Module 1

A. BASIC CONCEPT OF STATISTICS

I. Definition
STATISTICS is the science that deals with the collection, organization, creative
presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.

II. Uses of Statistics

 In Psychology – used to determine attitudinal patterns, the cause and effects of
misbehavior.
 In business and economics – used to analyze a wide range of data like sales,
outputs, price indices, revenues, costs, inventories, accounts to monitor the status
of customer, employees, orders and production.
 In research – used to validate or test a claim or inferences about people, object or
series of event.
 In medicine – used to collect information about patients and diseases to formulate
new drugs or treatment.
 In weather forecasting – to find patterns and make predictions about future
weather.
 In demography – study of the size, vital characteristics of the population and how
they might change over time.

III. Fields of Statistics

Descriptive statistics is concerned with the methods of collecting, organizing and
presenting data appropriately and creatively to describe or assess group characteristics.

Inferential statistics is concerned with inferring or drawing conclusions about the

population based from pre-selected elements of that population.

IV. Constant and Variables

Constant refer to the fundamental quantities that do not change in value.
Ex. Fixed cost, acceleration due to gravity
X+5

Variables refer to the quantities that may take anyone of a specified set of values.

Types of Variable
1. Qualitative (categorical) – are non-measurable characteristics that cannot assume a
numerical value but can be classified into two or more categories.
Ex. Gender, opinion poll, performance rating, course, etc.

2. Quantitative (numerical) – are those quantities that can be counted with your bare
hands or can be measured by some measuring devices or can be calculated with the use
of mathematical formula.

Classification of Quantitative Variables

a. Discrete – actual values usually obtained by counting.
 Ex. Number males and females in the classroom, pile of shoes in the storage
b. Continuous – obtained by measurements.
Ex. height, weight, temperature, age, I.Q etc.

V. Sources of Data
 Primary source – first-hand information usually obtained by personal interview and actual
observation.
 Secondary source – information taken from other’s source.

VI. Scales of Measuring Data

1. Nominal – classifies object in single category.
Ex. gender, civil status, religion etc.

2. Ordinal – classifies responses according to degree or level through a coded numeral.

Ex. 5 – Excellent
4 – Very Satisfactory
3 – Satisfactory
2 – Fair
1 – Needs Improvement

3. Interval – refers to quantitative measurements in which lower and upper limits are
adapted to classify relative order and differences of item numbers or actual scores.
There is no absolute zero in this scale.
Ex. income level, salary range

4. Ratio – in addition to an interval scale ratio has an absolute zero.

Ex. height, weight, amount of money deposited in the bank

VII. Population and Sample

Population is a finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or individuals with specified
class or characteristics under consideration, denoted by N.
Sample is a portion of population who is expected to possess characteristics identical to
population.

VIII. Parameter and Statistic

Parameter is a numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a population.
Ex. The population mean of the internet consumption of residents of certain barangay is
P999.00.

Statistic is a numerical measure that is used to describe a characteristic of a sample.

Ex. The sample mean of the internet consumption of 15 residents of a certain barangay is
P1,200.00.

B. DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

I. Methods of collecting data

 1. Direct or Interview Method is a person-to-person interaction between an interviewer
and an interviewee.
Advantage: Precise and consistent answers can be obtained by modifying or rephrasing
the questions by the interviewee.
Disadvantage: Time, money and effort consuming and applicable only to small
population.

2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method is an alternative method for the interview method. A

list of questions written in logical order.
Advantage: Lesser time, money and efforts are consumed.
Disadvantage: Many responses may not be consistent due to the poor construction of
the questionnaire. The meaning of the questions may be different from each
respondent. Inconsistent responses can no longer be modified.

3. Registration Method is enforced by private organizations or government agencies for

recording purposes.
Advantage: Organized data from an institution can serve as ready references for future
study or for personal claims of people’s records.
Disadvantage: Problem arise when an agency doesn’t have a Management Information
System

4. Observation Method is a scientific method of investigation that makes possible use of

all senses to measure or obtain outcomes/responses from the subject of the study.
Advantage: Only applied to respondents that cannot be asked or need not speak. Ex.
Behavior
Disadvantage: Subjectivity of information sought cannot be avoided.

5. Experimentation Method is used when the objective is to determine the cause-and-

effect of a certain phenomenon under some controlled conditions.
Advantage: There is objectivity of information since a scientific method of inquiry is
used.
Disadvantage: The whole method must be repeated if the desired outcome is not
reached.

II. Determining the Sample Size

To determine the sample size of a given population, the Sloven’s Formula is used. The
sample size n can be obtained by the formula,

N = 1000

e = 1%, 10%, 0.01, 0.10 1%, 5%, 10%

n = 1000/ (1 + 1000*0.012) = 1000/ (1 + 1000*0.0001) = 1000/(1 + 0.1) = 1000/1.1 = 909.09 , n = 909

n = 1000/ (1 + 1000*0.102) = 1000/ (1 + 1000*0.01) = 1000/ (1 + 10) = 1000/11 = 90.91 , n = 91

III. Sampling Techniques

A. Random and Non-random Sampling
1. Random sampling is a technique in which each member of the population is given
an equal chance to be selected in the sample.
2. Non-random sampling is a method of collecting a small portion of the population in
which not all member of the population is given an equal chance to be selected to
be part of the sample.

B. Types of Random Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling or Lottery is done by simply writing the names or
numbers of all the members of the population in small rolled pieces of paper which
are later placed in a container.
2. Systematic Sampling is done by taking every kth element in the population. It
applies to a group of individuals arranged in a waiting line or in a methodical
manner.
3. Stratified Random Sampling is used when the population can be partitioned into
several strata or subgroups to ensure a representative of each group in the sample.
4. Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling uses different stages or phrases in getting the
sample from the population. However, selection of the sample is still done at
random.

C. Types of Non-Random Sampling

1. Judgmental Sampling is usually based on a certain criteria laid down by the
researcher.
2. Purposive Sampling plays a major role in making decisions in cases of incomplete
responses or observation.
3. Quota Sampling is relatively quick and inexpensive method to operate since the
choice of the number of persons or elements to be included in a sample is done at
the researcher’s own convenience or preference.
4. Cluster Sampling is sometimes referred to as an area sampling because it is usually
applied on a geographical basis.
5. Incidental Sampling is applied to those samples which are taken because they are
the most available.
6. Convenience Sampling is a method has been widely used in television and radio
programs to find out the data of the respondents.

References:

Altares, Prescilla S., et. al. (2006). Elementary Statistics with Computer Applications, Manila: Rex Book
Store, Inc.

Parreño, Elizabeth B. and Jimenez, Ronel O. (2013). Basic Statistics Workbook, Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Brase, Charles Henry and Brase, Corrinne Pellillo. (2012). Basic Statistics 5th Edition, Philippines: Cengage
Learning Asia Pte Ltd