THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATION SYSTEM

The education system of the country includes formal and non-formal education. Compared to other Asian
countries, the Philippine education system differs in a number of ways. Basic education in the Philippines is only 10
years as against 12 in other countries. The Philippine education system is closely related to the American system of
formal education while other Asian countries are influenced by the English, French or Dutch system. The Philippines is
using a bilingual medium of instruction. Certain subjects are taught in English and the rest in the national language which
is Filipino.

2.1 Formal education

The formal education is a sequential progression of academic schooling at three levels, namely,
elementary, secondary and tertiary or higher education. The structure of the formal system of education is illustrated
below.

THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Elementary education
The first level, elementary or primary education, consists of compulsory six grades (Grades 1-6) for
age group of 6 to 11. In addition, there is optional pre-school education which consists of kindergarten schooling and
other preparatory courses. At the age of 3 or 4, a pupil may enter nursery school, and at 6 years old proceeds to grade
one.
Secondary education
The second level, secondary education, corresponds to four years of high school for age group of 12
to 15, the prerequisite of which is completion of elementary education.
Higher education
The third level is tertiary or higher education where a student enters at age 16. Higher education
consists of collegiate, master’s and doctorate degree programs in various fields or disciplines including the post-
secondary schooling leading to one-, two- or three-year non-degree technical or vocational courses.
As of 1998, there are 46,654 schools in all levels, of which, 85 percent is public (see Table 1). Of the
38,774 elementary schools, 92 percent is public. In the secondary level, of the 6,598 schools, 60 percent is public. And of
the 1,282 higher education institutions, 20 percent is public. Enrolment statistics for all levels are shown in Table 2.
2.2 Non-formal education
Non-formal education is an organized learning activity aimed at attaining a set of objectives outside the
established formal system intended for a particular clientele, especially the out-of-school youth or adult illiterates who
cannot avail themselves of formal education. Courses are skills-oriented and range from 6 to 10 months.

3. HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

 Higher education lies at the apex of the education system. The philosophy, mission, vision and goals of higher
education in the Philippines as cited below are embodied in a comprehensive document of the Commission on Higher
Education entitled “Long-Term Higher Education Development Plan, 1996-2005.”
Philosophy
In an environment of freedom, excellence and relevance, higher education harnesses, develops and catalyzes
the constructive and productive use of the full potentials and capabilities of Filipino men and women into becoming
creative, decisive, competitive, critically thinking and acting individuals who contribute to the: 1) realization of Filipino
identity and strong sense of national pride; 2) cultivation and inculcation of moral and spiritual foundation; 3) attainment of
political maturity, economic stability and equitable social progress; and 4) preservation and enrichment of the historical
and cultural heritage of the Filipinos, as a people and a nation.
Mission
Higher education shall be geared towards the pursuit of better quality of life for all Filipinos by emphasizing the
acquisition of knowledge and formation of those skills necessary to make the individual a productive member of society. It
shall accelerate the development of high-level professionals who will search for new knowledge, and provide leadership in
the various disciplines required by a dynamic and self-sustaining economy. Higher education shall likewise be used to
harness the productive capacity of the country’s human resource base towards international competitiveness.
Vision 2005
Higher education would have provided and expanded opportunities for the technologically useful knowledge
and skills development of Filipinos, and would have constructively advanced the capabilities of Filipinos in society. It
would have produced in the Filipinos the ability to critically think, act positively and contribute to the full development of
the family, community and the larger society.
Goals
The attainment of empowered and globally competitive Filipinos shall be ensured through: 1) provision of
undergraduate and graduate education which meet international standards of quality and excellence; 2) generation and
diffusion of knowledge in the broad range of disciplines relevant and responsive to the dynamically changing domestic
and international environment; 3) broaden the access of deserving and qualified Filipinos to higher education
opportunities; and 4) optimization of social, institutional, and individual returns and benefits derived from the utilization of
higher education resources.

3.1 Coordination of the higher education system

Previously, the administration, supervision and regulation of higher education rests on the Department of
Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) through its Bureau of Higher Education. However, in 1994, two laws were passed
in Congress: 1) Republic Act No. 7722 creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED); and 2) Republic Act No.
7796 creating the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA).
As a result of the trifocalization of education in 1994, the DECS now concentrates only in the
administration, supervision and regulation of basic education (elementary and secondary education). TESDA, an agency
attached to the Department of Labor, is the one which oversees the post-secondary technical and vocational education
including skills orientation, training and development of out-of-school youth and unemployed community adults. On the
other hand, the system governance and policy guidance over public and private higher education institutions as well as
degree-granting programs in all post-secondary educational institutions rest on CHED, a department-level agency,
independent from and co-equal with DECS. The CHED coordinates the programs of higher education institutions and
implements the policies and standards.

3.2 Types of higher education institutions

There are presently 1,282 higher education institutions in the country, broken down into: 98 state
universities and colleges, 105 CHED-supervised institutions, 35 local universities and colleges, 14 other government
schools, and 1,030 private institutions.
State universities and colleges (SUCs) are institutions funded by the national government. They have
their own charters and are thus autonomous from CHED. CHED-supervised institutions are non-chartered colleges,
directly under the supervision of CHED and whose annual budget allocation is integrated in the government budget
appropriation for CHED. Local universities and colleges previously called community colleges are those operated,
supported and maintained by local government units. In addition, there are other government schools offering
bachelor’s degrees and/or graduate degrees and advanced training such as military and police academies which are
supervised and regulated by the Department of National Defense and Philippine National Police.
Private institutions, on the other hand, are owned and administered by private individuals, groups or
corporations. These are classified either as sectarian or non-sectarian colleges and universities. Sectarian schools (279)
are usually non-stock, non-profit institutions, owned and operated by religious orders. Non-sectarian schools (751) are
owned by private corporations which are not affiliated to any religious organizations, majority are stock, a few are non-
stock, non-profit corporations, and a number are foundations.

3.3 Institutional governance

The CHED oversees the higher education system. It is an agency attached to the Office of the President
of the Philippines for administrative purposes. CHED is responsible for administering and supervising both public and
private higher education institutions in the Philippines.
 Higher education institutions establish and maintain their own internal organization. The framework of
their organization is generally divided into two areas, namely: policy formulation and policy implementation. The
formulation and/or approval of all policies, rules and standards in the school is the main function of the Governing Board.
The implementation of policies and the management of the school operations are vested in the administration headed by
the President.
The SUC’s autonomy is assured by their individual charters. They are authorized to open curricula and
institutional programs, and award their own degrees. However, on July 22, 1997, a landmark legislation was made
enacting into law Republic Act 8292 otherwise known as the “Higher Education Modernization Act of 1997.” This Act
provides among others for the uniform composition and powers of the governing boards of SUCs with the Chairman of
CHED as the Chair of the governing boards of all SUCs (previously chaired by the DECS Secretary). With this new set-
up, in effect this places all SUCs under the supervision, policy and development mandate of CHED. This enables the
CHED to exert influence or provide proper guidance on the quality and directions of the academic programs as well as on
the internal operations of the SUCs.
The private institutions, on the other hand, experience some degree of freedom only when their programs
are Level III accredited. This means they are already deregulated and can initiate reforms in their curricular offerings
without the need for CHED’s approval. Otherwise, private schools have to apply for permit from CHED to open a course,
and they have to apply for recognition of their programs in order to be allowed to graduate their students. Recognition of
programs is granted if the institutions have fully complied the minimum requirements prescribed by CHED. With regard to
awarding of certificate, diploma or degree to students, this is done only if all academic requirements have satisfactorily
been completed by the students. After verification of the information, the CHED issues a “Special Order” number which is
noted in the student’s transcript of records.
In the case of CHED-supervised institutions and local universities and colleges, the CHED monitors the
implementation of policies, rules and standards. These institutions have to secure authority from CHED if they want to
open a course. If their program offerings have the necessary authority from CHED (or DECS previously), their graduates
are automatically recognized.

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF DEGREES AND DIPLOMAS

The titles and description or abbreviation of the degrees and diplomas granted by the higher
education institutions are as follows:
Undergraduate level
1) Certificate, Diploma and Associate Programs
These titles are awarded upon completion of programs requiring three months to three years of study.
These are non-degree technical or vocational education programs leading to skills proficiency which are
mostly terminal in nature. Some one-, two-, and three-year courses are components of ladder-type
bachelor’s degree programs.
2) Bachelor’s Degree (Bachelor (B.), Bachelor of Arts (A.B.), Bachelor of Science (B.S.))
These titles are awarded upon completion of a minimum of four years of study on a semestral basis. Some
programs however, require more than four years of study. If on trimester basis, the program may be
completed in less than four years.
Graduate level
1) Certificate and Diploma Programs
These titles are awarded upon completion of one or two years of study beyond the bachelor’s degree which
are not equivalent to a master’s degree.
2) Master’s degree (Master (M.), Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Science (M.S.), Master of Professional
Studies (M.P.S.)
These titles normally requires completion of four semesters of course work, about two years in duration.
Some master’s programs require a thesis, some do not.
3) Doctoral Degrees (Doctor (D.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.))
These titles are awarded upon completion of two or three years of study beyond the master’s degree. A
dissertation is a requirement for graduation in the doctoral programs.

5. DISCIPLINES OR FIELDS OF STUDY

All undergraduate and graduate degrees and diploma in the Philippines are classified under the following nine
(9) clusters of disciplines: 1) Agriculture Education; 2) Business and Management Education; 3) Engineering and
Architecture; 4) Health Profession Education; 5) Humanities, Social Sciences and Communication; 6) Information
Technology; 7) Maritime Education; 8) Science and Mathematics; and 9) Teacher Education. Following are the fields or
disciplines included in each cluster.
Agriculture Education
¨ Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering, Fisheries, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine
Business and Management
¨ Commerce, Business Management/Administration, Economics, Business Economics, Accountancy, Banking
and Finance, Marketing, Office Management, Secretarial Administration, Customs Administration
Engineering and Architecture
 ¨ Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Metallurgical Engineering, Geodetic Engineering,
Aeronautical Engineering, Aerospace Engineering, Aircraft Maintenance Engineering, Computer
Engineering, Mining Engineering, Sanitary Engineering
¨ Architecture, Industrial Design
Health Profession
¨ Anatomy, Anasthesiology, Biochemistry, Clinical Pathology, Legal Medicine, Microbiology, Neurology,
Obstetrics, Opthalmology and Otorhinalaryngology, Parasitology, Pathology, Pediatrics, Pharmacology and
Therapeutics, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Physiology, Community Medicine, Health, Psychiatry,
Radiology, Surgery and Orthopedics
¨ Nursing, Midwifery, Physical and Occupational Therapy, Nutrition and Dietetics, Optometry, Medical
Technology, Dentistry
Humanities, Social Sciences and Communication
¨ Literature, Philosophy, Arts and Music
¨ History, Political Science, Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology
¨ Broadcasting, Film, Journalism, Advertising, Public Relations, Communication Research, Cross-Cultural
Communication and Popular Culture
¨ Legal Education (Laws, Jurisprudence)
¨ Criminology Education
Information Technology
¨ Computer Science, Information Technology, Information Management, Information Science, Computer Data
Processing Management, Computer Technology
Maritime Education
¨ Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Marine Transportation, Marine Engineering, Basic Merchant
Marine Course
Science and Mathematics
¨ Natural Sciences and Applied Sciences such as Biology, Botany, Microbiology, Physiology, Zoology,
Chemistry, Biochemistry, Physics, Geology, Astronomy, Meteorology, Oceanography, Metallurgy,
Pharmacology
¨ Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Statistics, Applied Statistics
Teacher Education
¨ Elementary Education, Secondary Education, Agricultural Education, Fisheries Education, Industrial
Education

6. INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE DIPLOMA

The diploma or certificates being granted after completion of a degree contain information on the name of the
recipient of the degree, the title awarded and the field of study, the university or college conferring the diploma and its
authorized signatories which are usually the President/Head and the Dean or Registrar.

7. STUDY PROGRAMS
7.1 Sequence and duration of studies
The minimum required total number of credits units for four-year bachelor’s degree programs ranges
from 120 to about 190 units.
For the required minimum number of units for the general education subjects in all baccalaureate
programs, there are two options. Option A consisting of 63 units is meant for tertiary courses of study in the Humanities,
Social Sciences and Communication. Students majoring in fields other than the Humanities, Social Sciences and
Communication may follow another set of minimum requirements consisting of 51 units (Option B).

Subject Number of Units

Option A Option B
English 9 6
Filipino 9 6
Literature 6 -
Mathematics 6 6
Natural sciences 6 6
Science Elective 3 3
Humanities 6 9 (including Literature,
Art, Philosophy)
Social sciences 12 12
Mandated Subject 6 3
TOTAL 63 51
For graduate programs, the minimum number of credit units are as follows:
Master’s program ------------- 30 - 36 units
(24 to 30 units of course work, inclusive of required common core subjects of about 12 units, plus
additional 6 units for thesis)
 Doctoral program ------------- 45 - 60 units
(inclusive of required common core subjects of 12 units or more and 12 units of doctoral dissertation)

It should be noted that the number of units over and above the minimum requirement varies from one institution
to another. Within course programs, there are no general regulations as to sequence.
One unit of credit is one hour lecture or recitation each week for the period of a complete semester of 16 to 18 weeks. In
all courses, two and a half to three hours of laboratory work, and, in technical courses, three hours of drafting or shop
work, are regarded as the equivalent of one hour of recitation or lecture.
Following are the duration of study of programs offered in the Philippines:

Course programs Minimum number of years

Undergraduate
Science and Mathematics 4
Humanities, Social Sciences and Communication 4
Information Technology 4
Health-Related 4-5
Medicine 8
(4 years baccalaureate plus 4 years proper)
Veterinary Medicine 6
Dentistry (2 years pre-dental plus 4 years proper) 6
Engineering and Architecture 5
Marine Engineering 4
Business and Management 4
Agriculture Education 4
Teacher Education 4
Law (4 years baccalaureate plus 4 years proper) 8
Criminology 4
Graduate
Master’s program 2
Doctoral program 3
7.2 Work experience as part of the curriculum
In some fields of study like Business Education, Teacher Education, Engineering, Agriculture, Medicine
and other Health-Related courses, work experience during a semester is required. This can be in the form of practical, on-
the-job training or occupational internship, community work or extension activities.
Furthermore, it is recognized that education and the acquisition of higher expertise can also take place in
the workplace and beyond the confines of the classroom. In view of this, on May 10, 1996, Executive Order No. 330 was
issued to implement the Expanded Tertiary Education Equivalency and Accreditation Program (ETEEAP) as an integral
part of the educational system in the Philippines. A system of academic equivalency and validation of the knowledge and
experience derived by individuals from relevant work experiences and high-level, non-formal and informal training toward
the awarding of an appropriate academic degree is being implemented by the Commission on Higher Education through
the deputized higher education institutions.

7.3 Grading system

The higher education institutions normally give oral and written examinations to evaluate the student’s
performance in a particular semester. Aside from these, student’s interest, attitude and attendance as well as submission
of class requirements such as term papers, projects, etc. are generally included in computing the final grades.
The higher education institutions use letters, grade point average or percentages in rating the student’s
performance. Below is the grading system commonly used in the undergraduate and graduate programs:

Letter Meaning Grade Point Percentage

A Excellent 1.00 97-100
1.25 94-96
A- Very good 1.50 91-93
1.75 88-90
B+ Good/above average 2.00 85-87
2.25 82-84
B- Passed 3.00 75
C Conditional Failure 4.00
F Failure 5.00 Below 75
W Withdrawn
UW Unauthorized Withdrawal
INC Incomplete
NC No Credit
DRP Dropped
8. ADMISSION REQUIREMENTS
Generally, each higher education institution adopts a certain admission policy. Some institutions require passing the
entrance examination and medical examination. Some adopt open admission but selective retention. As part of the
academic freedom being enjoyed by the higher education institutions, it is their right to determine who shall be admitted to
study. The specific admission requirements are described below.
8.1 Undergraduate programs
Eligible for admission to the baccalaureate programs are graduates of secondary education. There are
however some special admission requirements for dentistry, medicine and law programs.
In dentistry, the applicant-student who wishes to continue in the dentistry proper should get a Certificate
of Admission (COA) from the institutions they wish to enroll. He must be a graduate of a pre-dentistry course which
should include 15 units of English, 3 units of Mathematics, 10 units of Chemistry, 5 units of Physics, 10 units of Zoology, 5
units of Botany, 12 units of Social Science subjects, 9 units of Filipino and 3 units of Personal and Community Hygiene.
In medicine, students who have finished a four-year baccalaureate degree and wish to pursue
medicine as a second degree should pass the National Medical Admission Test (NMAT) and secure a Certificate of
Eligibility to Medicine (CEM) from the institutions they wish to enroll. The applicant must have earned 15 units of Biology,
10 units of Chemistry, 9 units of Mathematics, 5 units of Physics and 12 units of Social Science subjects.
Likewise, students who wish to pursue a degree in law should have a four-year baccalaureate degree
and secure a Certificate of Eligibility for Law (CEL) from the institutions they wish to enroll. The applicant must have
earned 18 units of English, 6 units of Mathematics and 18 units of Social Science subjects.
8.2 Graduate programs
Admission to the master’s program requires entrants to have a general weighted average of at least 85 or
“B” or “2” in the undergraduate course. On the other hand, a weighted average of at least 1.75 in the master’s degree is a
requirement for admission to the doctorate program.

9. DEGREE CONFERRING AGENCIES

The individual higher education institutions confer the degrees. State universities and colleges are authorized to
do so by virtue of their respective charter. The private institutions are authorized to confer degrees if their program
offerings are recognized by the Commission on Higher Education (previously by DECS). Similarly, the CHED-supervised
institutions and local universities and colleges are allowed to confer degrees if their program offerings have the necessary
authority from CHED.

10. ASSESSMENT AND ACCREDITATION OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

The Commission on Higher Education is the agency of government which is mandated to set and enforce
minimum standards for programs and institutions of higher learning and at the same time, monitor and evaluate their
performance for appropriate incentives as well as imposition of sanctions such as diminution or withdrawal of subsidy,
recommendation on the downgrading or withdrawal of accreditation, program termination or school closure. It is also
tasked to set standards, policies and guidelines for the creation of new schools as well as conversion or elevation of
schools to institutions of higher learning.
To attain standards of quality over and above the minimum required by the government, the Commission on
Higher Education encourages and provides incentives to public and private institutions whose programs are accredited.
The Commission authorizes the Federation of Accrediting Agencies of the Philippines (FAAP) as the agency that would
certify the accredited status of programs granted by the different accrediting agencies, namely: the Association of
Christian Schools and Colleges Accrediting Agency, Inc. (ACSC-AAI), the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools,
Colleges and Universities (PAASCU), the Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on
Accreditation (PACU-COA), and the Accrediting Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities of the Philippines
(AACUP).
The major steps in the accreditation process are as follows: 1) institutional self-survey or self-evaluation; 2)
preliminary visit (4 to 6 months after the start of self-survey); 3) formal survey visit (a minimum of 6 months after
preliminary visit); and 4) decision by governing board of accrediting agency.
The levels of accreditation are as follows:
a. Level I applicant status: for programs which have undergone a preliminary survey visit and are certified by the FAAP as
being capable of acquiring an accredited status within two years;
b. Level II accredited status: for programs which have been granted accredited status by any of the member agencies of
the FAAP and whose status is certified by the latter;
c. Level III accredited status: for programs which have at least been re-accredited and have met additional requirements
based on criteria/guidelines set by FAAP; and
d. Level IV accredited status: institutions which have distinguished themselves in a broad area of academic disciplines
and enjoy prestige and authority comparable to that of international universities.
The benefits for the different accreditation levels are as follows:
a. Level I - partial administrative deregulation.
b. Level II full administrative deregulation, financial deregulation in terms of setting tuition and other fees, partial
curricular autonomy, authority to graduate students without prior approval of CHED and without need for Special
Orders, priority funding assistance, priority for government subsidy for faculty development, right to use on its
publications or advertisements the word “ACCREDITED”, and limited visitation/inspection and/or supervision by
CHED.
c. Level III all the benefits for Level II and full curricular deregulation.
d. Level IV all the benefits for Levels II and III, award of grants/subsidies from the CHED’s Higher Education
Development Fund (HEDF), and grant of charter or full autonomy.

11. DIPLOMAS AND PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE

The government regulates the practice of profession in the Philippines. Graduates in the following fields are
entitled to practice their profession if they pass the licensure or board examinations being given by the Professional
Regulation Commission (PRC):

· Accountancy · Mechanical Engineering

· Aeronautical Engineering · Medical Technology
· Agricultural Engineering · Medicine
· Architecture · Metallurgical Engineering
· Chemical Engineering · Midwifery
· Chemistry · Mining Engineering

· Civil Engineering · Naval Architecture and

Marine Engineering
· Criminology · Nursing
· Customs Broker · Nutrition and Dietetics
· Dentistry · Optometry
· Electrical Engineering · Pharmacy
· Electronics & Communications · Physical Therapy
Engineering
· Environmental Planning · Occupational Therapy
· Forestry · Radiologic Technology
· Geodetic Engineering · Sanitary Engineering
· Geology · Social work
· Library Science · Veterinary Medicine
· Marine Deck · Teacher Education
· Marine Engineering · Interior Design
· Master Plumbing · Landscape Architecture

In the case of law, the Supreme Court administers the bar examination.

12. INTERNATIONAL RECOGNITION OF DEGREES

The Philippines is a signatory of UNESCO Regional Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and
Degrees in Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific which was held in Bangkok, Thailand on December 12-16, 1983.
However, the Congress of the Philippines has not yet ratified this agreement.

TABLE 1: DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS IN THE PHILIPPINES, 1998

Level Number of Schools Total

Public Private
Elementary 35,550 3,224 38,774
Secondary 3,955 2,643 6,598
Higher Education 252 1,030 1,282
Total 39,757 6,897 46,654

TABLE 2: ENROLMENT STATISTICS IN THE PHILIPPINES, SY 1997-1998

Level Number of Schools Total

Public Private
Elementary 11,238,015 921,480 12,159,495
Secondary 3,601,353 1,378,442 4,979,795
Higher Education 515,024 1,616,928 2,131,952
Total 15,354,392 3,916,850 19,271,242

Data Source:
· Department of Education, Culture and Sports (CHED). 1998 Fact Sheet.
· Commission on Higher Education (CHED). Development Indicators on Higher Education (19901999). May 1998.
Career is a term defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as an individual's "course or
progress through life (or a distinct portion of life)". It usually is considered to pertain to
remunerative work (and sometimes also formal education).

A career is traditionally seen as a course of successive situations that make up a person's

worklife. One can have a sporting career or a musical career without being a professional
athlete or musician, but most frequently "career" in the 20th century referenced the series
of jobs or positions by which one earned one's money. It tended to look only at the past.

As the idea of personal choice and self direction picks up in the 21st century, aided by the
power of the Internet and the increased acceptance of people having multiple kinds of
work, the idea of a career is shifting from a closed set of achievements, like a
chronological résumé of past jobs, to a defined set of pursuits looking forward. In its
broadest sense, career refers to an individual’s work and life roles over their lifespan.

In the relatively static societies before modernism, many workers would often inherit or
take up a single lifelong position (a place or role) in the workforce, and the concept of an
unfolding career had little or no meaning. With the spread during the Enlightenment of
the idea of progress and of the habits of individualist self-betterment, careers became
possible, if not expected.

Career Assessments are tests that come in a variety of forms and rely on both quantitative
and qualitative methodologies. Career Assessments can help individuals identify and
better articulate their unique interests, values, and skills. Career counselors, executive
coaches, career development centers, and outplacement companies often administer
career assessments to help individuals focus their search on careers that closely match
their unique personal profile.

Career counseling advisors assess people's interests, personality, values and skills, and
also help them explore career options and research graduate and professional schools.
Career counseling provides one-on-one or group professional assistance in exploration
and decision making tasks related to choosing a major/occupation, transitioning into the
world of work or further professional training. The field is vast and includes career
placement, career planning, learning strategies and student development.

By the late 20th century a plethora of choices (especially in the range of potential
professions) and more widespread education had allowed it to become fashionable to plan
(or design) a career: in this respect the careers of the career counsellor and of the career
advisor have grown up. It is also not uncommon for adults in the late 20th/early 21st
centuries to have dual or multiple careers, either sequentially or concurrently. Thus,
professional identities have become hyphenated or hybridized to reflect this shift in work
ethic. Economist Richard Florida notes this trend generally and more specifically among
the "creative class."