Module 2 Part 1: Political History of the

Philippines
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Understand the political history of the Philippines

2. Understand historical events and forces that shaped the development of those
governments

Pre-Spanish Era
Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was split into
numerous barangays, small states that were linked through region-wide trade networks.
The name "barangay" is thought to come from the word balangay, which refers to boats
used by the Austronesian people to reach the Philippines. These societies had three
classes: the nobility, freemen, and serfs and slaves. They were led by powerful
individuals now called datus: although different cultures used different terms. The arrival
of Hindu influence increased the power of Indianized datus. The first large state
was Sulu, which adopted Islam in the 15th century. This system then spread to the
nearby Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Kingdom of Maynila Ferdinand Magellan's
death in 1521 can be partly attributed to a dispute between Lapu-Lapu and Rajah
Humabon for control of Cebu. Spanish Captain-General Miguel López de
Legazpi established a settlement in Cebu in 1565. Maynila was conquered in 1571,
and Manila subsequently became the center of Spanish administration. Spain gradually
conquered the majority of the modern Philippines, although full control was never
established over some Muslim areas in the south and in the Cordillera highlands.

Explorer Ferdinand Magellan was killed during the Battle of Mactan, as he fought the
forces of Datu Lapulapu on behalf of Rajah Humabon.
Spanish Era
Under Spanish rule barangays were consolidated into urban towns, aiding with control
and a shift to a sedentary agricultural society. Nonetheless, the barangay structures
were retained (becoming known as barrio), and used as a means to record community
identity. Rule during the Spanish era was dominated by the Church, especially friars
from Spanish religious orders. Local priests often held powers in towns, carrying out
Spanish orders and collecting taxes. In areas where the population had not been
consolidated into towns, priests travelled between villages. Ultimate power was held by
the King and the Council of the Indies, with the Philippines being part of New Spain.
However, due to their distance from both New Spain and Spain itself, the Captaincy
General of the Philippines functioned practically autonomously and royal decrees had
limited effect. The Philippines had their own Governor, and a judicial body was
established in 1583.
The Spanish established Manila as the capital of the Captaincy General of the
Philippines.

Direct Spanish rule did not extend far beyond Manila. Due to the small number of
Spanish officials on the islands, which numbered in the tens, locals were relied upon for
administration. Existing datus were co-opted to manage barangays and nominate
individuals for provincial government. Representatives of the Catholic Church continued
to be the most significant direct Spanish presence. Several revolts erupted against
Spain, but all were defeated. Some revolts, such as the Tondo Conspiracy, led to
greater local participation in the bureaucracy, and the bringing of local elites into a
patronage system to prevent further rebellion. The establishment of towns created
administrative positions local elites could fill. Traditional native elites, along with some
native officeholders and high-value tax payers, became part of a group known as
the principalia. This group could make recommendations to the Spanish governor
regarding administrative appointments, although they held no direct power. While they
were just municipal office-holders, for some their status allowed them to avail of
government patronage, and gain special permits and exemptions. Over time, this elite
class became more culturally distinct, gaining an education unavailable to most and
intermarrying with Spanish officials and Chinese merchants.

Pre-existing trading networks were blocked by Spanish authorities, with all trade
instead going to Spanish colonies in the New World. Despite increasing economic
activity, the archipelago remained divided by regional identity and language. Some
areas remained out of effective Spanish control, including much of Mindanao, the Sulu
archipelago, and Palawan. There was conflict between these areas and the Spanish
throughout the Spanish period. In the Cordillera highlands, firm Spanish control was
limited to the lowland fringes. Inward migration to escape Spanish control and an
increase in trade saw settlements in interior areas increase in population and political
complexity.

Under the short-lived Spanish Constitution of 1812, the Philippines had direct
representation in the Cortes of Cádiz.

In a process beginning in the late 18th century that would continue for the remainder of
Spanish rule, the government tried to shift power from the friars of independent religious
orders towards the "secular clergy" of Catholic priests. These priests included local
mestizos, and even indios. In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade
and shifts started occurring within Filipino society. In 1808, when became king of Spain,
the liberal constitution of Cadiz was adopted, giving the Philippines representation in
the Spanish Cortes. However, once the Spanish overthrew the Bonapartes, the
Philippine, and indeed colonial, representation in the Spanish Cortes was rescinded.
From 1836, the Philippines were directly governed by the Ministry of Overseas.

Political turmoil in Spain led to 24 governors being appointed to the Philippines from
1800 to 1860, often lacking any experience with the country. Significant political reforms
began in the 1860s, with a couple of decades seeing the creation of a cabinet under the
Governor-General and the division of executive and judicial power. Societal changes in
Spain and the Philippines led to an expansion of the Philippine bureaucracy and its civil
service positions, predominantly for the educated living in urban areas, although the
highest levels continued to remain in the hand of those born in Spain. This, combined
with a shifting economy, saw more complex social structures emerge with new upper
and middle classes. A changing economy also brought poverty, which led to raiding and
the founding of the Civil Guard. Education reforms in the 1860s expanded access to
higher education. The 19th century also saw further attempts to establish control of the
mountain tribes of the interior, although success remained limited. Better success was
had in the south, where the Spanish gained control over the seas and coasts, and
obtained the surrender of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878.

National awakening and revolution

The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in
social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the
Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the
archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for
which it developed into a national identity, and served as a claim to status equal to
Spanish peninsulares and insulares. Spanish served as a common language for the
growing local elite, who shared a Western educational background despite varied
ethnolinguistic origins. Most came from Manila. A class of educated individuals became
known as the Ilustrados. This group included individuals who had studied at both local
universities and Spanish ones, and came from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds.
They gained prominence in Philippine administration, and became increasingly involved
in politics. This added a third group of elites to the two existing groups of the urban
bureaucracy and the municipal elites.

The Ilustrados in Madrid

Liberal reforms and ideas that had taken root in Spain were resisted by the conservative
religious orders that had influence throughout the Philippines. In the 1880s, some
prominent Ilustrados, especially those who had studied in Spain, launched
the Propaganda Movement. This loose movement sought to reform Spanish
administration of the Philippines. The restoration of Philippine representation to the
Cortes was one of the grievances raised by the Ilustrados. For the most part it was a
campaign for secular self-government as a full part of Spain, as well as equality
between those born in Spain and those born in the Philippines. Much of the
campaigning took place in Madrid rather than in the Philippines. With liberal reforms
rejected, some saw the movement as the beginning of a national awakening, as its
members began to return to the Philippines. A small change occurred in 1893, when
Spain passed the Maura Law, providing a limited measure of local autonomy.

An authoritarian backlash against the Propaganda Movement led to official suppression.

In the 1890s divisions emerged among those that supported the ideals of the
movement. One group that emerged from this was the Katipunan, created in 1892
predominantly by members of Manila's urban middle class rather than by Ilustrados.
These individuals were often less wealthy than those who made up the Ilustrados, and
less invested in the existing political structures. The Katipunan advocated complete
Philippine independence, and began the Philippine Revolution in 1896. This revolution
gained the support of the municipal elite outside of the major cities, who found
themselves with significantly greater control as Spanish administrative and religious
authorities were forced out by the revolutionaries.
 The execution of José Rizal exacerbated the rebellion against Spain.

Despite most Ilustrados opposing the revolution, many were implicated by the Spanish
authorities and were arrested and imprisoned. After the execution of José Rizal on
December 30, 1896, the leader of the Ilustrados who disapproved of the revolution, the
rebellion intensified. The Katipunan in Cavite had won several battles against the
Spaniards, but was split into the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions. A conference was
held in 1897 to unite the two factions, but instead caused further division that led to the
execution of Andres Bonifacio, who was then the leader of the Katipunan; Bonifacio's
death passed the control of the Katipunan to Emilio Aguinaldo. This was part of a shift
from middle class to elite leadership within the rebellion. Nonetheless, Spanish military
superiority was unable to overcome growing political support for the revolution that
emerged outside of Manila throughout the archipelago. A provisional constitution was
set up to last two years, but was soon superseded by an agreement between the
Spaniards and the revolutionaries, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. This pact provided for
Aguinaldo's surrender and exile to Hong Kong, and amnesty and payment of
indemnities by the Spaniards to the revolutionaries. However, both sides eventually
violated the agreement.

The Spanish–American War reached the Philippines on May 1 with the Battle of Manila
Bay. Aguinaldo returned from exile, set up a new government, and proclaimed the
independence of the Philippines on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite. Aguilnaldo gained
support even from Ilustrados who had opposed the initial revolution. War with the
Americans prompted the Spanish Governor to offer an autonomous government,
however the Americans defeated the Spanish on August 13 in a mock battle in
Manila and took control of the city. Aguinaldo proclaimed a revolutionary government,
and convened a congress on September 15, 1898, in Barasoain Church in Malolos.
This unicameral congress was aimed at enticing support to the revolutionaries. It
approved the declaration of independence, and in 1899 approved the Malolos
Constitution to inaugurate the First Philippine Republic. The First Philippine Republic
reflected the liberal ideas of the time, valuing private property rights and limiting voting
to high-class men, reflecting the growing influence of the elite in the initially anti-elite
movement. Discussions about this first constitution saw calls from the
Visayas for federalism. However, this idea was not included in the final constitution, and
the constitutional questions were overtaken by centralizing forces and military events.
On December 10, 1898, Spain ceded sovereignty of the Philippines to the United States
in the Treaty of Paris that ended the short war between those powers.