Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 41, Nos. 1±6, pp.

94±111, 2000
Ó 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0025-326X(00)00104-1 0025-326X/00 $ - see front matter

The Bahamas
KENNETH C. BUCHAN*
Bahamian Field Station, San Salvador, Bahamas

The archipelago of the Bahamas contains the largest Introduction

tropical shallow water area in the Western Atlantic. Lo-
cated on the northern and eastern margins of two large The Bahama Islands are an archipelago in the tropical
submerged banks and a number of smaller more isolated West Atlantic north of the Greater Antilles and south-
banks, the Bahama Islands, of which there are over 700, east of Florida. Covering an area of 13 860 km2 , with a
are low-lying and composed of limestone. A sub-tropical total land and sea area of approximately 300 000 km2 ,
climate and a geographic position between two major the Bahamas consist of over 3000 low-lying carbonate
warm ocean currents a€ect the region with seasonal islands, cays and rocks. The island territory extends
variability, which in¯uences the biological communities from Grand Bahama on the Little Bahama Bank at
inhabiting the ocean and coastal areas. 27.5°N, 1126 km south-east to Great Inagua (20°N), just
The Bahama Banks are separated from the North north of Haiti (Fig. 1).
American continent by the Florida Straits and from each The northern and central islands are located on two
other by deep channels, some in excess of 2000 m. Two vast carbonate platforms averaging 10 m in depth. The
deep water channels cut into the larger Great Bahama Little Bahamas Bank is located in the northern Bahamas
Bank. Most of the marine area is shallow (20 m), re- while the Great Bahamas Bank begins approximately 100
sulting in an extremely important marine resource with km south, extending to the south and south-east. These
both ecological and economic value. Banks are separated by the North-west and North-east
The Bahama Islands are dependent on their seas to Providence Channels and the Great Bahama Bank is split
maintain a GDP of US$ 2.7 billion through tourism and by two deep water channels. The ®rst of these channels is
harvest of marine resources. To date, the ®shing industry the Tongue of the Ocean (approximately 1500±1800 m
has bene®ted from the relatively high ecological produc- deep), which separates Andros Island from New Provi-
tivity of the shallow banks and their related habitats. dence and the Exuma Cays. The second is the Exuma
Commercially important ®sheries include Spiny Lobster, Sound, similar in depth to the Tongue of the Ocean and
conch and nassau grouper which, together, make up the forming a deep area to the east of the Exumas.
bulk of ®sheries income. Beyond the central Bahamas, to the south-east, the
Clear warm waters and white sand beaches, along with islands are located on a series of carbonate platforms
its close proximity to the USA, make the Bahamas a beyond which the island territory of the Turks and
prime tourist destination. Tourism is the mainstay of the Caicos begins.
Bahamian economy, accounting for 60% of the gross The Cay Sal Bank is located approximately 50 km
domestic product. west of the Great Bahama Bank and covers an area of
Agricultural and forestry operations are limited and nearly 4000 km2 . Most of this bank is submerged be-
impacts in the coastal zone from these are negligible. neath waters averaging 12 m in depth. A number of
However, land reclamation and construction for tourism small islands, cays and rocks are scattered along the
development, along with sand mining, dredging, over- north, east and west margins of the Bank.
®shing, poor ®shing practices and their respective impacts The Bahama Banks are isolated from neighbouring
of habitat loss, beach erosion and over-exploitation of land on all sides, from the US by the Florida Straits, to
target and non-target marine resources are becoming in- the North by the Atlantic Ocean; from Cuba in the
creasingly apparent as developmental pressures grow. south by the Old Bahama Channel and to the east by
deep water between Mayaguana Island and Great Ina-
Environmental regulations are in place through a
gua, beyond where the Caicos Bank begins.
number of parliamentary acts. Management of established
marine and coastal protected areas has been undertaken
by the Bahamas National Trust (BNT), which along with
The Origin of the Bahamas
other organisations, carry out environmental education
programs to increase awareness and reduce impact on the The geological origin of the Bahamas Archipelago
marine and coastal areas of the archipelago. Ó 2000 has been debated since Nelson 1853, when it was
Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. proposed that the Bahamas platform was a huge delta
formed by the Gulf Stream as it met the Atlantic
*Also: Department of Biological Science, University of Warick, UK. Ocean. The Bahamas began to develop around 200

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Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

Fig. 1 Map of the commonwealth of the Bahamas.

million years ago, during the formation of the Atlantic deposits making up the platform reach depths of over
Ocean. Later hypotheses on the formation of the Ba- 5.4 km (Meyerho€ and Hattin, 1974).
hamas suggest that tectonic activity formed the deep The islands of the Bahamas formed when the plat-
channels and banks as grabens and horsts (Mullins form became exposed during sea level lowstands caused
and Lynts, 1977). Dietz et al. (1970) suggested that the by four major glacial events during the Pleistocene
channels and banks are the result of long-term depo- (Fig. 2) (Sealey, 1994). Sea level dropped as much as
sitional processes where carbonate production kept 120 m, exposing the Bank sediments. Fine, light
pace with subsidence and turbidity currents eroded the rounded oolitic limestone was then blown by the trade
carbonate mass forming deep channels. Other schools winds to form dunes, which became lithi®ed after
of thought suggest the existence of a `megabank' ¯ooding. During the interglacial periods sea level rose
which included Florida, northern Cuba, the Turks and approximately 5±6 m above present-day sea level; fossil
Caicos Islands and the Blake Plateau to the north. reefs throughout the Bahamas have been used to date
Around 80 million years ago this megabank was al- sea level change (White et al., 1997). Erosional features
tered substantially by an event, perhaps the creation of are now common throughout the islands and the lime-
the Gulf of Mexico (Sealey, 1994). This led to ¯ooding stone rock has been weathered into karst formations
of the Blake Plateau (now at 900 m depth), the sep- such as caves, sink holes and solution pits (Gerace et al.,
aration of the Bahamas from Cuba and Florida, the 1998). The limestone is very porous and permeated by
creation of small banks separated by deep water in the subterranean conduits formed by rainwater. Conse-
south-east and the creation of the troughs and chan- quently, rainwater is diverted underground; there are no
nels within and between the Little and Great Bahama rivers and very little freshwater run-o€ from the islands
Banks. except during the heaviest of rains. For a more detailed
It is generally accepted that the Bahama Banks de- account on the geology of the Bahamas (see Carew and
veloped in an area conducive to hermatypic activity and Mylroie, 1997).
that skeletal remains were deposited as sediments. In Much biota existing in the Bahamas today is of Ca-
addition, oolitic sediment precipitated from the oceanic ribbean origin and was introduced during the last glacial
waters of the Atlantic as these moved on to the warm advance when sea level dropped almost 100 m. This
shallow banks. Drill holes have indicated that carbonate facilitated the movement of plants and animals across

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 Marine Pollution Bulletin

Fig. 2 The islands of the Bahamas are low-lying limestone structures, Fig. 3 Winds and ocean currents a€ecting The Bahamas. Cold winds
typically located on the northern and eastern margins of large from North America may be more northerly or westerly. The
shallow water banks. From the air the in¯uence of currents on north-east trade winds curve around and blow from the east or
the bank sands can be seen in features such as channels and south-east in the summer (from Sealey, 1994).
large sand ripples (photograph Matthew Robinson).

the much reduced oceanic gap between the southern

Bahamas, Cuba and Hispaniola.

Seasonality, Currents and Natural

Environmental Variables
Climate
The Bahamas Archipelago spans 6° of latitude, 9° of
longitude, across the Tropic of Cancer, so there are re-
gional variations in weather patterns and a mix of cli-
matic conditions throughout the island chain. The
climate of the Bahamas is sub-tropical and has distinct
winter and summer regimes (Halkitis et al., 1982).
During the winter, southward-moving cold polar air
masses stream over the islands from the US and al- Fig. 4 Variation in annual mean rainfall across the Bahamas Archi-
though moderated by the Gulf Stream, these fronts can pelago using data from islands located in the northern, central
signi®cantly reduce air temperature in the northwestern and southern Bahamas (data from Shaklee, 1996).
Bahamas. In the summer, warm moist air moves
northwards from the Caribbean (Fig. 3). The islands in
the north, on average exhibit cooler temperatures and
greater precipitation than those in the south.
Precipitation ®gures (Fig. 4) indicate that average
rainfall in Grand Bahama, the most northerly island, is
twice that of Great Inagua in the South (1400 and 700
mm, respectively). The temperature in Great Inagua is
generally greater, with a maximum mean monthly tem-
perature of 29°C (84°F) compared to 27°C (81°F) in
Grand Bahama and a minimum mean monthly tem-
perature of 25°C (77°F) in Great Inagua compared to
20°C (68°F) in Grand Bahama (Shaklee, 1996) (Fig. 5).
The Bahamas are exposed to signi®cant hurricane and
tropical storm activity during August through October.
The islands are located along the path taken by many Fig. 5 Variation in annual mean temperatures across the Bahamas
Archipelago using data from islands located in the northern,
North Atlantic hurricanes and are susceptible to damage central and southern Bahamas (data from Shaklee, 1996).
because they are low-lying. Hurricanes and storms im-
pacting the Bahamas may also originate in the Gulf of
Mexico and Caribbean Sea. On average three hurricanes counts for approximately one in every seven which de-
can be expected to cross some portion of the Bahamas velops in the North Atlantic. Hurricanes a€ecting the
archipelago every 4 years (Shaklee, 1989), which ac- Bahamas are somewhat variable year to year (Table 1).

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Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

TABLE 1
Hurricane occurrence, by decades, from 1900±99 in the north Atlantic and the Bahamas.a

1900±1909 1910±1919 1920±1929 1930±1939 1940±1949 1950±1959 1960±1969 1970±1979 1980±1989 1990±1999

North Atlantic 35 34 38 47 50 69 62 49 40 56
Bahamas 7 2 9 11 13 11 6 1 2 5
Percentage 20% 6% 24% 23% 26% 16% 19% 2% 5% 9%
a
Modi®ed from Neumann et al. (1987).

One of the worst was the `Great Bahama Hurricane' of Acropora palmata is restricted in the northwestern
(Albury, 1975) which hit in September 1866; unlike most Bahamas. Additionally, cold fronts from the US during
which a€ect some islands, but not others, this hurricane the winter months can last several days, creating cold
worked its way up the chain of islands. Houses and farm ocean currents, which contribute to reduction in growth
crops were destroyed and all but one vessel in Nassau and species diversity. Inshore shallow water temperature
Harbour were sunk or broken up. may be reduced very quickly during winter storms and
Major hurricanes a€ecting the Bahamas in recent has resulted in mortality of some ®sh species in bays and
years include: Hurricane David, 1979, which caused estuaries (Newell et al., 1959). In contrast, recent sum-
massive beach erosion with an average beach pro®le loss mer ocean temperatures in the Central Bahamas have
of 2±2.5 m on Cabbage Beach in New Providence; An- exceeded 30°C for extended periods, causing extensive
drew in 1992, which caused a 7 m storm surge in Eleu- coral bleaching (McGrath and Smith, 1999).
thera carrying seawater approximately 1 mile inland; The tidal range throughout the Bahamas is approxi-
and Hurricane Lili in 1996, which caused major struc- mately 1.5 m and is a mixed semi-diurnal type (Sullivan,
tural damage to residences on the island of San Salva- 1991) with four tidal extremes. Salinity is fairly consis-
dor. Most recently, the category 4 hurricane Floyd tent along the platform margins of the Banks at around
caused major coastal ¯ooding and damage to seawalls, 35 ppt, but may be higher across the shallow banks due
roads and coastal residences on San Salvador, Cat Is- to evaporation.
land, Eleuthera and Abaco in September 1999.
Large northerly swells are also known to occur on
occasion as a result of particularly violent storms orig- The Major Shallow Water Marine and Coastal
inating in the northern Atlantic, causing shore erosion Habitats
on the north coasts of many Bahama islands, as hap- The Bahamas are located for the most part on the
pened in October 1991. northern and eastern margins of the extensive platforms
of the Banks. In general, coastal waters are warm and
Oceanography clear, lacking any impact from rivers or other terrestrial
Ocean currents and sea surface water temperatures run-o€. In contrast, the interiors of the platforms are
in¯uence temperature throughout the archipelago. generally turbid due to tidal circulation and are more
Currents a€ecting the Bahamas originate from two variable in temperature and salinity (Newell et al., 1959).
places (see Fig. 3). The Gulf Stream moves from the Consequently, reef development on the interior of the
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico between Florida platforms is inhibited.
and the Bahamas, while the Antilles Current ¯ows onto
the Archipelago after it has moved westward across the The Bahama bank platforms
Atlantic Ocean from Africa, originally as part of the The marine sediments of the platforms, excluding any
North Equatorial Current. The path of the Gulf Stream organic matter, are pure calcium carbonate in the form
remains fairly constant in its position. However, the of aragonite, with a lesser amount of calcite from cor-
Antilles current shifts to the north in the summer, cre- alline algae and foraminiferans (Newell et al., 1959).
ating warmer temperatures in the Northern Bahamas Grain sizes range from medium-grained sand to silt and
and to the south during the winter months, providing clay.
warmer temperatures to the southern islands (Shaklee, Recently, extensive work has been done on marine
1996). community classi®cation. Sullivan (Sullivan, 1991; Sul-
Sea surface water temperatures are variable across the livan-Sealey, 1999) describes soft sediment and hard
islands, a€ecting the biological components of the substrate habitats of the Exuma Cays and presented two
shallow water marine habitats. For ®ve months of the classi®cations schemes: one describes marine communi-
year waters in the northern Bahamas are below opti- ties throughout the Bahamas Archipelago, the other a
mum for coral growth. This factor, combined with more speci®c scheme to aid in the interpretation of aerial
¯uxes in salinity and turbidity from trade-wind-induced photographs of Montagu Bay, New Providence and the
currents, a€ects the abundance of coral (Newell and Exuma Cays. Table 2 summarizes the habitat classi®-
Imbrie, 1955). Acropora cervicornis is absent and growth cations present in this region.

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 Marine Pollution Bulletin

TABLE 2
Summary of Benthic community classi®cations for the Bahamas Archipelago (see Sullivan-Sealey, 1999).

Soft sediment communities

Sand-mud/bare bottom (a) Mud bank and mud bottom often with polychaete or crustacean burrow mounds
(calcareous muds) (b) Intertidal mud ¯ats
(c) Island moats
(d) Anchialine ponds/saline land locked ponds
(e) Mangrove channels/lagoons
Sand-mud/seagrass(a) Sparse seagrass 30% cover
(b) Moderate to dense seagrass community
(c) Seagrass patches on matrix of soft sediment
Sand/bare bottom (a) Sand beaches
(b) Sandy shoals and sand bars
Sand/seagrasses/algal canopy (a) Sparse seagrass
(b) Sandy algal canopy (dominant calcareous green algae)
(c) Mixed algal canopy (sparse seagrasses, red algae and green algae)
(d) Sand bioturbation zone, polychaete or crustacean burrows dominate. Small patches of algae (typically
calcareous green) may be present
Rubble/loosely consolidated hard (a) Cobble rubble beaches (intertidal)
bottom
(b) Reef rubble communities
(c) Mollusc reefs
(d) Serpulid worm (polychaete) reefs

Hard substrate communities

Sparse hard-bottom communities (a) Mixed coral/sponge/algae sparse hard bottom with less than 30% cover of the above
(b) Algal dominated sparse hard bottom with 50% cover of algae and reduced sponge and coral coverage
(c) Coral/octocoral-dominated sparse hard bottom reduced sponge and algal coverage
Dense hard-bottom communities (a) Mixed coral/sponge/algae dense hard bottom ll50% cover of the above. Low relief carbonate platform
(b) Algal-dominated dense hard bottom reduced occurrence of sponges and corals
(c) Octocoral-dominated dense hard-bottom: characterized by a visual dominance of octocorals on a low-
relief limestone pavement with little or no sediment accumulation
Tidal channel communities (a) Sparse hard-bottom: characterized by shallow depth 5 m sparse sand accumulation
(b) Dense hard-bottom: similar to sparse tidal channel communities
Hard-bottom seagrasses (a) Dense seagrass patches on matrix of hard-bottom (seagrass 50% of total area)
(b) Hard-bottom matrix with dense seagrass patches (seagrass 50% of the total area)
Hard-bottom/coral reef (a) Patch reefs
communities Linear/bank patch reef
Dome-shaped/lagoonal/channel patch reef
(b) Fringing reef systems
Back reef rubble
High relief spur and groove
Transitional reefs
Low-relief spur and groove
Fore reef terrace
Deep reef resources or escarpments
(c) Bank-barrier reef systems
Back reef rubble
High relief spur and groove
Transitional reefs
Low-relief spur and groove
Fore reef terrace
Deep reef resources or escarpments
Hard-bottom nearshore platform/ Zone A: intertidal spray zone
rocky intertidal Zone B: upper intertidal zone
Zone C: lower intertidal zone
(a) Windward rocky community
Windward rocky intertidal
Windward rocky platform
(b) Leeward rocky community
Leeward rocky intertidal
Leeward rocky platform

Important shallow marine habitats are most prominent on the windward north and eastern
Coral reefs. Coral reefs cover an area of just over sides of the islands and cays, developing best a short
1800 km2 of the Great Bahama Bank and approximately distance from shore. The occurrence of coral in the
324 km2 of the Little Bahama Bank (Wells, 1988). These central area of the Bank platforms is limited, due to

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Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

turbidity and variable physical conditions. The best TABLE 3

development of coral reef is in association with islands Leaf biomass and production of seagrass species in the Bahamas
(modi®ed from Short, 1986).
along the margins of the platforms. Reefs are not,
however, restricted to the north and east and develop- Species Biomass Production
ment of healthy systems is evident on the west coasts of (g dry mÿ2 ) (g C mÿ2 dÿ1 )
many of the islands, including the Exuma Cays and San Thalassia testudinum 5.3±200 0.14±2.10
Salvador. Possibly the third largest barrier reef in the Syringodium ®liforme 7.6±159 0.01±2.00
world is located o€ the east coast of Andros, the largest Halodule wrightii 5.9 0.004
of the Bahamian Islands. However, some researchers
question the barrier reef classi®cation because of the
discontinuous nature of the reef.
amount of Syringodium and Halodule, whereas high-
There are about 30 species of hermatypic corals, of
energy sites appeared to favour Syringodium. Seasonal
which only a few can be described as contributing
variations in biomass also occurred with increases in
signi®cantly to the reef-building process. These are:
Syringodium and Halodule and a decrease in Thallasia
Montastrea annularis, M. cavernosa, Acropora palmata,
during July to December. Leaf biomass and production
A. cervicornis, Siderastrea siderea, Diploria labyrinthi-
of seagrasses in the Bahamas are shown in Table 3.
formis and Porites porites (Squires, 1958; Newell et al.,
Seagrass meadows form important nursery areas and
1959). More recently, extensive studies have focused on
habitat for reef ®sh and invertebrates; providing organic
ecological factors such as community structure (Chiap-
material to down stream habitats, stabilizing sediments
pone and Sullivan, 1991; Sullivan and Chiappone, 1992;
and acting as a food source to herbivorous ®shes and sea
Sullivan et al., 1994; Chiappone et al., 1996) and reef
turtles.
health (Curran et al., 1993; Lang et al., 1988; McGrath
and Smith, 1999).
In the Exuma Cays, Sluka et al. (1996) described 53 Mangroves. Large areas of mangrove can be found
species of algae, 49 sponges, 36 scleractinian corals, 29 along the margins of many sheltered bays, lagoons,and
octocorals, 3 black corals, 4 anemones, 2 zooanthids tidal estuaries throughout the Bahamas. These trees, in
and 2 corallimorpharians. Several coral diseases have particular the red mangrove, with its many prop roots,
been described, including black and type II white band provide stability to the coastal fringe and trap sediments
diseases (Ritchie and Smith, 1998) and Aspergillosis in forming overwash islands, making a land-forming pro-
Gorgonia spp (Nagelkerken et al., 1997a,b): a number of gression outward from the shore. Many species of ju-
bleaching events have also been described (McGrath venile ®sh utilize the area within the mangrove roots for
and Smith, 1999). Mass bleaching was observed around foraging. The high organic content of the sediments due
New Providence Island, August 1998, where approxi- to leaf litter and the algae-coated roots, provide food for
mately 60% of coral heads were bleached. Extensive polychaete worms, crustaceans and other detritivores
bleaching was also reported at Walkers Cay in the which young ®sh feed on. The mangrove root system
northern Bahamas (Wilkinson, 1999). also provides shelter from predation by larger carnivo-
The sea urchin, Diadema antillarum, died o€ rous ®shes. Fishes common to the mangrove areas in the
throughout the Bahamas in 1983 as it did elsewhere in Bahamas include snappers (Lutjanus spp), grunts
the Caribbean. In recent years a Diadema have been seen (Haemulon spp), parrot®shes (Scarus spp and Sparisoma
more frequently on reefs, but in numbers far less than spp) and mojarra (Gerres spp and Eucinostomus spp)
found in the pre-die-o€ populations. and in some areas the Nassau Grouper (Epinephelus
Marine ®shes have been described by Bohlke and striatus).
Chaplin (1968), who report on species abundance and Mangroves throughout the Bahamas mostly have a
distribution throughout the Bahamas. Sluka et al. (1996) typical zonation, with red mangrove (Rhizophora man-
concentrated their e€orts on describing the status of gle) dominating the waterÕs edge, then becoming inter-
groupers in the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park, con- spersed with black mangrove (Avicennia germinans)
cluding that the park was indeed protecting the abun- landward, eventually progressing toward an area dom-
dance, size and reproductive output of a number of inated by white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa) and
grouper species normally targeted by ®shermen. Buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus) (Fig. 6). However,
this classic zonation pattern is not exhibited in some of
Seagrass. Seagrasses can be found on the Great and the inland `lakes' of San Salvador island (Godfrey et al.,
Little Bahama Banks, the Cay Sal Bank and in tidal 1993), where red mangrove, which is typically more
estuaries, lagoons and sheltered bays of Islands and sensitive to environmental extremes of high salinity and
Cays across the archipelago. Three species are most periods of lower temperatures (Lugo, 1994), is replaced
commonly encountered: Thalassia testudium, Syringo- by black mangrove in the fringe closest to the water.
dium ®liforme and Halodule wrightii. On San Salvador This is the case in other sheltered locations.
Island, Smith et al. (1990) concluded that low energy The mangroves on San Salvador Island have been
sites had a higher frequency of Thalassia, with lesser described as an ecosystem under stress (Lugo, 1994) and

99
 Marine Pollution Bulletin

gin, certain features of these canyons are recognized

(Sealey, 1994). The channels consist of a large U-shaped
trough with a V-cut canyon on the trough ¯oor; the
steep sides of troughs are constructional as opposed to
erosional, being built up by depositional processes and
the V-shaped canyons are erosional features cut by oc-
casional but extreme turbidity currents.
The Tongue of the Ocean has been well studied by
submersible explorations in the 1960s and 70s. Trough
features include eroded cli€s to about 400 m followed by
gullied slopes extending to the trough ¯oor which is ¯at
except where the V-shaped canyons split the ¯oor. These
canyons rarely begin at the start of the trough but
Fig. 6 A typical tidal creek fringed by red mangrove (Rhizophora eventually spread open becoming part of the main
mangle) with Thallasia testudium dominated seagrass beds trough ¯oor. Turbidity currents are responsible for the
adjacent. In the Bahamas the red mangrove tends to be submarine canyon formation. A build-up of sediment on
dwarfed due to a lack of fresh water, low substrate fertility and
occasional low temperatures (Pigeon Creek, San Salvador Is- the bank platform at the head of the trough will now
land, photo Matthew Robinson). and again be disturbed by storms or perhaps tectonic
activity. The sediment cascades into the trough and is
carried by submarine currents with velocities up to
may be typical of other mangrove areas throughout the
45 mph, which erodes the trough ¯oor. The geological
Bahamas. This stress is re¯ected most in the red man-
record shows that turbidity currents occur anywhere
grove whose trees are typically stunted, the leaves small from every 500 to every 10 000 years (Sealey, 1994).
and in¯exible and the tree canopy thinned and the leaves Porter (1973) made some observations on the biota of
orientated upwards. There is also a high occurrence of the Tongue of the Ocean. As the submersible descended
albinism in Rhizophora seedlings (Godfrey and Kle- into the trough, genera and species declined, along with
kowski, 1989). The sources of stress for mangrove can
the total biomass. Near the surface, sponges replaced
be attributed to a number of factors (Lugo, 1994). Being
stony corals as the dominant species and living cover
located just above the Tropic of Cancer, the northern
decreased from around 50±90% at the surface to less
Bahamas are sometimes exposed to lower temperatures
than 1% at 300 m.
and in combination with a low annual rainfall, can cause The Bahamian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
drought and an increase in salinity, subsequently re- extends 200 miles into the Atlantic Ocean. Within
stricting the development of mangrove stands. They these waters there is tremendous potential for com-
grow optimally with some freshwater in¯uence, but here mercial ®shing as they lie along the migration routes of
there are no rivers, few freshwater springs and little
some high-value commercial pelagic species such as
freshwater run-o€ to mangroves in the Bahamas and the
yellow and black®n tuna and sword®sh (BREEF and
substrate has low fertility (Kass and Stephens, 1990;
MacAlister, Elliott and Partners Ltd 1998). Bimini has
Kass et al., 1994).
developed a deep-sea sport ®shing industry targeting
In Bimini, as elsewhere in the Bahamas, much of the ®sh which use the productive waters of the Gulf
mangrove is stunted in its growth form, but mangrove Stream (Campbell, 1978). The Bahamas are known
roots are dense, forming a habitat for juvenile ®shes. worldwide for deep-sea sport®shing. Sports ®shermen
The Bimini lagoon, which has been earmarked for de- utilize the deep-water areas, targeting pelagics such as
velopment is an important habitat for bone ®sh and is a
blue marlin, white marlin, wahoo, dolphin®sh and
lemon shark nursery area (Correia et al., 1995). The
tunas.
western half of Andros island is predominantly wetland,
In the 1970s and 1980s, the Bahamas Department of
with an extensive area of mangrove. This forms an im-
Fisheries considered the potential of commercial deep-
portant habitat for birds such as cattle egrets and os- water 50±300 m snapper and grouper ®sheries on the
preys. bank drop-o€s. Although not exploited to any great
Mangrove habitat is under stress from coastal devel- extent so far, interest is increasing in this type of ®shery
opment and has been removed extensively in New using ®sh traps.
Providence and Grand Bahama for coastal development
purposes.
Populations A€ecting the Area
Before the arrival of Columbus on San Salvador Is-
O€shore Systems land in 1492, the Bahamas were inhabited by the
The most striking deep-water features of the Bahamas Lucayan Indians. Historical records and archaeological
are the channels which penetrate and surround the studies have suggested that the population of the Ba-
Banks. Although there is some debate about their ori- hamas was 40 000 at this time (Sealey, 1990). The

100
Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

Lucayan people farmed the land and ®shed to sustain The Tourism Industry and its E€ect on the
themselves, but they eventually died out in the early Population
1500s as a result of disease and slaving raids by the
Spanish. By the 1780s the population of the Bahamas In 1997, the islands of the Bahamas accommodated
was around 4000. Populations ¯uctuated over the fol- 1 617 595 stopover visitors, of whom 81% came from the
lowing years, with a major increase at the end of the USA, 6% from Canada, 8% from Europe and 5% from
1700s as those loyal to the British Crown looked for other countries. Approximately 74% of these were on
places to settle following the American War of Inde- vacation and according to surveys on visitors to Nassau
pendence. Loyalists established plantations using slave by the Bahamas Ministry of Tourism (1998), the pri-
labour. In 1807 the British government abolished trade mary reason for vacationing in the Bahamas was its
in slaves so that the plantations could no longer operate. beaches (27%) followed by the climate (17%). 20% of
Many of the Loyalists left at this time and by 1840 there those visiting Grand Bahama gave value for money as
were few plantations left (Sealey, 1990). The freed slaves their main reason. Visitors to the out islands also indi-
remained and established themselves in New Provi- cated beaches (29%) as their primary reason for
dence, Andros, Grand Bahama, San Salvador, Rum choosing the Bahamas, followed by sporting attractions
Cay, Long Island and the Exuma Cays and by 1843 the (including SCUBA diving and snorkelling) (26%). With
population had grown to around 25 000. This number the coastal zone and marine environment being the main
increased slowly until the early 1900s when islanders left tourist attractions in the Bahamas, much coastal devel-
to seek employment elsewhere; this lull continued until opment has taken place.
the 1920s when it started to grow once more. Since the Development in the tourism sector has led to nu-
1950s there has been an increase in population to the merous problems on some of the islands, such as waste
present day (Table 4). management and the excessive use of freshwater re-
The most recent ocial census of population in the sources.
Bahamas was made in 1990, though estimates for 1998
were 293 700, with a projection of 302 800 for the year Agriculture in the Bahamas
2000. The main population centres are New Providence
(2152.5 individuals per square mile) and Grand Bahama In 1997, agriculture generated US $56.44 million.
(77.2 individuals per square mile). Abaco, Andros and Grand Bahama are main centres for
Historically, inhabitants, from the Lucayan Indians to agriculture, mostly on land leased from the government
present day ®shermen, have always utilized the resources to Bahamian farmers, which makes up about 90% of
of its shallow marine environment. During this time agricultural land throughout the archipelago.
signi®cant ®sheries have been established. Coastal areas Presently, crop production for export is concentrated
on many of the islands, in particular New Providence on Abaco, Andros, Grand Bahama and Eleuthera and
and Grand Bahama, have been developed for tourism consists mainly of citrus fruits (grapefruit, lemons, limes
and residential areas. and oranges), but also includes cucumbers, okra, avo-
cados, papaya, squash, tomatoes and zucchini. About
95% of export is to the USA.
On many of the smaller Bahamian Islands small-scale
subsistence agriculture is carried out. Limited soils
which are usually deepest in carbonate sink holes and
TABLE 4
other dissolution features are utilised to grow sweet
Population of the Bahamas (Ocial Census, 1980 and 1990).
potatoes, water melon and other produce. Fertilizers are
Island 1980 1990 rarely used and with a low rainfall, very porous sub-
Abaco 7271 10 061
strate and little topographic relief, agricultural run-o€ is
Acklins 618 428 negligible.
Andros 8307 8155 Golf course construction has taken place on several
Berry Islands 509 634
Bimini 1411 1638
larger islands. However, no information on fertilizer-
Cat Island 2215 1678 related nutrient loading of coastal areas is available and
Crooked Island and Long Island 553 423 whether this is a problem for coastal waters is not clear.
Eleuthera, Harbour Island and 10 631 10 524
Spanish Wells
Exumas 3670 3539
Grand Bahama 33 102 41 035 Artisanal and Commercial Fisheries in the
Inagua 924 985 Bahamas
Long Island 3404 3107
Mayaguana 464 308 A diversity of resources are harvested from Bahamian
New Providence 135 437 171 542 waters. In economic terms the most important are
Ragged Island 164 89
Rum Cay and San Salvador 825 539 shell®sh and scale®sh ®sheries.
Approximately 100 000 sq. miles of the Bahamas
Total 209 505 254 685
territory is marine, around half of the area shallow (less

101
 Marine Pollution Bulletin

TABLE 5 TABLE 6
Marine resources utilised throughout The Bahamas.a Summary of total recorded landings of marine products in The Ba-
hamas during 1998 (Bahamas Department of Fisheries 1999).
Edible Scale®sh Grouper, snapper, hog®sh, jacks, grunts
Shell®sh Conch, whelks, chiton, Spiny Lobster, Weight (lbs) Value (US $)
stone crab, queen helmet
Sport®sh Marlin, tuna, wahoo, mackerel, king®sh, Craw®sh tails 5 478 508 53 364 247
dolphin, sword®sh, sail®sh, bone®sh Craw®sh whole 215 144 776 233
Other Green and loggerhead turtle Conch 1 477 374 3 651 628
Stone crab 85 126 609 001
Non-edible Biological Turtle shell, conch shell, coral, black Turtle (green) 5072 6571
coral, shells, sponge Turtle (loggerhead) 2052 3693
Chemical Salt, water from desalination Nassau Grouper 1 125 817 2 674 401
Mineral Aragonite, building sand, petroleum Other grouper 228 235 460 581
a
Grouper ®llet 108 803 327 422
Modi®ed from Sealey (1990). Snappers 1 721 359 2 363 558
Jacks 202 411 216 381
Grunts 198 232 155 601
than 20 m) and very productive in ®sheries terms (Table Sharks 4312 10 248
Others 343 214 415 479
5). Three main ®sheries exist and contribute most to an
income of almost US $62 million per year, or 2.25% of Total 11 195 659 65 035 044
the countryÕs Gross Domestic Product in 1997 (BREEF
and MacAlister Elliott and Partners Ltd, 1998). These
are the Spiny Lobster Panulirus argus, the Queen Conch They are caught with three techniques. Traditionally,
Strombus gigas and the nassau grouper Epinephalus Spiny Lobster are speared or trapped. Spear®shing
striatus. involves free diving or diving with the assistance of
Other species ®shed include snappers (Lutjanus spp), surface supply air and hooking them out of their
grunts (Haemulon spp), jacks (Caranx spp), other hiding places and spearing them. Destructive methods
grouper, green and loggerhead turtles, sharks, stone have also been used to force lobster into the open,
crabs, the queen helmet shell (Cassis madagascarienis) such as use of bleach (Campbell, 1978). Although this
and sponges (Hippospongia lachne and Spongia spp). destructive practice has been reduced in recent times,
Most are landed on New Providence, Abaco and Eleu- (it is now illegal to carry bleach on ®shing vessels)
thera, to a lesser extent on Grand Bahama, Long Island other substances have reportedly been utilised such as
and Andros (Fig. 7 and Table 6). gasoline and detergent. In addition, traps are con-
structed from slats of wood and string and baited with
Spiny Lobster Panulirus argus cowhide. Normally larger ®shing vessels will employ
Of the three main species harvested in the Bahamas, this ®shing technique, deploying up to about 2000
the Spiny Lobster (P. argus), or `craw®sh' as it is re- traps.
ferred to in the Bahamas, is the most important con- In the late 1980s, arti®cial habitats known as condos
tributor to the Bahamian economy. As the fourth largest (or casitas elsewhere in the Caribbean) were introduced
spiny lobster ®shery in the world (after Australia, Brazil and are now being used widely throughout the Baha-
and Cuba), almost 2600 metric tonnes of lobster tails mas. These are constructed from large rectangular pieces
(around 7000 tonnes live weight) were ®shed in 1997, of aluminium and have three wooden sides. The condos
with a value of US $58.7 million (Department of Fish- attract the lobster.
eries, 1998). Export of the Spiny Lobster is to the US Commercial ®shing vessels will remove most of the
(60%), France (35%) and Canada (5%) with a small lobstersÕ tails and freeze them for storage. The tails are
developing fraction going to Japan. often soaked in preservative before freezing.
The pelagic larval phase of the spiny lobster is up to a
year. The ®shery in the Bahamas may therefore be de-
pendent on `upstream supply', although localised ocean
circulation may replenish stocks from within the Baha-
mas. Considering the importance of upstream supply,
concerns are directed at the status of regional stocks, in
particular those from Turks and Caicos, the Eastern
Caribbean and Brazil. Throughout the wider Caribbean
it is generally accepted that most Spiny Lobster stocks
are either fully or over-exploited.
The Bahamas Department of Fisheries collect lobster
landing data indirectly through licensed ®sh buyers and
processors and, because there are only a few main
buyers, the data collected are considered fairly com-
Fig. 7 Total recorded ®sheries landings by weight from 1980 to 1997. prehensive. There is less direct information, for example,

102
Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

on catch per unit e€ort (CPUE). Analysis of the avail- Exploitation of other scale®sh
able data, however, suggests recent declines in CPUE Although the major scale®sh ®shery is for Nassau
(BREEF and MacAllister, Elliot and Partners Ltd., Grouper, snapper, grunts, other grouper, hog®sh and
1998). jacks are also targeted. Fish-attracting devices are often
used to encourage aggregation of snappers and grunts.
Scale®sh exports (not including grouper) totalled ap-
Queen Conch Strombus gigas
proximately 200 000 lbs in 1997. A majority of this can
Conch landings in 1997 were some 1.43 million lbs
be attributed to red snapper and mutton snapper.
(Bahamas Department of Fisheries, 1998). Less than a
Shallow water ®shes are speared, trapped or netted.
quarter of this was exported to the US and Canada,
Deep-water snapper and grouper are ®shed using
generating around US $1 million in export sales. Most
traps; long lines having 10 or more hooks are not per-
Conch (60%) are ®shed during the closed lobster season,
mitted. Exploitation of deep-water ®sh and the tech-
when full-time ®shermen turn to this valuable alterna-
niques used to catch them have been of some concern
tive. Conch are usually ®shed while free-diving although
for three main reasons: they have been overexploited in
it is permitted to use compressed air during the lobster
other countries because of a slow growth rate and sexual
season. Conch may sometimes be picked up from very
maturation, mechanical hoists used to recover traps can
shallow water, but these tend to be juveniles.
cause extensive damage to ®sh habitats and traps may
Stock assessment is dicult because much of the
break free and continue to `®sh' for extended periods
conch catch is not sold to licensed buyers, but directly
where use of biodegradable trap materials is not en-
to businesses and consumers. Generally, inshore pop-
forced.
ulations have become depleted throughout the Carib-
bean and ®shermen are searching deeper waters:
populations are in decline. Some countries have taken Other Fisheries Resources
conservation measures by enforcing a complete ban
From 1840 until 1940 the harvest of sponge from
on conch ®shing, but this is not the case in the Ba-
shallow marine areas was a booming industry. At one
hamas, although the Department of Fisheries is cur-
time there were 265 schooners, 322 sloops and 2808
rently assessing stocks. BREEF/MacAllister, Elliot
open boats committed to sponging (Campbell, 1978).
and Partners (1998) surmise that it is likely that the
Sponges were exported to France and nearly one third
Bahamas could support a relatively large conch ®sh-
of the Bahamian work force made their living from the
ery and that depleted stocks are mostly evident
sponge ®shery (Campbell, 1978). However, the ®shery
around population centres in the northern and central
came to a sudden halt in 1939 when a fungal disease
Bahamas.
killed around 90% of the harvestable sponge in 2 years.
In modern times synthetic sponges have prevented the
Nassau Grouper Epinephalus striatus sponge ®shery ever becoming a major economic force in
Nassau Grouper landings for 1997 were around 1.13 the Bahamas, although some are still harvested from
million lbs, making this probably the largest Nassau Acklins Bight and Central Andros (Sealey, 1994) and
Grouper landing in the world. Other grouper species sent to Nassau for export. The value of sponge export
caught totalled around 15% of the weight, with similar during the 1980s was very low, ranging between US
amounts of grouper ®llet being landed. In total 1.45 $29 000±$375 000 per year. The higher value came about
million lbs of grouper and ®let were landed with a total as a result of disease a€ecting the Mediterranean sponge
value of around US $3.29 million. As with the Queen production and harvest. Recent ®sheries statistics from
Conch, grouper landings are hard to assess because of 1995 to 1997 show a marked increase in harvest, with
direct sales. export values averaging 126 854 lbs and US $932 301,
Shallow water scale®sh such as the Nassau Grouper respectively (Bahamas Department of Fisheries (DoF),
are caught using spears, either while free-diving or using 1998).
compressed air. Traps, hook and line and nets are also Three species of sea turtle are seen throughout the
utilised. In December and January each year, Nassau Bahamas; the green turtle Chelonia mydas, hawksbill
Grouper form spawning aggregations which are ex- Eretmochelys imbricata and loggerhead Caretta caretta
ploited by ®shermen when they are easily caught. Ex- and on rare occasions the leatherback Dermochelys co-
ploitation of these spawning aggregations has led to riacea. The loggerhead is exploited less than the other
major declines throughout the Caribbean. Indeed ex- species as its meat is not as palatable and its shell is of
ploitation of the species is severe in most parts of the little commercial value. As a result it is the most com-
Caribbean, except those, which control ®shing during mon of the sea turtles in the Bahamas and is still ®shed
spawning periods. Catch per unit e€ort data from the with restrictions on size. The hawksbill has become se-
Bahamas are inconclusive, but evidence from other parts riously depleted in many parts of the world, the Baha-
of the Caribbean suggests that Nassau Grouper are mas being no exception. Its shell is of great economic
extremely vulnerable to even low ®shing e€ort on value to markets in Europe and Asia and is used to
spawning aggregations. make jewellery and other products. It is now prohibited

103
 Marine Pollution Bulletin

TABLE 7
Contribution to the GDP in 1995 of various sectors of the Bahamian
Economy.a

Sector Contribution to GDP Contribution to

(US $ million) GDP (%)

Wholesale and retail trade 409.70 14.90

Hotels 269.85 9.82
Real estate 227.05 8.27
Communications 106.28 3.87
Manufacturing 85.11 3.10
Electricity 75.56 2.75
Business activity 74.27 2.70
Construction 73.31 2.67
Fisheries 61.67 2.25
Fig. 8 Turtle landings in The Bahamas from 1979 to 1998. Insurance 60.22 2.19
Restaurants 48.38 1.76
Banking 48.36 1.76
Air transport and allied 45.87 1.67
to capture or be in the possession of a hawksbill turtle in services
the Bahamas. The leatherback is rarely seen in the Ba- Transport (excluding 42.37 1.54
hamas and is not speci®cally mentioned in legislation shipping and air)
Shipping and allied servic- 38.12 1.39
apart from generalised statements on closed seasons; es
while the green turtle is still ®shed in the Bahamas, Mining and quarrying 25.76 0.94
®shery regulations outline a minimal harvestable size. Agriculture 25.75 0.94
Historically, since the 1860s, when export of turtle Total 2746.13
shell from the Bahamas totalled approximately 20 000 a
From Department of Statistics ®gures presented in BREEF and
lbs in weight (Campbell, 1978), exploitation of turtles MacAlister, Elliot and Partners Ltd.; also includes other elements such
has varied considerably. In 1984 almost 100 000 lbs of as the public sector. The total also includes the public sector.
turtle were landed, but since then landings have de-
creased. The hawksbill turtle is no longer exploited
and the combined weights of loggerhead and green and Little Bahama Banks, the Cay Sal Bank and the
turtle landed in 1997 and 1998 were just over 7000 lbs Crooked Island±Acklins Island Bank.
(Fig. 8).
Little comparative data exist on turtle nesting
throughout the Bahamas, but studies on the beaches of Aquaculture
the islands and cays on the Cay Sal bank indicate sig- Aquaculture operations in the Bahamas have been
ni®cant turtle nesting (Addison and Morford, 1996). economically unsuccessful to date, in part due to
transportation costs of equipment, supplies and chosen
Fisheries labour culture organisms. Initial capital investment for these
The labour force employed in the ®sheries sector has operations has often been too low for complete estab-
been estimated at around 9300 persons, following a lishment.
®sheries census in 1995. Approximately 95% of this Table 8 presents a summary of the aquaculture op-
number (8835) are ®shermen with the remainder em- erations which have been established in the Bahamas,
ployed in processing or buying stations (Bahamas De- outlining species cultured, location and operational
partment of Fisheries, 1998). This is 7.2% of the total status. In Long Island the salt ponds from an aban-
labour force in the Bahamas. The contribution of the doned salt production facility were utilised for shrimp
®sheries to the Gross Domestic Product of the Bahamas production. Using approximately 100 acres of salt pond
in relation to other sectors is shown in Table 7. they produced about 300 000 lbs of shrimp per year. In
There are approximately 4080 commercial ®shing addition, this company cultured red®sh quite success-
vessels, 646 of which are between 20 and 100 ft in length, fully, but there was an inability to control rising salinity
with the remaining between 10 and 19.5 ft. Many because there was no source of fresh water. Further-
smaller vessels listed within the total number of ®shing more, logistical problems with transportation costs and
vessels work in conjunction with larger vessels as ®shing the long distance from the US subsequently resulted in
tenders or platforms. closure of the site. Similarly, Tilapia were cultured in
Fishery catch statistics are collected by the Bahamas Freeport (Grand Bahama), Nassau and Lee Stocking
Department of Fisheries. Only recently (1990) has catch island in the Exuma Cays. These are all operations,
per unit e€ort (CPUE) data been recorded on a com- which have since closed down, although some interest is
puter database and previous records are incomplete. being shown for the re-development of aquaculture ac-
Consequently, it is dicult for ®sheries ocers to make tivities on Lee Stocking Island.
an accurate assessment of the main Bahamas ®sheries. On WalkerÕs Cay in Abaco, ÔClown FishÕ and other
Major ®shing grounds in the Bahamas include Great small reef ®sh were cultured for the US aquarium trade

104
Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

TABLE 8
The type and status of aquaculture operations in the Bahamas.a

Location Type Species cultured

Rudder Cut, Exuma Experimental shell®sh culture American oyster

Freeport, Grand Bahama Experimental shell®sh culture Oysters and clams
Berry Islands Experimental shell®sh culture S. gigas
WalkerÕs Cay, Abaco Commercial tropical aquarium ®sh farm Amphipnon spp; Gobiosoma spp; Anemones; Centropyge spp
Marsh Harbour, Abaco Spiny Lobster ranching facility P. argus
Nassau, New Providence Pilot/commercial shrimp farm Penaeus vannamei; Penaeus monodon; Perna perna; Crassostrea
Barbary Bay, Grand Bahama Pilot/commercial ®sh farm Tilapia spp; Tiger cichlids
Lee Stocking Island Experimental/commercial E. striatus; P. argus; Tilapia
Freeport, Grand Bahama Pilot/commercial shrimp farm Penaeus vannamei
Clarence Town, Long Island Commercial ®sh and shrimp farm Penaeus vannamei; Sciaenops ocellata
Lynards Cay, Abaco Lobster/Grouper ranching facility (experimental) P. argus; E. striatus
Nassau, New Providence Commercial ®sh Tilapia spp
Freeport, Grand Bahamab Commercial shrimp farm Penaeus vannamei
a
Information from Bahamas Department of Fisheries (1999).
b
Active; all the others are now inactive.

until 1997. The only remaining aquaculture operation is cal habitats. However, it is well documented that run-o€
in Grand Bahama where white prawn is being cultured. was considerable following land clearances during the
No reclamation or excavation of mangrove areas has Loyalist period.
taken place to establish aquaculture operations in the
Bahamas. Destruction of coastal wetlands. Mangrove areas have
Government incentives are high for the establishment been destroyed at a number of areas in the Bahamas,
of aquaculture operations, including attractive lease and most notably in Nassau (New Providence), Freeport
purchase agreements, inter-agency cooperation to ex- (Grand Bahama), Marsh Harbour (Abaco) and George
pedite applications, duty free concessions on equipment Town (Great Exuma). These wetlands are cleared for
and supplies and no taxes on business pro®ts. It has mosquito control and water front access. Plans for fu-
been shown that aquaculture production is possible in ture tourism development in Bimini also include
the Bahamas and that conditions are excellent for many dredging, extraction and in®lling of mangrove areas.
cultures. Historically, the reasons for the failure of most
of the aquaculture ventures has been a lack of full un- Sand mining and dredging. During the 1950s, four
derstanding of the culture process, poor on-site man- areas of the Bahamas Banks were identi®ed as suitable
agement and under-capitalisation, an inability to control for extraction of sand (Sealey, 1994). These sites are
disease and poor returns from the local market because associated with Bank margins where precipitation of
of the availability of fresh ®sh. The Department of calcium carbonate occurs as cool oceanic waters move
Fisheries is taking steps towards organising the proper onto the shallow Banks. Sites were located at the ends of
training for Bahamians who wish to venture into the the Tongue of the Ocean and the Exuma Sound; at
shrimp farming industry (Deleveaux, 1997). Joulters Cay, at the extreme North end of Andros Island
and in the Southern Bimini islands. Combined, these
E€ects from Urban and Industrial Activities sites were estimated to have a resource of around 50±100
billion tonnes of oolitic sand. This is particularly pure
Impacts of coastal development (97% CaCO3 ) and could be used as chemical-grade sand
Deforestation. Historically, mahogany, cedar, brazi- as well as in the construction industry. Having the ad-
letto, Lignum vitae and mastic, along with some other vantage of being of uniform grain size, sieving and
species including pine, were used for construction and crushing operations were not necessary. Additionally,
boat building. In modern times, however, the demand the sand was located in shallow water and easily ex-
for this wood has been very small and much of the tracted.
broad leaf coppice from which the hard woods came has At present only the Bimini site is being worked. The
been completely removed. There is potential for com- development of this site was advantageous because of its
mercial use of the remaining pine forests at sustainable close proximity to its main market, the USA. With the
levels, but forestry activities at present are insigni®cant. sand forming close to the margin of the Great Bahama
The ground is poor, lacking sucient amounts of soil, Bank, only a short dredged channel was necessary to
so limited deforestation is unlikely to increase the reach the deep shipping lanes of the Florida Straits. It
amount of soil run-o€. Furthermore, rainwater is mostly was necessary for this mining operation to be large scale
diverted below ground. Even during the heaviest rain- as the market value of the oolitic sand per tonne was low
fall, storm run-o€ is relatively clear with little suspended (US $3). In the late 1970s a man-made island, known as
matter and poses minimal threat to near-shore biologi- Ocean Cay, was constructed from dredged sands and,

105
 Marine Pollution Bulletin

with an area of 95 acres, was equipped with a dock,

airstrip, accommodation and power. Production went
from almost 4 million tonnes in 1980 to 1.2 million
tonnes in 1993. Extraction was reduced due to compe-
tition from similar operations o€ the Yucatan (Mexican)
coast and because periodic poor weather damaged the
Ocean Cay facility. Hurricane Andrew in 1992 caused
extensive damage.
A second area where dredging of sand occurs is o€
Rose Island (Grand Bahama). There is great potential
for other dredging operations to begin in the Bahamas.
Beach erosion has become a major problem in South
Florida and in 1995 a US company approached the
Bahamian Government seeking permission to dredge
sand to reclaim two beaches. Fig. 9 A typical beach with low-level vegetation consolidating sand
behind the beach, reducing wind and water erosion. In the
On a smaller scale, particularly in the Family Islands, background is an erosional remnant of an eolian dune complex
beaches have been mined for sand for local construction (Rice Bay and North Point, San Salvador Island, photo Mat-
projects. This activity has altered the beach pro®le in thew Robinson).
some locations and resulted in reduced coastal protec-
tion and some beach erosion. (Fig. 9). Destruction of the sand dunes at Delaporte on
New Providence resulted in reduced coastal protection
Coastal erosion. Perhaps the most important tourism and increased erosion. Front edges of the dunes receded
attribute of the Bahama Islands is its hundreds of white following removal of beach vegetation, which had been
beaches. Most are prone to some degree of erosion viewed as a problem because it trapped unsightly litter
during tropical weather disturbances, but generally left behind by beach users. At Orange Hill and Saunders
normal geomorphological processes replenish such dis- Beach, roads have been constructed too close to the
turbed areas. Problems arise when external factors a€ect ocean, not allowing room for a full beach pro®le; here,
replenishment, i.e., the dredging of sand from nearshore too, beach destruction has followed (Sealey, 1998).
areas, the construction of hotels or breakwaters and
other intrusions on to the beach area.
There are numerous examples of beach erosion in the Sources of pollution and their e€ects on water quality and
Bahamas, particularly on the more developed islands of near-shore habitats
New Providence and Grand Bahama. On the foreshore Sources of pollution include on-site disposal areas,
of Montagu Bay in Nassau, New Providence, sands domestic sewage soakaways (septic tanks), municipal
moved from the beach following dredging for the Par- injection wells, live-aboard boat and yacht toilets, storm
adise Island golf course. A similar situation occurred water run-o€ and dredging activities.
when sand was removed from GoodmanÕs Bay for the
Cable Beach golf course (Sealey, 1998, 1999). Other Sewage and water use. The geological characteristics
examples of beach erosion have been due to the intru- of the Bahamas are associated with great problems for
sion of structures onto the beach. Part of a large hotel freshwater use and liquid waste disposal. This has been
was constructed on Cable Beach resulting in a down compounded by tourism development and indeed has
current loss of sand. E€orts to reverse this process by been a factor a€ecting the development of many of the
constructing a dock and a concrete groyne caused fur- outer islands.
ther erosion. Freshwater supply for residential areas is generally
Examples also exist of channels which have been cut from subterranean freshwater lenses. Desalination
into the coast to gain access to protected marinas. In technologies are expensive but are found in many of the
South Bimini, such a channel was cut on a windward hotels and other tourist facilities; to cut costs some hotel
coastline breaching northerly longshore drift. Conse- process slightly saline ground water as opposed to sea-
quently, the channel began to ®ll with sand and the water. The distribution and amount of freshwater is
existing beach on the down-current side of the marina linked to speci®c factors such as island size, shape, cli-
began to erode and continues to do so. mate and geology. On smaller islands with high popu-
Sealey (1982) noted severe erosion of parts of the lations water resources are limited. New Providence is a
north coast of New Providence, caused by large north- good example in that the freshwater lens is approxi-
erly waves which are remnants of storms which impact mately 17 500 acres for a population of 171 542; in
north-facing shores. This erosion is mainly due to the contrast, Andros IslandÕs lens is 338 585 acres and the
loss of sand dunes and back beach areas caused by cars population is around 8155 (Cant, 1996). 40% of New
and pedestrian trac damaging the vegetation respon- ProvidenceÕs fresh water is supplied by barge from
sible for the consolidation and stability of beach sands Andros.

106
Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

The porous limestone substrate presents a serious particularly large in comparison to those in Montagu
problem and makes groundwater lenses particularly Bay, although coral abundance was similar. There was
vulnerable to contamination by liquid wastes and con- low coral recruitment to both sites and herbivorous ®sh
taminated run-o€. Domestic wastes are generally treated assemblages were very similar, although parrot®sh and
in septic tanks, which are normally combined with a surgeon®sh were generally larger in the Exuma sites.
disposal well or drainage ®eld. Many septic tanks do not Predatory ®sh were larger and, along with the Spiny
conform to building regulations and do not work Lobster, were more abundant at the undeveloped site.
properly (Cant, 1996). In less developed areas shallow Signi®cant perturbations have occurred over the last
latrines may be used and in some cases direct discharge 50 years in New Providence, especially around the City
into the sea still occurs. of Nassau and its harbour, which has been modi®ed and
In populated areas wastes are normally treated to expanded on a number of occasions. An analysis and
primary or secondary levels of sewage treatment, then interpretation of a series of aerial photographs dating
e‚uent is discharged into deep injection disposal wells. back to 1943, allowed Sullivan-Sealey (1999) to detect
Wells designed for large amounts of waste are in excess major changes in coastal habitats as a result of con-
of 600 ft in depth. On Paradise Island and some other struction of man-made cays, breakwaters and dredging
resort areas, waste water is recycled for irrigation use on activities relating to these developments. Findings in-
golf courses, but waste disposal techniques used in the cluded the identi®cation of two major sedimentation
Bahamas may be described as inadequate and contam- events from dredging and in-®lling activities, in 1967
ination of groundwater is evident in many urban areas. and 1989, the physical removal of reefs that presented
Pollution is also evident in seawaters, particularly navigation hazards at each end of the harbour and the
enclosed bays and harbours. The Bahamas are re- alteration of water ¯ow to reefs following breakwater
nowned for their excellent cruising environment and construction and in-®lling of the shoreline. In all, ap-
beautiful anchorages, but holding tanks are not required proximately 29 ha of sea¯oor were altered from 1943 to
on sail boats and live-aboard vessels and pollution is 1995.
evident in some anchorages. An average tidal range of In conclusion, much of the degradation and alteration
around 50 cm creates very little tidal ¯ow and minimal of Bay habitats was during more acute construction
¯ushing of bay areas. events and is likely to have had a far greater e€ect on the
Few quantitative studies on the e€ects of pollution near-shore reefs than nutrient loading from local resi-
have been done in the Bahamas. Sullivan-Sealey (1999) dences.
explored the relationship between urban coastal devel-
opment and the health of near-shore coral reefs. Using Cruiseship discharge. There have been no notable
sites in the undeveloped Exuma Cays and a highly instances of oil spills in Bahamian waters, although tar
populated area of New Providence known as Montagu balls are often found on beaches. Much debris is washed
Bay, comparisons of physical and ecological factors up on windward-facing shores around the islands, some
were made. Water quality parameters including salinity, of which is identi®able as coming from cruise ships. The
temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, chlorophyll a, larger islands are regularly visited by cruise ships and
total nitrogen and total phosphorus were measured over major harbour expansion has occurred in both Nassau
two summer and winter sampling periods. The likely and Freeport over the last 20 years. There have been
assumption was made those septic tanks less than 500 m some instances of garbage disposal and sewage holding
from the seashore will leach nutrients into surface water tank ¯ushing from these ships, though recently cruise
and will eventually contaminate near-shore coral reef ship companies have established facilities on small is-
areas. Also, measurements of species richness, benthic lands and cays such as Gorda Cay and Little San Sal-
coverage, coral density, coral size, coral recruitment rate vador and Little Stirrup Cay in the Berry Islands.
and herbivore density and size were compared between
study areas. Little di€erence was seen in water and
sediments between developed and undeveloped sites.
Protective Measures
Ecological parameters showed more distinct variation The Bahamian Government has rati®ed and initiated
between sites, with more species of ¯eshy macroalgae a number of preventative and protective legislative acts
(typically found in nutrient-rich areas) in Montagu Bay with regard to coastal areas and their territorial waters.
and, although chemical analysis showed that nutrient Some of the more signi®cant relate to the use of coastal
levels were similar in each site, the authors suggest that and marine resources. Government policy restricts
the macroalgal growth may be a response to very subtle commercial ®shing to the native population and, as a
changes in nutrient concentrations and the amount of consequence, all vessels ®shing within The Bahamas
particulate matter in the water column. Furthermore, Exclusive Fishery Zone must be owned fully by a Ba-
species composition in Montagu Bay includes a high hamian citizen residing in the Bahamas (Bahamas Na-
coverage of zooanthids and anemones which are tional Trust, 1992).
adapted to areas with high particulate matter. On the The use of bleach or other noxious or poisonous
patch reefs of the Exuma Cays, some coral heads were substances for ®shing, or possession of such substances

107
 Marine Pollution Bulletin

on board a ®shing vessel, without written approval of and under this permit certain restrictions are imposed.
the Minister, is prohibited. Spear ®shing within one mile Fishing gear, unless otherwise authorized, is restricted to
of the coast of New Providence and Freeport and 200 hook and line and the number of lines in the water at
yards o€ the coast of all other Family Islands is pro- any time (unless otherwise authorized) is restricted to
hibited, as is the use of ®rearms or explosives. For nets, six. There is a maximum combined total of six ®sh per
a minimum mesh size of 2 in. is necessary, except when person on any vessel for king ®sh, dolphin ®sh and
®shing goggle-eye or pilchard. Scale®sh traps are re- wahoo. All other migratory ®sh caught, unless it is to be
quired to have self-destruct panels and minimum mesh used, should not be injured unnecessarily and should be
sizes of 1 ´ 2 in. for rectangular wire mesh traps and 1.5 returned to the sea alive.
in. (greatest length of mesh) for hexagonal wire mesh Vessel bag limits for other ®shery resources are 20 lbs
traps. Those wishing to sell ®sh catches in New Provi- of scale ®sh, 10 conch and 6 spiny lobster per person at
dence must possess a permit. A permit is required to use any time. The possession of turtle is prohibited. The
air compressors for ®shing purposes and the use of above amounts may also be exported by the vessel upon
compressors is restricted to the period 1 August±31 leaving The Bahamas.
March and to depths of 10±20 m. Penalties totalling B $1000 (1 Bahamian $ is equal to
Harvesting of coral is prohibited, as is the construc- 1 US $), or imprisonment for six months or both are
tion of arti®cial reefs without permission from the imposed for resisting or obstructing a ®sheries inspector.
Minister. There is speci®c legislation relating to the For contravention of regulations unless otherwise stip-
more commercially viable species. For example, the ulated in the Act, a B $3000 ®ne or imprisonment for
spiny lobster ®shery has a closed season, 1 April±31 1 year, or both, is imposed. All gear utilized in the
July. Individuals under 3 3/8 in. carapace length, 6 in. contravention of ®sheries regulations is con®scated and
tail length, may not be harvested and permits are nec- forfeited to the Crown.
essary for any vessels trapping lobster. Speci®cations for The Bahamas have signed up to CITES, a conven-
lobster traps are outlined in the legislation; gravid fe- tion covering 38 species of ¯ora and fauna in the
males may not be taken and the stripping of eggs from Bahamas. Of these listed species seven are marine and
females is prohibited. include loggerhead, hawksbill, green and leatherback
Conch is also protected and harvesting or possession turtles, whales and dolphins, the West Indian Manatee
of a shell without a well-formed lip is prohibited. Export and the Queen Conch. In 1998, the Bahamian Gov-
of unprocessed conch meat from the Bahamas is not ernment signed the RAMSAR Convention and desig-
permitted. Capture or possession of any hawksbill turtle nated Inagua National Park as a RAMSAR site. Table
is prohibited and there is an annual closed season from 9 summarizes the marine and coastal national parks of
1 April±31 July for all other species. Size limits are im- the Bahamas, whose management has been designated
posed. All turtles captured must be landed whole and to the Bahamas National Trust (BNT). A Land and
the taking or possession of turtle eggs is prohibited. Sea Park has been proposed for Andros island in
Scale®sh regulations are species-speci®c. The capture conjunction with the Bahamas Reef Environment Ed-
of bone®sh by nets is prohibited. The purchase or selling ucation Foundation (BREEF), the Department of
of bone®sh is illegal and the capture of grouper and rock Fisheries and the National Trust. Over and above
®sh weighing less than 3 lbs is prohibited. Bone®sh are ®sheries legislation, additional regulations are imposed
commercially important as a sports ®sh throughout the in relation to National Parks and are made under the
Bahamas and are found in shallow lagoon areas and BNT act, operating in conjunction with all other
tidal creeks, notably in Andros, Crooked Island, Long laws in the Bahamas. These are fairly widespread and
Island and Bimini. cover hunting, capture, removal or damage to many
Stone crab has an annual closed season 1 June±15 species, whether alive or found dead. There are also
October and a minimum harvestable claw length of 4 in. strict regulations covering dumping and discharging
Harvest of female stone crabs is prohibited. The capture wastes.
or molesting of marine mammals is prohibited. Persons Permanent moorings may not be placed within any
may capture marine mammals for scienti®c, educational National Park and it is illegal to drop anchor on the
or exhibition purposes only with the written permission coral reef, unless under emergency circumstances. Ad-
of the Minister. Finally, sponges are harvested with a ditionally, personal watercraft and airboats are not
minimum size limit of 5.5 in. for wool and grass sponge, permitted within anchorage and creek areas. No vessel
1 in. for hard head and reef sponge; a permit is required may remain for more than two weeks in any one an-
to engage in aquaculture activities. chorage on any visit to or voyage through the Exuma
Many sports ®shermen are drawn to the Bahamas Cays Land and Sea Park.
each year to take part in tournaments and these events Regulations are also imposed on persons who own
are also restricted by legislation. Sport ®shing tourna- land within the boundaries of any National Park. These
ment directors must have the written approval of the relate to dock and breakwater construction, the con-
Minister to organize or hold tournaments. A permit is struction of a sewerage outlet or over¯ow below the high
required for foreign vessels to engage in sport ®shing water mark of the sea and the dredging of the seabed

108
Volume 41/Numbers 1±6/January±June 2000

TABLE 9
Marine and Coastal National Parks of the Bahamas.

Name Area Description

Inagua National Park 287 sq. miles Located on Great Inagua this site hosts the worldÕs largest breeding colony of
West Indian Flamingos
Union Creek Reserve 7 sq. miles Also on Great Inagua this park is a small enclosed tidal creek which is
signi®cant because of the Green Turtle population
Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park 176 sq. miles This Park when established in 1958 was the ®rst marine ®shery reserve in the
Caribbean region. The Park encompasses the northern part of the Exuma Cays
chain of islands
Pelican Cays Land and Sea Park 850 ha Located in Great Abaco this was developed as a sister park to the Exuma Cays.
The main features of the marine ecosystem are the submarine caves and coral
reefs
Peterson Cay National Park 13 000 ha This cay is a low-lying eroded fossil dune ridge and is the only Cay o€ the
leeward coast of Grand Bahama. The Park originally only included the Cay and
surrounding waters out to a quarter mile. Boundaries now include Barbary
Beach on Grand Bahama and beyond the cay to the drop-o€, and from Sharp
Rocks point in the north-east to the Grand Lucayan Waterway in the south-
west giving a total area of around 13 000 hectares. Notable features include a
rich and diverse marine fauna and ¯ora
Conception Island 850 ha Established in 1971. This uninhabited island is important for migratory and
nesting birds and Green Turtles.
National Park Black Sound Cay Located o€ Green Turtle Cay in Abaco, this park is comprised of a thick
mangrove stand of signi®cance to wintering birds.

adjacent to their land. Written permission is necessary Marine environment awareness is being promoted by
from the BNT. the National Trust through educational programs and
Perhaps the best evidence that protective measures are activities. In recent years the Bahamas Reef Environ-
having a positive e€ect on the marine environment and ment Education Foundation (BREEF) has been estab-
its resources, is found in the Exuma Cays Land and Sea lished. This organisation has concentrated on training
Park, which was the ®rst of its kind, being established in Bahamian teachers to teach environmental education to
1959. The biomass of nassau grouper was shown to be students. BREEF had also compiled a ®sheries man-
statistically greater inside and within 5 km of the Park agement action plan for the Bahamas and is providing
boundaries. Furthermore, reproductive output (egg the expertise to create a proposal for the Andros Land
production) was measured at six times more than that and Sea Park.
outside the Park (Bahamas National Trust, 1999).
Studies have also shown that the concentration of conch I gratefully acknowledge the following individuals and organisations
who shared information about the many aspects of the Bahamas
inside the ECLSP is approximately 47 times that found covered in this chapter: The Bahamian Field Station, the Bahamas
anywhere else in the world. Estimates have also been Department of Fisheries, the Bahamas Department of Tourism, Sir
made on the export potential of conch eggs from the Nicholas Nuttal of the BREEF, Dr. Donald Gerace and Dr. Kathleen
Sullivan-Sealey. In particular I would like to thank Mr. Neil Sealey for
Park and it is suggested that as many as 10 million ex- his valuable input and very useful comments on this chapter.
ported eggs will reach adulthood elsewhere in the Ba-
hamas. Addison, D. S. and Morford, B. (1996) Sea Turtle nesting activity on
The BNT was created by an act of parliament in 1959. the Cay Sal Bank. Bahamas Journal of Science 3 (3), 31±36.
Albury, P. (1975) The Story of the Bahamas. MacMillan Education
The Trust, a non-governmental organisation, was given Ltd, London and Basingstoke, 294 pp.
the responsibility of managing the National Parks of the Bahamas Department of Fisheries (1998) Summary Report: An
Bahamas. In more recent times the BNT has been one of economic overview of the Bahamian commercial ®shing industry.
Prepared by the Bahamas Department of Fisheries.
the main organisations in¯uencing environmental poli- Bahamas Department of Fisheries (1999) Summary of total recorded
cy. On the recommendation of the BNT the Bahamas landings of marine products in the Bahamas during 1998. Prepared
Environment Science and Technology (BEST) Com- by Bahamas Department of Fisheries.
Bahamas Ministry of Tourism (1998) Tourism in the Islands of the
mission was established within the oce of the Prime Bahamas 1997 in Review.
Minister in 1992 to create environmental policy and Bahamas National Trust (1992) Summaries of Legislation a€ecting
programs. The National Trust works closely with the wildlife and national parks in the Bahamas. The Bahama Parrot
Conservation Committee, Bahamas National Trust, 17 pp.
BEST commission in reviewing Environmental Impact Bahamas National Trust (1999) Currents, Newsletter of the Bahamas
Assessments. In 1999 a precedent was set by requiring National Trust, Vol. 15, No. 1, April 1999.
independent professional review of an impact assess- BREEF (Bahamas Reef Environment Educational Foundation) and
MacAlister Elliot and Partners Ltd. (1998) Fisheries Management
ment for a proposed development on Clifton Cay, New Action Plan for the Bahamas: Report to the Bahamas Department
Providence (Bahamas National Trust, 1999). of Fisheries.

109
 Marine Pollution Bulletin

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ment. The Nature Conservancy, Marine Conservation Science 8th Symposium on the Geology of the Bahamas and Other Carbonate
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