FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr.

ALI NASER
Fluids
Definition of fluid: A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously under application
of a shearing stress, regardless of how small the stress is.

To study the behavior of materials that act as fluids, it is useful to define a number of important
fluid properties, which include density, specific weight, specific gravity, and viscosity.

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance and is denoted by the Greek
character ρ (rho). The SI units for ρ are kg/m3.

Specific weight is defined as the weight per unit volume of a substance. The SI units for specific
weight are N/m3.

Specific gravity S is the ratio of the weight of a liquid at a standard reference temperature to the
weight of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury SHg = 13.6 at 20oC. Specific
gravity is a unit-less parameter.

Density and specific weight are measures of the “heaviness” of a fluid.

Example: What is the specific gravity of human blood, if the density of blood is 1060 kg/m3?
Solution: ⁄ ⁄

Viscosity, shearing stress and shearing strain

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes the internal friction of a

moving fluid. A fluid with large viscosity resists motion because its molecular makeup gives it a
lot of internal friction. A fluid with low viscosity flows easily because its molecular makeup
results in very little friction when it is in motion. Gases also have viscosity, although it is a little
harder to notice it in ordinary circumstances.

To understand viscosity, let fluid between two parallel infinite in width and length plates. See
Fig. 1.1. The bottom plate A is fixed and the upper plate B is moveable. The vertical distance
between the two plates is represented by h. A constant force F is applied to the moveable plate B
causing it to move along at a constant velocity uB with respect to the fixed plate. This behavior is
consistent with the definition of a fluid: a material that deforms continuously under the
application of a shearing stress, regardless of how small the stress is.

After some infinitesimal time dt, a line of fluid that was vertical at time t= 0 will move to a new
position, as shown by the dashed line in Fig. 1.1. The tan of angle between the line of fluid at t =
0 and t = t + dt is defined as the shearing strain du/dy.

The fluid that touches plate A has zero velocity u=0. The fluid that touches plate B moves with
the same velocity as that of plate B, uB. That is, the molecules of the fluid adhere to the plate and
do not slide along its surface. This is known as the no-slip condition. The no-slip condition is
important in fluid mechanics. All fluids, including both gasses and liquids, satisfy this condition.

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
Let the distance from the fixed plate A to some arbitrary point above the plate be y. The velocity
u of the fluid between the plates is a function of the distance above the fixed plate A, or u=u(y).
Let us define the velocity gradient as the change in fluid velocity with respect to y.

Note that the velocity gradient is represented the time rate of shearing strain.

Figure 1.1 Velocity profile in a fluid between two parallel plates.

If the velocity of the fluid at any point between the plates varies linearly between u= 0 and u
=uB, the velocity gradient can also be written as

The velocity profile is a graphical representation of the velocity gradient.

Figure 1.2 represents the shear stress on an element of the fluid at some arbitrary point between
the plates in Figs. 1.1. The shear stress on the top of the element results in a force that pulls the
element “downstream.” The shear stress at the bottom of the element resists that movement.
Since the fluid element shown will be moving at a constant velocity, and will not be rotating, the
shear stress on the element must be the same as the shear stress . Therefore,

Physically, the shearing stress at the wall may also be represented by

⁄ ⁄

The shear stress on a fluid is related to the rate of shearing strain.

In fact, the relationship between shearing stress and rate of shearing strain is determined by the
fluid property known as viscosity sometimes referred to by the name (absolute viscosity or
dynamic viscosity) represented by the Greek letter μ (mu).

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Figure 1.2 Shear stress on an element of the fluid in figure 1.1.

Kinematic viscosity is another fluid property that has been used to characterize flow. It is the
ratio of absolute viscosity to fluid density and is represented by the Greek character (nu).
Kinematic viscosity can be defined by the equation:

SI unit for absolute viscosity is N.s/m2 or Pa·s or poise = g/s·cm , and for kinematic viscosity is
m2/s or Stoke = cm2/s.

Example: The 100-kg plate in Fig. l-3a is resting on a very thin film of oil, which has a viscosity
of μ = 0.0652 N s/m2. Determine the force P that must be applied to the center of the plate to
slide it over the oil with a constant velocity of 0.2 m/s. Assume the oil thickness is 0.1 mm, and
the velocity profile across this thickness is linear. The bottom of the plate has a contact area of
0.75 m2 with the oil.

SOLUTION

Assumption: The oil is a Newtonian fluid, and so Newtonian's law of viscosity can be applied.

Analysis: First we draw the free-body diagram of the plate in order to relate the shear force F
caused by the oil on the bottom of the plate to the applied force P, Fig.1-3b. Because the plate
moves with constant velocity, the force equation of equilibrium in the horizontal direction
applies.

∑ F - P cos 30° = 0 → F = 0.8660P

The effect of this force on the oil is in the opposite direction, and so the shear stress on the top of
the oil acts to the left. It is

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
Since the velocity profile is assumed to be linear, Fig. 1- 3c, the velocity gradient is constant
du/dy = U/h, and so

( )

Figure 1.3 plate is sliding on a very thin film of oil

Example: The plate in Fig.1.4 rests on top of the thin film of water; the viscosity of water at a
temperature of 25oC is μ = 0.897(10- 3) N · s/m2. When a small force F is applied to the plate, the
velocity profile across the thickness of the fluid can be described as u = (40y - 800y2) m/ s.
where y is in meters. Determine the shear stress acting on the fixed surface and on the bottom of
the plate.
Solution:
Assumption: water is a Newtonian fluid, and so Newton's law of viscosity applies.
Analysis: Before applying Newton's law of viscosity, we must first obtain the velocity gradient
( )

Therefore, at the fixed surface, y = 0,

| ( )

And, at the bottom of the moving plate, y = 0.01 m,

| ( ( ))

By comparison, the larger shear stress develops on the fixed surface rather than on the bottom of
the plate since the velocity gradient or slope du/dy is large at the fixed surface. Both of these
slopes are indicated by the short dark lines in Fig. 1-4. Also, notice that the equation for the
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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
velocity profile must satisfy the boundary condition of no slipping, i.e., at the fixed surface y = 0,
u = 0, and with the movement of the plate at y = 10 mm, u =U =0.32 m/ s.

Figure 1.4 plate slides on top of the thin film of water

Newtonian and non-Newtonian Fluids

Newtonian fluids are the fluids of constant viscosity. For common fluids like oil, water, and
air, and are linearly related. (see Fig. 1.5a). And the slope of the stress–shearing rate
curve is constant represents the viscosity.

For non-Newtonian fluids, and are not linearly related. For those fluids, viscosity can
change as a function of the shear rate (rate of shearing strain). Blood is an important example of
a non-Newtonian fluid. But, we will investigate the condition under which blood behaves as, and
may be considered, a Newtonian fluid.

Shear stress and shear rate are not linearly related for non-Newtonian fluids. Therefore, the slope
of the shear stress/shear rate curve is not constant. However, we can still talk about viscosity if
we define the apparent ‫ الظاهرية‬viscosity as the instantaneous ‫ االني‬slope of the shear
stress/shear rate curve. See Fig. 1.5b.

Shear thinning fluids are non-Newtonian fluids whose apparent viscosity decreases as shear
rate increases. Latex paint ‫ الصبغات النباتية‬is a good example of a shear thinning fluid. It is a
positive characteristic of the paint that the viscosity is low when one is painting, but that the
viscosity becomes higher and the paint sticks to the surface better when no shearing force is
present. At low shear rates, blood is also a shear thinning fluid. However, when the shear rate
increases above 100 s–1, blood behaves as a Newtonian fluid.

Shear thickening fluids are non-Newtonian fluids whose apparent viscosity increases when the
shear rate increases. Quicksand ‫ الرمال المتحركة‬is a good example of a shear thickening fluid. If
one tries to move slowly in quicksand, then the viscosity is low and the movement is relatively
easy. If one tries to move quickly, then the viscosity increases and the movement is difficult. A
mixture of cornstarch ‫ دقيق الذرة‬and water also forms a shear thickening non-Newtonian fluid.

A Bingham plastic is neither a fluid nor a solid. A Bingham plastic can withstand ‫ يقاوم‬a finite
shear load and flow like a fluid when that shear stress is exceeded ‫تجاوز الحد‬. Toothpaste and
mayonnaise are examples of Bingham plastics. Blood is also a Bingham plastic and behaves as a
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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
solid at shear rates very close to zero. The yield stress for blood is very small, approximately in
the range from 0.005 to 0.01 N/m2.

Figure 1.5 relationship between and (a) Newtonian fluid examples, (b) non-Newtonian
fluid compared with Newtonian fluid

Example: An experimental test using human blood at T= 30oC indicates that it exerts a shear
stress of = 0. 15 N/ m2 on a surface A, where the measured velocity gradient at the surface is
16.8 s-1. Since blood is a non-Newtonian fluid. Determine its apparent viscosity at the surface.

Solution: ⁄( ⁄ ⁄
)

Viscosity Measurements

Rotational Viscometers

The viscometer gives the value of the ‘dynamic viscosity’. It is based on the principle that the
fluid whose viscosity is being measured is sheared between two surfaces. In these viscometers
one of the surfaces is stationary and the other is rotated by an external drive and the fluid fills
‫ يمأل‬the space in between ‫بينهما‬. (See Fig. 1.6). The measurements are conducted by applying
either a constant torque and measuring the changes in the speed of rotation or applying a
constant speed and measuring the changes in the torque ‫العزم‬. There are two main types of
these viscometers: rotating cylinder and cone-on-plate ‫ مخروط على صفيحة‬viscometers.

( )
( )

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Figure 1.6 Rotational Viscometers

Example: The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 75-mm-

long concentric cylinders. The outer diameter of the inner cylinder is 15 cm, and the gap
between the two cylinders is 0.12 cm. The inner cylinder is rotated at 200 rpm, and the torque is
measured to be 0.8 N-m. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.

Solution The torque and the rpm of a double cylinder viscometer are given. The viscosity of
the fluid is to be determined.
Assumptions: 1. The inner cylinder is completely submerged
in oil. 2. The viscous effects on the two ends of the inner
cylinder are negligible. 3. The fluid is Newtonian. Rc

Analysis Substituting the given values, the viscosity of the

fluid is determined to be Rd-Rc=
T( Rd  Rc ) (0.8 N  m)(0.0012 m)
   0.0231 Pa.s 0.12 cm
2 .Rc L
3
4 (0.075 m) 3 (200 / 60 s -1 )(0.75 m)
2

Compressibility of Fluids

Compressibility β is a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to

a pressure (or mean stress) change.

The negative sign in first equation makes the compressibility positive in the (usual) case that an
increase in pressure induces a reduction in volume. The variation of volume or density to
variation in pressure may be occurs at adiabatic or isothermal process.

Bulk Modulus: is the inverse of the compressibility and often denoted K.

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Large values of the bulk modulus indicate incompressibility. Incompressibility indicates large
pressures are needed to compress the volume slightly. For example, it takes 215 bar to compress
water 1% at atmospheric pressure and 15°C. Most liquids are incompressible for most practical
engineering problems.

Cohesion and Adhesion in Liquids:

Children blow soap bubbles. An underwater spider keeps his air supply in a bubble he carries
wrapped around him )‫)الفقاعات التي تطوقه‬. A technician draws blood into a small-diameter tube just
by touching it to a drop on a pricked ‫ ثقب‬finger ‫االصبع‬. A premature infant struggles to inflate her
lungs )‫(الطفل الخديج يكافح بصعوبة لملئ رئتيه باالوكسجين‬. What is the common thread ‫ ?الخيط المشترك‬All
these activities are dominated by the attractive ‫ التجاذب‬forces between atoms and molecules in
liquids both within a liquid and between the liquid and its surroundings.

Attractive forces between molecules of the same type are called cohesive ‫ التماسك‬forces. And
Attractive forces between molecules of different types are called adhesive ‫ التصاق‬forces.

Surface Tension

At the interface between a liquid and a gas or two immiscible ‫ غير قابل لالمتزاج‬liquids, forces
develop forming an analogous ‫“ متماثل‬skin ‫ ”السطح الخارجي‬or “membrane ‫ ”غشاء‬stretched , ‫شد مط‬
over the fluid mass which can support weight ‫يسند وزنا‬.

This “skin” is due to an imbalance of cohesive forces. The interior of the fluid is in balance as
molecules of the like fluid are attracting each other while on the interface there is a net inward
pulling force.

Cohesive forces between molecules cause the surface of a liquid to contract ‫ لالنكماش‬to the
smallest possible surface area. This general effect is called surface tension.

Therefore surface tension is the intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along any
line in the surface.
8
‫‪FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY‬‬ ‫‪CHAPTER ONE‬‬ ‫‪FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER‬‬
‫‪Surface tension is a property of the liquid type, the temperature, and the other fluid at the‬‬
‫‪interface.‬‬
‫‪Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of (energy per unit area). The two‬‬
‫‪are equivalent, but when referring to energy per unit of area, it is common to use the term surface‬‬
‫‪energy, which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids.‬‬
‫تربط بين جزيئات المادة المتجانسة قوى تسمى قوى الجذب الجزيئية (قوى التماسك) تعمل على تماسك جزيئات هذه المادة‬
‫بعضها ببعض‪ ,‬إن قيمة هذه القوى في السوائل تكون أقل مما عليه في األجسام الصلبة وهذا ما يفسر تغير شكل السائل بتغير‬
‫اإلناء الموجود فيه‪ ,‬باإلضافة إلى تلك القوى توجد قوى تؤثر بين جزيئات السائل وجزيئات األوساط األخرى التي تالمسها‬
‫سواء أكانت حالة تلك األوساط صلبة أو سائلة أو غازية تدعى هذه القوى ب (قوى التالصق) بالنسبة للجزيئات الواقعة على‬
‫سطح السائل‪.‬‬

‫بالنسبة للجزيئات الواقعة في داخل السائل أي على بعد عدة أقطار جزيئية إلى األسفل من سطحه‪ ,‬فإن كل جزيء مثل )‪(A‬‬
‫سوف يتأثر بقوى تماسك مع جزيئات السائل األخرى من جميع الجهات وبنفس القدر تقريبا ً مما يعني أن جزيء مثل )‪(A‬‬
‫سيكون متأثر بمجموعة متزنة من القوى محصلتها معدومة‪ .‬أما بالنسبة لجزيئات السائل عند السطح فإن كل جزيء مثل )‪(B‬‬
‫سوف يكون متأثر بقوى تماسك مع جزيئات السائل من الجهة السفلى ومتأثر بقوى التالصق مع جزيئات الهواء من الجهة العليا‬
‫وحيث أن كثافة السوائل أكبر بكثير من كثافة الغازات لذلك فإن محصلة هذه القوى تكون في اتجاه قوى التماسك‪ .‬أي أن كل‬
‫جزيء عند السطح يكون متأثراً بقوى جذب إلى الداخل (مما يقلل من فرصة شغله موقع سطحي) تؤدي إلى تقلص سطح السائل‬
‫ليشغل أصغر مساحة ممكنة له‪ .‬وهذا يفسر الشكل الشبه الكروي لقطرات السائل ويكون عندئذ سطحها أصغر بالنسبة لحجم‬
‫معين ‪See Fig. 1.7 .‬‬

‫(القوى والروابط بين جزيئات السائل هي المسؤلة عن التوتر السطحي ‪ .‬و الجزيئات على السطح ليس لديها جزيئات فوقها لذلك‬
‫تكون قوى الترابط على الجزيئات األخرى المحيطة بها أقوى مقارنة بالجزيئات الداخلية)‪.‬‬

‫اآلن لنعرف التوتر السطحي )‪ (σs‬لسائل ‪ :‬القوة المؤثرة في وحدة الطول في سطح بزاوية قائمة على أحد جانبي خط مرسوم‬
‫في السطح‪ .‬يقاس التوتر السطحي )‪ (σs‬بوحدة‪( N/m ).‬‬

‫‪Figure 1.7 forces of surface and internal molecules‬‬

‫‪Mathematical analysis‬‬

‫‪The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using a free-body diagram (Fig.1.8):‬‬

‫‪9‬‬
FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Figure 1.8 forces effect on section of fluid drop

r is the radius of the droplet, is the surface tension, p is the pressure difference between the
inside and outside pressure. The force developed around the edge due to surface tension along
the line:

This force is balanced by the pressure difference p:

Now, equating the Surface Tension Force to the Pressure Force, we can estimate p = pi – pe:
2
p 
r
This indicates that the internal pressure in the droplet is greater that the external pressure since
the right hand side is entirely positive.

Is the pressure inside a bubble of water greater or less than that of a droplet of water?
4
Prove the following result: p 
Capillary Action
r
Capillary action in small tubes which involve a liquid-gas-solid interface is caused by surface
tension. The fluid is either drawn up ‫ يسحب لالعلى‬the tube or pushed down ‫يدفع لالسفل‬.

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

h is the height, r is the radius of the tube,  is the angle of contact. The weight of the fluid is
balanced with the vertical force caused by surface tension.
Free Body Diagram for Capillary Action for a Wetted Surface:

For clean glass in contact with water,   0°, and thus as r decreases, h increases, giving a higher
rise.
For a clean glass in contact with Mercury,   130°, and thus h is negative or there is a push
down of the fluid.
At what value of contact angle  does the liquid-solid interface become “non-wetted”?  > 90°
Surface tension is apparent in many practical problems such as movement of liquid through soil
‫ التربة‬and other porous media ‫االوساط المسامية‬, flow of thin films, formation of drops and bubbles,
and the breakup ‫ تالشي‬of liquid jets.
3
Example: Given a water-air-glass interface ( ˚, = 0.073 N/m, and  = 1000 kg/m ) with
r = 1 mm, determine the capillary height, h.
20.073 N / mcos 0
Solution
h  1.5 cm
  
1000 kg / m3 9.81m / s 2 0.001m
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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

3
Example: For a mercury-air-glass interface with  = 130˚, = 0.48 N/m and  = 13,600 kg/m ,
the capillary rise will be
Solution: 2 0.48 N / mcos130
h  0.46 cm
  
13,600 kg / m3 9.81m / s 2 0.001m

Example:

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. Units of pressure are
N/m2, which is called a Pascal (Pa). Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures encountered in
practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa) and mega Pascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly used.
Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.
Actual pressure at a given point is called the absolute pressure. Most pressure-measuring
devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate gage pressure,
Pgage=Pabs - Patm. Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressure, Pvac=Patm -
Pabs.
Pressure at a Point
Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. Pressure has a magnitude, but not a
specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.
Variation of Pressure with Depth
In the presence of a gravitational field, pressure increases with depth Fig. a, because more fluid
rests on deeper layers. To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure with depth, consider
rectangular element, Fig. b, and Force balance in z-direction gives
∑ Dividing by x and rearranging gives

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the container. And is the same at all
points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.

Example: Find the pressure on the diver at 30.5m deep under water and what is the danger of
diver emergency ascent?

Solution:

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

If you hold ‫ حبست‬your breath ‫ انفاسك‬on ascent, your lung ‫ رئتيك‬volume would increase by a factor
of 4, which would result in embolism ‫ االختناق‬and/or death ‫الوفاة‬.

Blood Pressure

The blood pressure in your feet can be greater than the blood pressure in your head depending on
whether a person is standing or reclining ‫ مستلقي‬.

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
Pascal’s Law

Example: A hydraulic lift is to be used to lift a 2500 kg weight by putting a weight of 25 kg on a

piston with a diameter of 10 cm. Determine the diameter of the piston on which the weight is to
be placed.

Solution: ⁄ ⁄ √( ⁄ ) √( ⁄ )

The Manometer

Example: Determine the static pressure difference indicated by an 18 cm column of fluid

(liquid) with a specific gravity of 0.85.
3 2
P =  g h = S. ρref gh = 0.85* 1000 kg/m *9.81m/s2* 0.18 m = 1501 N/m 1.5 kPa

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Mutlifluid Manometer

Example: The pressure indicated by a manometer is to be determined. When the patm=758mmHg

and the specific weights of fluid A and fluid B are given to be 10 kN/m3 and 8 kN/m3,
respectively.

Analysis: The absolute pressure p1 is determined from

p1  patm  ( gh) A  ( gh) B

 0.1333 kPa 
 (758 mm Hg)  
 1 mm Hg 
 (10 kN/m 3 )(0.05 m)  (8 kN/m 3 )(0.15 m)
 102.7 kPa

Note that 1 kPa = 1 kN/m2.

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
Measuring Pressure Drops

Example: The air pressure in a duct is measured by a mercury (Hg =

13,600 kg/m3) manometer. For a given mercury-level difference
between the two columns, the absolute pressure in the duct is to be
determined. patm=100 kPa
Analysis (a) The pressure in the duct is above atmospheric pressure
since the fluid column on the duct side is at a lower level.
(b) The absolute pressure in the duct is determined from

The Barometer

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Fluid Statics

 Fluid Statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.

 In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers.
 Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid trying to deform it.
 The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
o Normal stress is due to pressure
o Variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the fluid → fluid statics is only relevant
in presence of gravity fields.
 Applications: Floating or submerged bodies, water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.
Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

 On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a system of parallel forces

 For many applications, magnitude and location of application, which is called center of
pressure, must be determined.
 Atmospheric pressure patm can be neglected when it acts on both sides of the surface.

Resultant Force

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
The magnitude of Resultant Force FR acting on a plane surface of a completely submerged plate
in a homogenous fluid is equal to the product of the pressure pC at the centroid of the surface and
the area A of the surface

Centre of Pressure

• Line of action of resultant force FR=pC A does not pass through the centroid of the surface.
In general, it lies underneath where the pressure is higher.

• Vertical location yp of Center of Pressure is determined by equation the moment of the

resultant force to the moment of the distributed pressure force.

where Ixx,C is the second moment of area of body at the centre of it

about the x-x axis and is tabulated for simple geometries.

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

 FR on a curved surface is more involved since it requires integration of the

pressure forces that change direction along the surface.
 Easiest approach: determine horizontal and vertical components FH and FV
separately.
 Horizontal force component on curved surface: FH=Fx. Line of action on vertical
plane gives y coordinate of center of pressure on curved surface.
 Vertical force component on curved surface: FV=Fy+W, where W is the weight of
the liquid in the enclosed block W=ρgV. x coordinate of the center of pressure is a
combination of line of action on horizontal plane (centroid of area) and line of
action through volume (centroid of volume).
 Magnitude of force FR=(FH2+FV2)1/2. and angle of force is α = tan-1(FV/FH).

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

Buoyancy and Stability

 Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a body. FB=ρf gV.
 Archimedes principal : The buoyant force acting on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the
displaced volume.

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
Stability of Immersed Bodies
• Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon relative location of center of
gravity G and center of buoyancy B.
• G below B: stable
• G above B: unstable
• G coincides with B: neutrally stable.

Stability of Floating Bodies

 If body is bottom heavy (G lower than B), it is always stable.
 Floating bodies can be stable when G is higher than B due to shift in location of
center buoyancy and creation of restoring moment.
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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
 Measure of stability is the metacentric height GM. If GM 0, ship is stable.

Rigid-Body Motion
There are special cases where a body of fluid can undergo rigid-body motion: linear
acceleration, and rotation of a cylindrical container.
In these cases, no shear is developed. Assume accelerating of a fluid element of mass dm and
volume dxdydz. Newton's 2nd law of motion can be used to derive an equation of motion for
this element as (Force= mass*acceleration) or (F=m*a) and in differential form ( ⃗ ⃗)
or ( ⃗ ⃗). But this equation can be writing in partial differential in Cartesian
coordinate form:
( )
These equations can be re-arranged as

( )

Or ( )

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
Linear Acceleration

For a container moves on a straight path

Example: An open rectangular tank 3m long. 2.5m wide and 1.25m deep is
completely filled with water. If the tank is moved with an acceleration of 1.5m/s 2,
find the slope of the free surface of water and the quantity of water which will spill
out of the tank.

Given, = 3 m, = 2.5 m, = 1.25 m, = 1.5 m/s2

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER
Slope of the free surface of water
= Angle which the free surface of water will make with the horizontal.

Quantity of water which will spill out of the tank

From the above figure we can see that the depth of water on the front side,

Quantity of water which will spill out of the tank,

Rotation in a Cylindrical Container

Exercise: complete the equation of the isobar, in terms of the original surface height,
h0, in the absence of rotation.
Solution:

Therefore
To evaluate the isobar, in terms of the original surface height, h0, in the absence of
rotation, we can write the volume of the liquid and

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

Substitute the value of in z in the Eq. above we have

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FLUID MECHANICS & BIOTRIBOLOGY CHAPTER ONE FLUID STATICS & PROPERTIES Dr. ALI NASER

∫ ( ) ∫ ∫

But therefore and

( )

Example: An open cylindrical container 0.5m in diameter and 0.8m in height ,filled with oil up-
to 0.5 m and rotating about its vertical axis. a) Find the speed at which the liquid will start to
spill over ‫ينسكب‬, b) the speed at which the point of the bottom centre will just exposed ‫السرعة التي‬
‫عندها تظهرللتو نقطة مركز قعراالسطوانة‬, and c) how much oil will spill over in case b (Take the specific
gravity of liquid is 0.88).

Solution: Given data: Diameter of the cylinder R=0.5 m, height of the cylinder 0.8 m, and height
of the oil before cylindrical container rotates is

a) The liquid will start to spill over when the maximum height at the periphery becomes 0.8 m
at r=R= 0.5m.

( ) ( )
( )

( )
√( ) √( )
( ) ( ( ) )

b) The bottom of the centre will expose when will be zero at r=0. Therefore,

( )
√( ) √( )
( ) ( ( ) )

c) Homework

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