implemented. The results allowed for a quantitative evaluation and prediction of reservoir porosity, which would provide a basis for
further oil and gas exploration in deep carbonate reservoirs.
2. Geological Background
2.1. Tectonic Locations
Tarim Basin is one of the most important petroliferous basins in China, which contains thick marine carbonate deposits. The most
well-developed carbonate sequence within the basin is the Cambrian-Ordovician carbonate, which is also the key intervals for oil and
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exploration [31,32,33]. The Ordovician carbonate reservoirs in the Shunnan (SN) area, located in the central uplift of the Tarim
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Figure 1. Tectonic locations of the Shunnan (SN) area in the northern slope of the middle Tarim Basin. (a) Location of Tarim
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Comment Basin in China; (b) Location of SN in Tarim Basin; (c) Tectonic map.
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Diagenesis
A good overview of the typical diagenesis in the studied area has been provided by various previous research, as shown in Figure
2 [32,33,35,36] A series of core and thin sections and other petrological analyses show that the diagenesis mainly includes micritization
(Figure 2a), cementation (Figure 2b–g), structural fractures (Figure 2e), dissolution (Figure 2f), dolomitizationShow details2h–k), and
(Figure
silicification (Figure 2l).
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Comment Figure 2. Typical diagenesis types of the Middle-Lower Ordovician carbonate. (a) SN6, 7325.50 m, sparry dolomitized
calcarenite, small scale, cathodoluminescence; (b) SN4, 6361.13 m, micrite calcarenite, plane polarized light; (c) SN6, 7325.50
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m, sparry dolomitized calcarenite, plane polarized light; (d) SN6, 6849.50 m, micrite clastic limestone, cathodoluminescence;
(e) SN1, 6639.70 m, micrite calcarenite, plane polarized light; (f) SN7, 6876.40 m, sparry calcarenite, plane polarized light; (g)
SN6, 6849.50 m, micrite calcarenite, plane polarized light; (h) SN6, 7318.50 m, sand cutting fine crystalline dolomite, plane
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polarized light; (i) SN6, 7319.43 m, fine-medium crystal residual sandy dolomites, cathodoluminescence; (j) SN7, 6534.10 m,
micrite clastic limestone, cathodoluminescence; (k) SN4, 6461.00 m, micrite calcarenite, plane polarized light; (l) SN4, 6673.22
m, siliceous limestone, orthogonal polarization.
The diagenetic evolution of the Ordovician reservoirs in the Tarim Basin is complex, which mainly experience submarine
diagenesis, meteoric diagenesis and the deep burial diagenetic settings. It is characterized by an early weak cementation, a late
compaction and pressure solution, formation of stylolite, dissolution and karstification, mixed dolomitization in the supergene stage and
the rupture and formation of multiphase fractures, which are all favorable conditions for developing favorable reservoirs [28,37].
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Ordovician III interface are controlled by paleotopography and paleo-fault [38]. Such eogenetic karst reservoirs have a “quasi-layered”
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lensfluids with medium-low temperature, high salinity and rich SiO2 penetrated along the fault zones, leading to hydrothermal alterations
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lensreservoirs. Liu [39] theorized that the Middle-Lower Ordovician dolomites in the SN area are mainly resulted from shallow burial, burial
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lens(transitionalenvironment) and deep burial dolomitizations. The fine-grained dolomite strata formed during the burial stage have the best
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lens The diagenetic evolution sequence of the reservoirs in the studied area is summarized in Figure 3. According to the diagenetic
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The mineral saturation ratio can be expressed as
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𝑁𝐶 𝑣 𝑣
Ω𝑚 = 𝐾 𝑚 ∏ 𝑐𝑗 𝛾𝑗
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coefficient, and Nc is aqueous species. At equilibrium, we have
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𝑟𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ,⋯, 𝑐𝑁𝐶 ) = ±𝑘𝑛 𝐴𝑛 |1 − Ω𝜃𝑛 |𝜂 𝑛 = 1, …, 𝑁𝑞
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positive values of rn indicate dissolution, and negative values precipitation, kn is the rate constant (moles per unit mineral surface
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lensand to avoid multi-factor interference, a simple and typical one-dimensional model was established. The total length of this horizontal
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lensdirection model was 150 m, divided into 50 equidistant grid cells. Fluid was injected from the left side at a constant rate, which promoted
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In the Base Case, parameters were set according to the actual physical properties and chemical conditions of the carbonate
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reservoir studied. The initial temperature was set to 40 °C and the initial pressure was set to equal to the atmospheric pressure. The
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state of the reservoir was assumed to be homogeneous, and the initial porosity was 0.35. At the beginning of the model run, the
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water was 8.5, and the Mg/Ca ratio was 5.25. Thirteen different models, Cases 1–13 were set up to compare the effects of
Comment factors on dolomitization, such as temperature, flow rate, seawater concentration, Mg/Ca ratio, pH and SO4
2− concentration.
The specific conditions of these various experiments are listed in Table 1. The values not specified in Table 1 are shown with a dash (-)
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The initial mineral in the model was calcite, and the initial water type was set as shallow formation water, with a low concentration
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+, Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+, Cl−, SO 2−, HCO −, etc. During the simulation, external fluids were continuously injected into the reservoir from
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the upper side of the formation. The external fluid had the same properties as seawater with higher concentrations of Ca and Mg .
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Diagenesis Evolution
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Based on the six successive diagenetic stages categorized in Section 2, six corresponding sub-models were established. The
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Table 3. Parameters of six sub-models corresponding to different diagenetic stages.
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In four different sedimentary environments models, the parameter settings were as follows: the simulated temperature and
pressure was 25 °C and 0.1 MPa respectively. The seawater component had a salinity of 35 ppt [41]. The initial mineral was calcite, and
the mineral content of each sub-model was based on real-time data from the previous stage.
① Marine phreatic environment in the subtidal zone. Under the influence of tides, seawater leaks from the surface. The infiltration rate
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lens shallow layer water flow process, with the fluid defined as mixed atmospheric fresh water and formation water.
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The main chemical reactions occurring in carbonate reservoirs are shown in reaction formulas (4)–(6). With the intrusion of external
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fluid, the original balance was disrupted, which made the calcite dissolve and release Ca2+ and CO32−, which could then combine with
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CaCO3 → Ca2+ + CO32− (4)
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lens In Case 1, the concentration of SO 2− in the injected water was 10 times higher than that in the Base Case. Results in Figure 5
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lensm of the injection point after 1 My, when the dolomite content was up to 0.55. During the transformation of calcite to dolomite, the
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generated Ca2+ moved continuously to the right area as the water flows. When Ca2+ and SO42− concentrations in the system reached
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the conditions for gypsum precipitation, gypsum was formed. As the curve of gypsum content shows, the content reached the highest
value at a distance of 10 m from the injection point after 0.5 My. With continuous injection of external fluids, more and more gypsum
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Figure 5. Calcite and dolomite content and porosity evolution (Case 1).
The change of porosity in different models is shown in Figure 6. The main difference between Case 2, Case 3 and the Base Case
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hydrodynamic conditions. The fluid velocity in Base Case was 4 m/yr, while that of Case 2 and Case 3 was 2 m/yr and 8 m/yr,
respectively. In Case 2, the porosity exhibited a significant increase only within 5 m of the injection point after 0.5 My. It took 0.8 My for
the porosity to increase to about 44% in the range of 20 m from the injection point. However, in Case 3, the range where the porosity
increased to 44% was close to 40 m from the injection point after 0.5 My and became nearly 90 m after 0.8 My. Show details
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The difference between Case 4, Case 5, Case 6 and the Base Case was the injected seawater. In the Base Case, Seawater 1#
was injected, while Seawater 2#, 3# and 4# were injected to Case 4, Case 5 and Case 6, respectively (Table 2). The salinities of the
four types of seawater were 27 ppt, 15 ppt, 32 ppt and 42 ppt, respectively. The porosity in Case 4 was seen to increase significantly
and reached a maximum of 46%. The porosity higher than 0.44 at 1 My was within 30 m in Case 4, while within 90 m and 75 m in Case
5 and Case 6, respectively.
The difference between Case 7, Case 8 and the Base Case was the Mg/Ca ratio in the injected fluid. The Mg/Ca ratio in the Base
Case was 5.25, while that in Case 7 and Case 8 were 10 times and 2 times that of the Base Case. The porosity in the whole simulation
range increased to more thanby0.4
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lenswhereas 41% in Case 10.
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lens Case 11, Case 12 and Case 13 differed from the Base Case with regards to the reservoir temperature, which was 40 °C for the
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lensBase Case, against 60 °C, 80 °C and 100 °C, for Cases 11, 12 and 13, respectively. These porosity evolution curves were largely
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calcite that they’ve collected
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at three use of for
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zone. In the unsaturated zone, the reaction was gradually developed in the fluid flow path as a result of the accumulation of ions. For a
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groundwater level of 100 m, the reaction extended to more than 200 m in the horizontal direction, while for a groundwater level of 50 m,
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HelpMarine Phreatic Environment in the Subtidal Zone
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lens Porosity evolution under marine phreatic environment is shown in Figure 8. Strong seawater cementation resulted in a calcite
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lenscement
Cite content of 5.1% during the sedimentary-parasyngenetic stage. During the parasyngenetic-shallow burial stage, seawater with
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lenshigh concentration 2+ 2+
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Cathey’ve
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Mg was fromfilled, which
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of their to a strong cementation and to a drop of porosity to 20%. Dissolution
lensoccurred with the development of numerous secondary pores during the supergene stage. During the shallow burial stage, a large
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Figure 8. Porosity and typical mineral content evolution under marine phreatic environment.
4.3.2. Meteoric Fresh Water and Freshwater Phreatic Environment in the Supralittoral Zone
Porosity evolution under meteoric fresh water and freshwater phreatic environment is shown in Figure 9. With the synergistic effect
of fresh water leaching, freshwater cementation and mechanical compaction, the porosity decreased to 38% during the sedimentary-
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lensporosity increased to 33.9%, while during the burial stage, calcite cementation and dolomitization made the porosity decrease to 14.5%.
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lensAshigh salinity acidic hydrothermal fluid acted as diagenetic fluid, contributing to cementation, dissolution and dolomitization, porosity
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lenswas almost constant throughout the middle-deep buried stage. Poor fluidity of formation water led to the weak cementation of calcite
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lensand the porosity reduced to 4.2% during the deep burial stage.
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Figure 9. Porosity and typical mineral content evolution under meteoric fresh water and freshwater phreatic environment.
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4.3.3. Seawater Evaporation Environment in Shoal
Porosity evolution under seawater evaporation environment is shown in Figure 10. During the sedimentary-parasyngenetic stage,
cementation, dolomitization and mechanical compaction were the main reactions and porosity decreased Show to 36%. In the
details
parasyngenetic-shallow burial stage, poor fluidity of the infiltration fluid caused a large amount of calcite cement, resulting in a decrease
in porosity. The porosity increased to 30.5% during the supergene stage. Due to calcite cementation and dolomitization, porosity
decreased to 18.2% during the shallow burial stage. During the middle-deep buried stage, a large amount of calcite was converted into
dolomite and a small amount of siliceous cement was formed, resulting in porosity decrease. Lastly, porosity decreased to 10.8% during
the deep burial stage.
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Figure 10. Porosity and typical mineral content evolution under seawater evaporation environment.
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4.3.4. Seawater and Freshwater Interaction Environment in Intertidal Zones
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Porosity evolution under seawater and freshwater interaction environment is shown in Figure 11. Dissolution, cementation and
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mechanical
to 35%. The porosity decreased to 19.7% because of calcite cement during the shallow burial stage and increased to 29% under the
action of atmospheric freshwater leaching during the surface stage. In the shallow burial stage, the pore water gradually evolved into
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dolomitized fluid, causing calcite cementation and dolomitization and the porosity decreased to 13.9%. During the details
middle-deep buried
stage, acidic hydrothermal fluid with medium-low temperature, high salinity and rich SiO2 penetrated along the fault zone, and the
porosity decreased to 9.3%. However, the porosity increased to 19.0% after hydrothermal alteration. The poor fluidity of the formation
water and low porosity-permeability resulted in a weak cementation and a porosity decrease of 17.1% during the deep burial stage.
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Figure 11. Porosity and typical mineral content evolution under seawater and freshwater interaction environment.
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5.1. Effect of Geological Factors on Dolomitization
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The effect of the temperature, flow rate, fluid properties and other geological factors on dolomitization varied [23,42,43]. Results of
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one-dimensional models indicated that if the flow rate of the external fluid, i.e., the hydrodynamic condition, was different, the degree of
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dolomitization varied. The porosity change extent was consistent under various flow rate conditions, but different amounts of time were
needed for the porosity to reach the same level. In short, the better the hydrodynamic conditions, the faster the fluid migration, which
then pushed the reaction and expands the scope of dolomitization.
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In two-dimensional models, comparing different groundwater surfaces, it was found that when the groundwater level was low, a 100
m unsaturated zone exist in the shallow layer, which contained much more gas. When external fluid entered the formation, it took a
longer path to reach saturation, while more pores need to be filled in the meantime. Therefore, the reaction occurred later, and the
degree of reaction was also weak due to the large number of ions being diluted during the porous flow process.
Different solution properties also lead to various levels of dolomitization [13,43]. The higher the Mg/Ca ratio in the fluid, the better
the precipitation of dolomite, due to the large amount of Mg needed in the dolomitization process. However, the pH value of the fluid
only had a limited influence compared with other factors.
Dolomitization is a reaction that involves a volume decrease, i.e., the volume of minerals is reduced with the conversion of calcite
to dolomite, so that the number
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contents increased and the porosity decreased from 45% to about 35% throughout the sedimentary-parasyngenetic stage
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depth ranges the parasyngenetic-shallow stage (465–460 Ma) was 50–600 m. As sea levels rose, the overlying
lens Discuss in
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During the supergene stage (460–455 Ma), deeply buried rocks were uplifted below the diving surface due to tectonic movements
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underwent short-term erosion and weathering. With the leaching and dissolution of meteoric fresh water, fresh water with low ion
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favored the overcoming of the dynamic obstacles to dolomite formation, which were dominant at the beginning of the shallow burial
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stage [44]. High-salinity concentrated seawater is the diagenetic fluid at this stage, which can easily flow downward under the effect of
gravity and cause convection with low-density seawater at the bottom. Following the penetration of the high-salinity seawater in the
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stratum, calcite would begin to cement, causing the Ca2+ concentration in the fluid to decrease, and the Mg2+/Ca2+ to increase, which
is beneficial for the fluid to overcome the kinetic obstacles. Calcite can then be replaced by dolomite, hence resulting in the decrease in
calcite content with burial time. Previous studies have also shown that massive dolomitization of sediments is the main
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the shallow burial stage [45,46].
During the middle-deep burial stage, the diagenetic fluids were medium-high salinity, SiO2-rich and CO2-rich deep hydrothermal
fluids. SiO2 had a relatively high saturation in the hot liquid, whose temperature was about 200 °C after entering the formation (the
formation temperature was about 100 °C). As the fluid flowed upward, reactions became different because of the different crack and
fracture system in the formation. Strong hydrothermal dissolution happened in the fault zone of SN4 and SN5, with a developed fracture
system.
During the deep burial stage (252–0 Ma), the temperature and pressure were high, which was conducive to the cementation and
dolomitization. Calcite cementation occurred when high Ca2+ fluid entered the formation from the Lower Cambrian source rock, leading
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below the sea level, the diagenetic fluid was seawater with a high concentration of Ca2+ and Mg2+, which favored the formation
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of intragranular and intergranular dissolved pores and casting pores were formed in SN4, and the pores were filled with equiaxed-
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