PSYCHOANALYTIC COUNSELLING

AN OVERVIEW OF FREUD, ADLER AND JUNG

The classic psychological theories of Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, and Carl Jung laid the foundation for modern
clinical practice. Their influence transcended the field of psychology; their insights have a significant impact on
the arts, education, child-rearing practices, and numerous other aspects of daily living.
Freud’s (1972) masterpiece, The Interpretation of Dreams, which was originally published in 1900, caught the
interest of Adler and Jung. Adler and Jung were colleagues of Freud who became central figures in the
psychoanalytic organization. They eventually broke ranks with Freud when they believed he overemphasized the
role of sexuality in personality development. Adler and Jung then proceeded to develop their own psychological
theories. The three distinct schools of psychology that evolved have a number of commonalities. Each emphasizes
the importance of early life experiences on personality development and also views insight as an important
prerequisite to change.
The Freudian, Adlerian, and Jungian schools of psychology can be considered the “classic schools,” because each
developed its own comprehensive theory of personality and approach to psychotherapy. These theories can be
used as the central/core theories from which one can develop an integrative counseling approach.

SIGMUND FREUD
FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Background information
Sigmund Freud, a Viennese psychiatrist (1856–1939), is the person primarily associated with psychoanalysis.
His genius created the original ideas. His daughter, Anna Freud, further elaborated the theory, especially as it
relates to children and development of defense mechanisms. In more recent times, Heinz Kohut has extended the
theory to developmental issues, especially attachment, through his conceptualization of object relations theory.
Theory of Personality
From a historical point of view alone, psychoanalytic theories are important and in briefer as well as classic forms
are still practiced today. They were among the first to gain public recognition and acceptance. Freud’s
conceptualization and implementation of psychoanalysis is the basis from which many other theories developed,
either by modifying parts of this approach or reacting against it. Freud’s well-developed theory of personality
provided information on how behavior manifests itself in terms of the id, ego, and superego; the conscious–
unconscious continuum; defense mechanisms; and other useful psychological constructs.
View of Human nature
Freud had a deterministic view of human nature. He was convinced that behavior was directed by unconscious
biological urges involving sex and aggression and psychosexual experiences during the first six years of life.
Freud’s view of human nature is dynamic with the transformation and exchange of energy within the personality.
People have a conscious mind (attuned to an awareness of the outside world), a preconscious mind (that contains
hidden memories or forgotten experiences that can be remembered), and an unconscious mind (containing the
instinctual, repressed, and powerful forces). According to Freud, the personality consists of three parts:
1. Id (comprised of amoral basic instincts, which operates according to the pleasure principle)
2. Ego (the conscious, decision-making “executive of the mind,” which operates according to the reality
principle)
3. Superego (the conscience of the mind that contains the values of parental figures and that operates
according to the moral principle)
The id and the superego are confined to the unconscious; the ego operates primarily in the conscious but also in
the preconscious and unconscious. Psychoanalysis is also built on what Freud referred to as psychosexual
developmental stages. Each of the stages focuses on a zone of pleasure that is dominant at a particular time:
1. Oral stage, where the mouth is the chief pleasure zone and basic gratification is from sucking and biting;
2. Anal stage, where delight is in either withholding or eliminating feces;
3. Phallic stage, where the chief zone of pleasure is the sex organs, and members of both sexes must work
through their sexual desires;
4. Latency, where energy is focused on peer activities and personal mastery of cognitive learning and
physical skills; and
5. Genital stage, each gender takes more interest in the other and normal heterosexual patterns of interaction
appear.
Excessive frustration or overindulgence in the first three stages are the main difficulties that can arise going
through these stages, in which case the person could become fixated (or arrested) at that level of development
and/or overly dependent on the use of immature defense mechanisms (i.e., ways of coping with anxiety on an
unconscious level by denying or distorting reality).
Key concepts
Several key concepts characterize Freud’s theory of personality. Some of these are the structure of the personality,
endo-psychic conflicts, defense mechanisms, the conscious–unconscious continuum, and psychosexual stages of
development. These concepts, as described by Freud, are incorporated into the following overview.
The structure of the personality, in Freud’s view, the personality is made up of three autonomous, yet
interdependent, systems: the id, ego, and superego. The id is the original system of the personality from which
the ego and superego emerge. It is the reservoir of psychic energy, supplying energy to the other two systems.
The id can be considered the “hedonistic branch” of the personality. It is driven by the pleasure principle, which
attempts to reduce tension by gratification of sexual and aggressive impulses.
The superego is the other extreme of the personality. It can be considered the “judicial branch” and is concerned
with moralistic issues, determining what is right or wrong. It represents the values and ideals of society as handed
down from parent to child. The superego has three purposes: to inhibit the impulses from the id, to alter the ego’s
orientation from realistic to moralistic, and to encourage the personality to strive for perfection.
The ego can be considered the “executive branch” of the personality. It is ruled by the reality principle, which
attempts to exert a realistic, reality-based influence over the id and superego.
Endo-psychic conflicts, an endo-psychic conflict is a conflict within (from endo) the psyche. These conflicts
result from the interaction of the three parts of the personality: the id, ego, and superego. According to Freud,
there is only so much “psychic energy” available to the three parts of the personality. Therefore, all three systems
are in constant competition for this energy in order to take control and dominate the personality. As the three
parts of the personality compete for psychic energy, they create conflicts within the psyche, called endo-psychic
conflicts, which create anxiety. The organism can attempt to alleviate the conflicts by creating defense
mechanisms. Endo-psychic conflicts always involve the ego and the id or superego (or both the id and superego).
Defense mechanisms, Freud’s concept of defense mechanisms was one of his most important theoretical
achievements. Defense mechanisms develop unconsciously when the ego feels threatened by an endo-psychic
conflict. When this occurs, defense mechanisms can be utilized to deny, falsify, or distort reality so the ego can
cope. The role of the counselor can therefore be to help strengthen the client’s ego to minimize stress from endo-
psychic conflicts and the resulting defense mechanisms. This process of strengthening can involve psycho-
educational interventions that provide clients with information they can use to take a more realistic position
regarding stresses in their environment. Some of the more common defense mechanisms are projection, reaction
formation, fixation, regression, and repression.
Projection is an attempt to attribute to another person one’s own thoughts or feelings. For example, instead of
saying you hate someone, you say, “that person hates me.” In this example, projection occurs because the ego is
threatened by aggressive id impulses. Projection can therefore be seen as an attempt to “externalize the danger.”
Reaction formation is a way of coping by creating an extreme emotional response that is the opposite of how one
actually feels. This results in a “falsification of reality.” For example, a man may hate his wife and want a divorce.
At the same time, he may have intense feelings of guilt because he believes divorce is morally wrong. If the man
tells others how wonderful his wife is and how much he loves her, a reaction formation may be operating.
Fixation can occur if the demands of life become too threatening. In an attempt to avoid new responsibilities, a
person can avoid growing up and fixate, or stand still, in terms of development. When this occurs during
adolescence, the individual’s personality remains like that of an adolescent for the remainder of life.
Regression is an attempt to cope by moving back to a point in one’s development that was less threatening. For
example, a person who has a major business failure may feel life is falling apart. In an attempt to cope, the person
may try to escape these feelings of failure by moving back to a point in time that was not so threatening. When
this occurs, the person may assume the role of a child to avoid adult responsibilities.
Repression is an attempt to cope by creating an avoidance response. In repression, the stressful situation is pushed
from the conscious to the unconscious dimension of the mind.
The conscious–unconscious continuum, Freud was one of the first to explore the unconscious dimension of the
human psyche. He believed it held the key to understanding behavior and problems within the personality. It is
therefore not surprising that the majority of the techniques associated with psychoanalysis (such as free
association and dream analysis) are used to explore unconscious processes. Freud conceptualized conscious and
unconscious processes in terms of a continuum. In the analogy of the iceberg, most of the psyche involves
unconscious processes. The conscious dimension contains material that the person is aware of and can readily
retrieve. The preconscious relates to material that the person is almost consciously aware of but that is just out of
mental awareness (e.g., almost being able to remember a person’s name). The unconscious proper includes all
memory traces that the person is not consciously aware of (e.g., a repressed traumatic experience such as
childhood incest).
Psycho-sexual stages of development, Freud contended that personality development was determined to a large
degree by early life experiences. His theory suggests that problems in the personality can result if the child has a
traumatic experience or the child’s basic needs are not met. When this occurs, the person could attempt to achieve
indirect gratification by displacement or sublimation to restore equilibrium. Displacement is indirect gratification,
such as a baby sucking his or her thumb when not allowed to eat. Sublimation is also indirect gratification, but it
results in some form of social recognition. An example of sublimation is a sexually frustrated person creating a
beautiful, sensuous painting. Freud was one of the first theorists to identify stages of development through which
a person progresses. He called them psychosexual stages, emphasizing the role of sexuality in the developmental
process, and divided them into three periods: the pregenital period, which lasts until age 6; the latency period,
which spans from age 6 to adolescence; and the genital period, which continues for the rest of a person’s life.
The pregenital period is composed of the oral, anal, and phallic stages, and the latency period. Freud believed
that the oral stage occurs during the first 18 months of life. It is called the oral stage because the child appears
preoccupied with oral functions (e.g., sucking the mother’s breast and exploring objects by putting them into the
mouth). Problems that occur during the oral stage (such as extreme frustration of oral gratification) could result
in the individual developing an oral personality as an adult. Adult nail-biting could be an example of displacement
of latent oral needs. Becoming a teacher or orator could result from sublimation of oral needs.
The anal stage occurs from 18 months to 3 years of age. This stage emphasizes the impact of toilet-training on
personality development. Problems that can occur during the anal stage may result in an anal-explosive or anal-
retentive personality. The anal-explosive personality is an aggressive type of person, a style that could result from
a child using the toilet all the time as a means of keeping a parent’s attention. The anal-explosive personality
could develop football or boxing skills as a form of sublimation. An anal-retentive personality could result from
a parent using severe punishment when the child has an “accident.” Out of fear, the child could develop a pattern
of not going to the toilet. An example of sublimation for the anal-retentive personality could be a person who is
good at saving money.
The phallic stage occurs between the ages of 3 and 6. According to Freud, it is a time when male children become
sexually interested in their mothers (the Oedipus complex), and female children become attracted to their fathers
(the Electra complex). The boy eventually resolves his Oedipus complex out of fear of castration by his father.
Problems could occur if a father had jealous tendencies and threatened to hurt his son if the boy did not stop
“pestering mother,” a threat that could intensify the boy’s fear of castration. According to Freud, this fear could
then inhibit any future thoughts of the opposite sex, promoting homosexual tendencies. Unlike the male child,
the female does not have a dramatic means of resolving her Electra complex, such as fear of castration. Instead,
she may resolve her sexual feelings by reacting to the realistic barriers that are established to prohibit incestuous
relationships. A problem could result during this stage if a child felt emotionally rejected by her father, possibly
causing her to avoid relationships with males in the future. On the other hand, if an incestuous relationship were
allowed to occur, the child could experience even more profound difficulties in her personality, such as low self-
image and perhaps promiscuity.
The latency period, which occurs between the ages of 6 and 12, is a period of relative calm. The child has emerged
from the turbulence of the pregenital period with the basic structure of the personality largely formed. During
this period, the child develops new interests to replace infantile sexual impulses. Socialization takes place as the
child moves from a narcissistic preoccupation to a more altruistic orientation. Problems could occur during this
period if the parents do not encourage the child’s interest in establishing positive social relationships. As a result,
the child might not be able to develop the social skills necessary for successful interpersonal relationships.
The genital period begins at puberty and continues for the rest of life. The focus of this period is an opposite-sex
relationship leading to the experience of intimacy. Problems during this period could occur for individuals who
were discouraged from socializing or began sexual relationships before being emotionally ready to handle them.
Theory of counseling
Freud’s approach to counseling and psychotherapy is called psychoanalysis, emphasizing the analysis of the
mind. It is a time-consuming approach that can typically involve four 1-hour sessions each week over a period of
several years. The major aim of psychoanalysis is to restructure the personality by resolving intrapsychic
conflicts. The actual process of traditional psychoanalysis involves the client lying on a couch and engaging in
free association, saying whatever comes to mind. The analyst is seated out of the client’s view behind the couch
and listens and reacts in a noncritical manner. Arlow (2005) describes four phases of psychoanalysis: the opening
phase, the development of transference, working through, and the resolution of transference.
The opening phase, during this phase, the analyst obtains important history from the client. Gradually, over a
period of 3 to 6 months, the analyst obtains a broad understanding of the client’s unconscious conflicts.
The development of transference, during this phase, the client begins to experience a transference relationship
with the analyst, which involves projecting thoughts and feelings onto the analyst that are associated with
significant others, such as a father or mother. Transference is encouraged during psychoanalysis, for it plays a
key role in bringing unresolved conflicts (which typically originated in childhood) to the surface so they can be
worked through and resolved within the safety and support of the therapeutic relationship. Analysis of the
transference is a cornerstone of the psychoanalytic process. It provides the client with insight into how past
relationships and experiences are creating problems in present relationships. Analysis of transference also helps
the client learn how to use insight to make appropriate, mature decisions regarding current relationships.
Countertransference may also occur in therapy and results when analysts unconsciously begin to see qualities in
the client that remind them of someone from their past. Countertransference can interfere with the analyst’s
objectivity and destroy the therapeutic process. When this occurs, the analyst may need psychoanalysis to work
through these tendencies.
Working through, this phase is essentially a continuation of the previous phase. It involves additional analysis
of transference aimed at generating more profound insights and consolidating what can be learned from them.
The resolution of transference, during the final phase of therapy, the analyst and client work toward termination.
This can involve working through resistance from the client regarding termination or preparing the client to
function independently once the termination is complete.
Role of counsellor
Professionals who practice classical psychoanalysis function as experts. They encourage their clients to talk about
whatever comes to mind, especially childhood experiences. To create an atmosphere in which the client feels free
to express difficult thoughts, psychoanalysts, after a few face-to-face sessions, often have the client lie down on
a couch while the analyst remains out of view (usually seated behind the client’s head). The analyst’s role is to
let clients gain insight by reliving and working through the unresolved past experiences that come into focus
during sessions. The development of transference is encouraged to help clients deal realistically with unconscious
material. Unlike some other approaches, psychoanalysis encourages the counselor to interpret for the client.
Goals of Counselling
The goals of psychoanalysis vary according to the client, but they focus mainly on personal adjustment, usually
inducing a reorganization of internal forces within the person. In most cases, a primary goal is to help the client
become more aware of the unconscious aspects of his or her personality and to work through current reactions
that may be dysfunctional. A second major goal, often tied to the first, is to help a client work through a
developmental stage not previously resolved. If accomplished, clients become unstuck and are able to live more
productively. Working through unresolved developmental stages may require a major reconstruction of the
personality. A final goal of psychoanalysis is helping clients cope with the demands of the society in which they
live. Unhappy people, according to this theory, are not in tune with themselves or society. Psychoanalysis stresses
environmental adjustment, especially in the areas of work and intimacy. The focus is on strengthening the ego so
that perceptions and plans become more realistic.
Techniques
Freud developed many techniques for use in psychoanalysis (Strachey, 1953–1974). Their primary purpose is to
make the unconscious conscious. The following list describes some of the more commonly used techniques:
 Free association is the primary psychoanalytic technique. It is used throughout the counseling process.
Free association encourages the client to discuss whatever comes to mind, thereby overcoming his or her
tendencies to suppress or censor information. In free association, the client abandons the normal way of
censoring thoughts by consciously repressing them and instead says whatever comes to mind, even if the
thoughts seem silly, irrational, suggestive, or painful. In this way, the id is requested to speak and the ego
remains silent. Unconscious material enters the conscious mind, and there the counselor interprets it.
 Dream analysis is a technique Freud developed as a means of exploring unconscious processes. He
suggested that elements of dreams contained symbolic meaning, such as a screwdriver being a phallic
symbol, representing a penis. Freud believed that dreams were a main avenue to understanding the
unconscious, even calling them “the royal road to the unconscious.” He thought dreams were an attempt
to fulfill a childhood wish or express unacknowledged sexual desires. In dream analysis, clients are
encouraged to dream and remember dreams. The counselor is especially sensitive to two aspects of
dreams: the manifest content (obvious meaning) and the latent content (hidden but true meaning). The
analyst helps interpret both aspects to the client.
  Confrontation and clarification are feedback procedures to help the client become aware of what is
occurring and in need of further analysis.
 Interpretation involves providing insight to the client regarding inner conflicts reflected in resistance,
transference, and other processes. When interpreting, the counselor helps the client understand the
meaning of past and present personal events. Interpretation encompasses explanations and analysis of a
client’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. Counselors must carefully time the use of interpretation. If it
comes too soon in the relationship, it can drive the client away. However, if it is not employed at all or
used infrequently, the client may fail to develop insight.
 Analysis of Transference the transference is the client’s response to a counselor as if the counselor were
some significant figures in the client’s past, usually a parent figure. The analyst encourages this
transference and interprets the positive or negative feelings expressed. The release of feelings is
therapeutic, an emotional catharsis. But the real value of these experiences lies in the client’s increased
self-knowledge, which comes through the counselor’s analysis of the transference. Those who experience
transference and understand what is happening are then freed to move on to another developmental stage.
 Analysis of resistance sometimes clients initially make progress while undergoing psychoanalysis and
then slow down or stop. Their resistance to the therapeutic process may take many forms, such as missing
appointments, being late for appointments, not paying fees, persisting in transference, blocking thoughts
during free association, or refusing to recall dreams or early memories. A counselor’s analysis of
resistance can help clients gain insight into it as well as other behaviors. If resistance is not dealt with, the
therapeutic process will probably come to a halt.
Contemporary issues
Contemporary Freudian psychology reflects several changes and modifications from Freud’s original theory.
These changes evolved primarily in response to what was considered to be his overemphasis on the role of
sexuality in personality development, the excessive time required to complete psychoanalysis, and the nature of
the therapeutic relationship. Strupp (1992) describes several trends in psychoanalysis:
1. The role of the analyst has shifted from the detached, impersonal, classical Freudian position to the more
humanistic interactive model associated with the therapeutic alliance.
2. The role of the Oedipus complex in psychopathology has been deemphasized, with earlier developmental
periods playing a more central role in psychological dysfunction.
3. Treatment considerations have shifted from neurotic conditions such as obsessive–compulsive disorders and
phobias to the treatment of personality disorders.
4. Transference and countertransference have been reconceptualized in terms of interpersonal theory, which
emphasizes the dyadic quality of the counseling relationship. Within this context, the analyst and client
continually contribute to transference and countertransference processes as a natural outcome of their ongoing
relationship. Thus, negative connotations of transference and countertransference have been replaced by a more
robust and positive view of how the counseling relationship can provide opportunities for insights and analysis.
The interpersonal perspective, the interpersonal perspective contends that psychoanalytic theory
overemphasizes intrapsychic forces (such as inner conflicts over sexuality) and does not recognize the importance
of environmental forces (such as the quality of interpersonal relationships). Interpersonal psychotherapy is an
emerging form of psychotherapy based on the work of Harry Stack Sullivan (1968) and his collaborators. It
recognizes the effect of early life experiences (such as the degree of parent–child attachment) on the quality of
interpersonal relationships later in life and the role that interpersonal functioning plays in depression.
Interpersonal theory suggests that people are motivated by interpersonal anxiety to avoid rejection and to maintain
self-esteem. Interpersonal psychotherapy involves identifying and working through parataxic distortions
(“inappropriate ways of reacting to others . . . based on previous experiences, usually in the family of origin”.
Interpersonal psychotherapy is a time-limited approach that focuses on enhancing social skills and improving
interpersonal relationships.
Ego-analytic theory, the ego-analytic position incorporates theories associated with ego psychology and object-
relations theory. Ego psychology is associated with the work of Erikson (1950) and Rapaport (1958) and
represents a shift in focus from the id to the ego as the primary driving force of personality. In this new role, the
ego is viewed as capable of functioning independently from the id in its attempt to adapt to reality and master the
environment.
Object-relations theory, as proposed by Kernberg (1976) and Kohut (1971), emphasizes the self and objects
(people) as the primary organizing force in personality functioning. Object relations are intrapsychic structures
based on the mental representations of the self and others. Baker (1985) identifies the following six characteristics
of the ego-analytic position:
1. Non-instinctual factors are emphasized.
2. The ego is conceptualized as a separate autonomous structure that operates independently of the id.
3. The function of the ego has been expanded to include the role of adaptation to the environment by
developing coping and mastery skills.
4. Psychosocial and interpersonal variables are emphasized over biological–instinctual variables.
5. Developmental stages that occur after puberty are considered as important as those occurring before
puberty.
6. Psychopathology occurs as a result of not meeting the needs associated with developmental tasks and
other forces that could cause defects in the personality structure of the individual.
Freudian Brief approaches to counseling
All forms of psychotherapy (including psychoanalysis) are therefore under increasing pressure to focus on the
treatment of specific mental disorders within the context of a limited number of sessions. Brief psychodynamic
psychotherapy evolved as an alternative to classic psychoanalysis. Among the brief psychodynamic approaches
are Malan’s focal therapy, Mann’s time-limited psychotherapy, Sifneos’s short-term dynamic psychotherapy, and
Davanloo’s short-term dynamic psychotherapy. Garske and Molteni (1985) note that all brief psychodynamic
approaches share several characteristics: They are all based on psychoanalytic theory, suggest similar efficacy,
and modify psychoanalytic procedures for use in a briefer format. The aim of brief psychodynamic psychotherapy
is to go beyond symptom relief and bring out necessary changes in the client’s personality. The number of
sessions required in brief psychodynamic psychotherapy tends to be limited to 12 and depends on the nature of
the client’s problem and the type of therapy utilized.
Mann’s (1973) time-limited model involves between 1 and 12 sessions. Davanloo’s short-term dynamic approach
varies the number of recommended sessions from 2 to 5, 6 to 15, 16 to 25, or 26 to 40 sessions, depending on the
nature of the client’s problem. Garske and Molteni (1985) identify the following six factors as promoting change
in brief psychodynamic psychotherapy:
1. A contract is established with the client, which includes a description of the client’s problems in
psychoanalytic terms.
2. A statement of goals and objectives is established, along with a time limit on the number of sessions.
3. The analyst takes an active, probing approach, clarifying and confronting the client’s resistance.
4. The analyst interprets the links between the client’s current problems, relationship with the analyst and
significant others, and past conflicts.
5. The time-limited aspect of therapy arouses issues relating to separation and individualization within the
client.
6. The termination phase of therapy is characterized by working through problems associated with separation
and individualization.
Goldfried, Greenberg, and Mormar’s (1990) review of the literature on brief psychodynamic psychotherapy noted
that the approach has been effective for treating stress and bereavement disorders; late-life depression; and
adjustment, affective, and personality disorders. In addition, in an evaluation of 34 short-term dynamic
psychotherapy cases, Barth, Nielson, Haver, Havik, Molstad, Rogge, and Statun, (1988) found significant gains
in symptom relief, adaptive functioning, and personality change at termination and over a 2-year follow-up
period.
Summary and Evaluation
Sigmund Freud’s place in history is secure. He is widely regarded as one of the most prominent intellectual
figures of all time. His contributions to psychology and other fields are phenomenal. Freud’s most remarkable
achievements include the concept of defense mechanisms as a means for coping with anxiety, the mapping of the
conscious–unconscious continuum, and his methods for exploring unconscious processes in psychoanalysis. The
weaknesses in Freud’s theory are considered to be his overemphasis of the role of sexuality in personality
development and the excessive length of time required to achieve the aims of psychoanalysis. New advances in
Freudian theory as reflected in the ego-analytic position and in brief psychodynamic psychotherapy are attempts
to overcome these problems.
Strengths; the classical psychoanalysis has several unique emphases:
 The approach emphasizes the importance of sexuality and the unconscious in human behavior.
 The approach lends itself to empirical studies; it is heuristic. Freud’s proposals have generated a
tremendous amount of research.
 The approach provides a theoretical base of support for a number of diagnostic instruments. Some
psychological tests, such as the Thematic Apperception Test or the Rorschach Ink Blots, are rooted in
psychoanalytic theory.
 Psychoanalysis continues to evolve and most recently has emphasized adaptive processes and social
relations.
 The approach appears to be effective for those who suffer from a wide variety of disorders, including
hysteria, narcissism, obsessive-compulsive reactions, character disorders, anxiety, phobias, and sexual
difficulties.
 The approach stresses the importance of developmental growth stages.
Limitations; the following limiting factors are a part of psychoanalysis:
 The classical psychoanalytic approach is time-consuming and expensive. A person who undergoes
psychoanalysis is usually seen three to five times a week over a period of years.
 The approach has been claimed almost exclusively by psychiatry, despite Freud’s wishes. Counselors and
psychologists without medical degrees have had a difficult time getting extensive training in
psychoanalysis.
 The approach is based on many concepts that are not easily communicated or understood; the id, ego, and
superego, for instance. Psychoanalytical terminology seems overly complicated.
 The approach is deterministic. For instance, Freud attributed certain limitations in women to be a result
of gender—that is, of being female.
 The approach does not lend itself to the needs of most individuals who seek professional counseling. The
psychoanalytic model has become associated with people who have major adjustment difficulties or want
or need to explore the unconscious.
ALFRED ADLER
ADLER’S INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Background information
Alfred Adler (1870–1937) was the founder of the Adlerian approach to counseling, also known as Individual
Psychology (to emphasize the holistic and indivisible nature of people). However, Adler differed from Freud
about the importance of biological drives as the primary motivating force of life and stressed the importance of
subjective feelings and social interests. His theory is more hopeful. Individual psychology waned in popularity
after his death.
View of Human nature
Adler held an optimistic view of human nature. He believed people were basically positive and were capable of
self-determination. This view of human nature stimulated the development of the humanistic movement in
psychology, which focuses on the dignity and worth of the individual. Adler also emphasized that behavior is
holistic, or interrelated; teleological, in that it has a purpose and is directed toward a goal; and phenomenological,
because it can best be understood from the client’s frame of reference.
A central idea for Adler in regard to human nature is that people are primarily motivated by social interest, that
is, a feeling of being connected to society as a part of the social whole, an active interest in and empathy with
others, as well as a need and willingness to contribute to the general social good. Those with social interest take
responsibility for themselves and others and are cooperative and positive in regard to their mental health. “Those
who are failures, including neurotics, psychotics, and criminally oriented individuals are failures because they
are lacking in social interest”. Adler’s theory holds that conscious aspects of behavior, rather than the
unconscious, are central to the development of personality. A major Adlerian tenet is that people strive to become
successful (i.e., the best they can be), a process he called striving for perfection or completeness. There is also a
tendency for each person initially to feel inferior to others. If this feeling is not overcome, the person develops an
inferiority complex. Such a complex, if not changed, becomes the basis by which one’s personality is defined. In
contrast, a person who overcompensates for feelings of inferiority develops a superiority complex, which is what
Adler also described as a neurotic fiction that is unproductive. Adler believed that people are as influenced by
future (teleological) goals as by past causes.
His theory also places considerable emphasis on birth order: those who share ordinal birth positions (e.g.,
firstborns) may have more in common with one another than siblings from the same family. Five ordinal positions
are emphasized in Adlerian literature on the family constellation: firstborns, secondborns, middle children,
youngest children, and only children. In addition to birth order, the family environment is important to a person’s
development, particularly in the first 5 years of life. Adlerian theory stresses that each person creates a style of
life (an individual’s methods of relating to others, viewing the world, and governing behavior) by age 5. This is
done by the child primarily through interacting with other family members. A negative family atmosphere might
be authoritarian, rejecting, suppressive, materialistic, overprotective, or pitying, whereas a positive family
atmosphere might be democratic, accepting, open, and social. Nevertheless, perception of the family atmosphere,
rather than any events themselves, is crucial to the development of a style of life. Individuals behave as if the
world were a certain way and are guided by their fictions—that is, their subjective evaluations of themselves and
their environments. Overall, Adlerians believe there are three main life tasks: society, work, and sexuality.
Adlerian theory places strong emphasis on developing social interest and contributing to society. The theory holds
that work is essential for human survival and that we must learn to be interdependent. Furthermore, a person must
define his or her sexuality in regard to self and others, in a spirit of cooperation rather than competition. Adler
also mentions two other challenges of life, although he does not fully develop them: spirituality and coping with
self. According to Adlerian theory, it is crucial to emphasize that, when facing any life task, courage (a willingness
to take risks without knowing what the consequences may be) is required.
Theory of Personality
Adlerian theory focuses on social interests as well as the purposefulness of behavior and the importance of
developing a healthy style of life. Adler’s theory of personality is a comprehensive in-depth analysis of how
people function. It emphasizes the importance of early life experiences within the family of origin, or, as Adler
referred to it, the family constellation. From this perspective, factors such as birth order, sibling rivalry, and social
interest played important roles in the formulation and functioning of the personality.
Key concepts
Adler (1969) and Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956, 1964) have described a number of key concepts that make up
the structure of Adler’s theory of personality. The following 10 principles are central to this theory.
1. The creative self, this concept was Adler’s “crowning achievement as a personality theorist”. It lies at the
heart of the Adlerian theory. The creative self is the centre or nucleus from which all life movement generates.
Freud called this centre the ego. For Adler, the term creative-self emphasized that each person has the potential
to creatively interact with the world.
2. The concept of teleological movement, Adler saw all behavior in terms of movement: nothing was static.
This movement is teleological in nature because it has a purpose and is directed toward a goal. According to
Adler, a person can move on the useful or useless side of life. Movement on the useful side is characterized by
cooperative efforts, whereas movement on the useless side is narcissistic in nature. Adler also believed that life
movement was from a sensed minus to a sensed plus. According to their private logic, individuals will behave in
a manner that appears to improve their position. This concept can be useful in understanding the motivation
behind misbehavior. For example, a child may move toward a goal of power to gain recognition. In this instance,
the private logic may be, “I can be somebody if I fight with others”.
3. Behavior can be understood from an interpersonal perspective, Adler emphasized that behavior can best
be understood from an interpersonal perspective. Adler believed that people do not behave in isolation from
others but in relation to others, reasoning that can be used to identify goals of misbehavior. For example, parents
can develop a tentative hypothesis by asking themselves how they feel when their child misbehaves. Feeling
annoyed could indicate their child has a goal of attention; feeling angry or threatened could suggest a goal of
power; feeling hurt could indicate a goal of revenge; and feeling desperate or hopeless could suggest a goal of a
display of inadequacy.
4. The psychology of use, Adler stressed that all behavior has a use or payoff that is usually unconscious in
nature. Emotions are useful in helping propel a person toward a goal. This concept can also be used to understand
the symptoms associated with psychopathology.
5. A phenomenological psychology, the phenomenological perspective provides an understanding of clients
from their internal frame of reference. Adler suggested that what individuals perceive is biased according to past
experiences. He referred to this phenomenon as an apperception. A phenomenological perspective is therefore
necessary to understand clients’ interpretations of their experiences.
6. Emphasis on social interest, Adler’s term Gemeinschaftsgefühl has been translated into English as “social
interest”. It refers to an inborn tendency to cooperate and work with others for the common good. Social interest
is considered a major motivational force in Adlerian psychology. Adler related this concept to mental health when
he observed that social interest is the barometer of mental health. Glasser (1965) supports this position when he
suggests that all people need love and affection to be fulfilled.
7. The lifestyle, lifestyle became the recurrent theme in Adler’s later writings and the most distinctive feature of
his psychology. “The term lifestyle refers to the person’s basic orientation to life, the set of patterns of recurrent
themes that run through his or her existence”. According to Adler, the lifestyle is relatively fixed by age 4 or 5.
Once established, the individual’s lifestyle guides the assimilation and utilization of future experiences.
8. A holistic psychology, the individual is indivisible and undivided in Adler’s individual psychology. It is
therefore a holistic psychology in that it attempts to understand the overall lifestyle as a unified whole. Adlerians
are interested in assessing how the person organizes the self as a whole person with interrelated and coherent
beliefs, perceptions, and goals, and their position is similar to that of the holistic health concept, which views the
mind and body as an interactive system, not as separate entities.
9. Striving for significance, Adler believed that people have a basic tendency to avoid feelings of inferiority by
striving for superiority. A person could therefore compensate for feelings of inadequacy in one area by excelling
in another aspect of life. In this way, striving for superiority should not be viewed as an attempt to feel superior
over others. Instead, it amounts to a striving for significance and worth as an individual and is a major
motivational force.
10. The family constellation, the family constellation encompasses many factors associated with a person’s
family of origin, such as birth order, family size, and the relationship between family members. Adler believed
that each person’s family constellation was unique and could therefore make a significant impact on the
development of the lifestyle. Adler was particularly interested in birth order and how it affected a person’s
development. For example, first-born children tend to be bossy and talkative because they are used to telling their
brothers and sisters what to do. They also tend to be conservative because they are born into a world of adults
and therefore tend to affiliate with adults and adult values. With the arrival of a second child, first-born children
can feel temporarily dethroned as they have to share their parent’s attention. This can cause them to be suspicious
and tend to protect themselves from sudden reversals of fortune. Middle-born children attempt to compete with
the oldest and so tend to be very ambitious. This can result in the “racecourse syndrome,” which can foster an
achievement orientation in middle-born children. It can also promote sibling rivalry or competition between
siblings, which is another Adlerian principle. In addition, middleborn children can have difficulty feeling a sense
of belonging because they grow up not having the special place of being the oldest or youngest. They also tend
to be observers and mediators interested in what is going on between the siblings and willing to mediate when a
conflict occurs.
The youngest child of the family is the “baby.” Parents tend to be more lenient and give special favors to the
baby. The youngest children usually appreciate these special considerations and learn early in life that other
people will take care of them and protect them from life’s difficulties. Dinkmeyer and Dinkmeyer (1985) note
that birth-order characteristics are only tendencies, which may or may not occur. Whether they manifest
themselves depends on how parents relate to a child and how children interpret their ordinal position. When a
person does not have the typical characteristics of a particular birth order, it can be interesting to determine what
familial factors could account for the differences. For example, a middle-born female with three brothers and no
sisters will usually not lack a sense of belonging because she feels special as the only girl. A middle-born male
may act like a first-born child if the first-born does something extreme, such as committing murder, and is
disowned from the family.
Theory of counseling
Adlerian counseling and psychotherapy stress the role of cognition in psychological functioning. It begins by
using the lifestyle analysis to gain an understanding of the client. Through various techniques and procedures,
such as encouragement and acting as-if, clients are helped to reorient themselves toward more positive ways of
functioning. Adlerians attempt to go beyond overt behavior and understand the motivation behind the behavior.
This approach is therefore more concerned with modifying motivation than with modifying behavior. Mosak and
Maniacci (2008) summarize the major goals of Adlerian psychotherapy as follows:
 Increasing clients’ social interest
 Helping clients overcome feelings of discouragement and reducing inferiority feelings
 Modifying clients’ lifestyle in terms of views and goals
 Addressing faulty motivation
 Helping clients feel a sense of equality with others
 Assisting clients to become contributing members of society
The counseling process is educationally oriented, providing information, guiding, and attempting to encourage
discouraged clients. The approach attempts to reeducate clients to foster self-acceptance, acceptance of others,
and a feeling of connectedness and belonging. The counseling relationship is based on equality. Adlerians avoid
placing the client in a subservient position, as in a doctor-patient relationship. They consider a sense of mutual
respect to be vital to all relationships, including the counseling relationship.
Dinkmeyer & Dinkmeyer (1985) identified four phases of Adlerian psychotherapy: establishing the relationship,
performing analysis and assessment, promoting insight, and reorientation. These authors observe that these
phases are not intended to be separate or distinct processes, but instead tend to overlap and blend in clinical
practice. This can be especially true in the process of establishing a positive relationship. Adlerians believe it is
important to maintain a positive relationship throughout the counseling process.
Role of Counsellor
Adlerian counselors function primarily as diagnosticians, teachers, and models in the equalitarian relationships
they establish with their clients. They try to assess why clients are oriented to a certain way of thinking and
behaving. The counselor makes an assessment by gathering information on the family constellation and a client’s
earliest memories. The counselor then shares impressions, opinions, and feelings with the client and concentrates
on promoting the therapeutic relationship. The client is encouraged to examine and change a faulty lifestyle by
developing social interest. Adlerians are frequently active in sharing hunches or guesses with clients and are often
directive when assigning clients homework, such as to act “as if” the client were the person he or she wants to
be. Adlerian counselors employ a variety of techniques, some of which are borrowed from other approaches.
Goals of Counselling
The goals of Adlerian counseling revolve around helping people develop healthy, holistic lifestyles. This may
mean educating or re-educating clients about what such lifestyles are as well as helping them overcome feelings
of inferiority. One of the major goals of Adlerian counseling is to help clients overcome a faulty style of life—
that is, a life that is self-centered and based on mistaken goals and incorrect assumptions associated with feelings
of inferiority. These feelings might stem from being born with a physical or mental defect, being pampered by
parents, or being neglected. The feelings must be corrected, and inappropriate forms of behavior must be stopped.
To do so, the counselor assumes the role of teacher and interpreter of events. Adlerian counseling deals with the
whole person. The client is ultimately in charge of deciding whether to pursue social or self-interests.
Techniques
Adlerian techniques can be described in terms of the four phases of Adlerian psychotherapy.
Phase one: Establishing the relationship, Adlerians utilize many techniques to establish a positive relationship.
The establishment of a counseling relationship is crucial if the goals of Adlerian counseling are to be achieved.
Certain techniques help enhance this process. Adlerian counselors try to develop a warm, supportive, empathic,
friendly, and equalitarian relationship with clients. Counseling is seen as a collaborative effort. Counselors
actively listen and respond in much the same way that person-centered counselors do. Three of these techniques
are:
1. Use of listening skills, Dinkmeyer and Sperry (2000) note that effective listening skills are necessary to
promote mutual trust and mutual respect; two essential elements of the Adlerian counseling relationship.
2. Winning respect and offering hope, Nystul (1985b) suggests that a counselor can increase the client’s
motivation for becoming involved in counseling by winning the client’s respect and offering hope.
3. Encouragement, it implies faith in a person. Encouragement communicates a sense of support and can also
help clients learn to believe in themselves. Counselors encourage their clients to feel good about themselves and
others. They state their belief that behavior change is possible for clients. Encouragement is the key to making
productive lifestyle choices in learning and living. Dinkmeyer and Losoncy (1980) and Watts and Pietrzak (2000)
identify important skills that are involved in the encouragement process. Some of these skills are focusing on
progress, assets, and strengths; helping clients see the humor in life experiences; communicating respect and
confidence; being enthusiastic; helping the client become aware of choices; combating self-defeating,
discouraging processes; and promoting self-encouragement.
Phase two: Performing analysis and assessment, Adlerians typically do an in-depth analysis and assessment
as early as the first session. This usually involves conducting a lifestyle analysis to explore how early life
experiences can contribute to the adult personality. Dream analysis can be a part of the lifestyle analysis.
Adlerians do not attempt to analyze dreams in terms of their symbolic content, as do Freudians. Instead, they see
dreams as an attempt to deal with the difficulties and challenges of life. In this sense, dreams become a problem-
solving activity, allowing the person a chance to rehearse for some future action. The lifestyle analysis can also
be used to identify the client’s strengths or assets that can be used to overcome the client’s problems. It can also
be used to identify faulty or irrational views that may interfere with the client’s growth. These are referred to as
basic mistakes, described by the following statements with examples:
 Overgeneralizations “People can’t be trusted.”
 False goals of security: “Make a mistake and you have had it.”
 Misrepresentations of life’s demands: “I never get any breaks.”
 Minimization of one’s worth: “I’m dumb.”
 Faulty value system: “It doesn’t matter how you play the game as long as you win.”
After a relationship has been established, the counselor concentrates on an analysis of the client’s lifestyle,
including examination of the family constellation, early memories, dreams, and priorities. The family
constellation and the atmosphere in which children grow greatly influence both self-perception and the
perceptions of others. No two children are born into the same environment, but a child’s ordinal position and
assessment of the family atmosphere have a major impact on development and behavior. Often, a client is able
to gain insight by recalling early memories, especially events before the age of 10. Adler (1931) contended that
a person remembers childhood events that are consistent with his or her present view of self, others, and the world
in general. Adlerian counselors look both for themes and specific details within these early recollections. Recent
and past dreams are also a part of lifestyle analysis. Adlerian theory holds that dreams are a possible rehearsal for
future courses of action. Recurrent dreams are especially important. A look at the client’s priorities is helpful in
understanding his or her style of life. A client may persist in one predominant lifestyle, such as always trying to
please, unless challenged to change.
Phase three: Promoting insight, Adlerians believe that insight is an important prerequisite to long-term change.
Insight allows clients to understand the dynamics of self-defeating patterns so they can be corrected during the
reorientation process. The main tool for providing insight is interpretation, which focuses on creating awareness
of basic mistakes that are impeding the client’s growth.
Counselors can use confrontation techniques during the insight process if they encounter resistance from clients.
Shulman (1973) notes that confrontation can challenge a client to make an immediate response or change or to
examine some issue. It can also foster immediacy in the relationship by enabling a client to know how the
counselor is experiencing the client at the moment.
Counselors next try to help clients develop insight, especially by asking open-ended questions and making
interpretations. Open-ended questions allow clients to explore patterns in their lives that have gone unnoticed.
Interpretation often takes the form of intuitive guesses. The ability to empathize is especially important in this
process, for the counselor must be able to feel what it is like to be the client before zeroing in on the reasons for
the client’s present behaviors. At other times, interpretations are based on the counselor’s general knowledge of
ordinal position and family constellation. To foster behavioral change, the Adlerian counselor uses specific
techniques:
1. Confrontation the counselor challenges clients to consider their own private logic. When clients examine
this logic, they often realize they can change it and their behavior.
2. Asking “the question” the counselor asks, “What would be different if you were well?” Clients are often
asked the question during the initial interview, but it is appropriate at any time.
Phase four: Reorientation, the final phase of Adlerian psychotherapy involves putting insight into action.
Clients are encouraged to make necessary changes in their life as they develop more functional beliefs and
behaviors. Counselors can use the following techniques during the reorientation phase:
1. Spitting in the client’s soup, this technique can be used when clients engage in manipulative games, such as
acting like a martyr. Spitting in their soup involves determining the payoff of the game and interpreting it to the
client. A counselor points out certain behaviors to clients and thus ruins the payoff for the behavior. For instance,
a client may say, “my husband is such a drunk. I don’t know why I put up with him.” The counselor could respond
by saying, “you must get a lot of sympathy from others because you have to put up with so much.” As this client
realizes that someone is aware of the pay-offs she is receiving from her martyr syndrome, the game may seem
less enjoyable.
2. The push-button technique, this technique is based on Ellis’s (1962) rational–emotive therapy. It involves
having clients concentrate on pleasant and unpleasant experiences and the feelings they generate. When clients
discover that their thoughts influence their emotions, they recognize that they can take control of their emotional
responses. Clients are encouraged to realize they have choices about what stimuli in their lives they pay attention
to. They are taught to create the feelings they want by concentrating on their thoughts. The push-button concept
symbolizes the amount of control clients can exert when they “push the button” and put a stop to self-defeating
processes. They can then create a constructive way of reacting to their situation, producing a more positive
emotional response.
3. Catching oneself, clients can use this technique to avoid old self-defeating patterns. Initially, clients may catch
themselves in the process of self-defeating behaviors, such as playing a manipulative game. Eventually, they can
catch themselves just before they start playing the game. Clients can be encouraged to use humor when they catch
themselves, learning to laugh at how ridiculous their self-defeating tendencies are.
4. Acting as-if, clients are instructed to act “as if” they are the persons they want to be, for instance, the ideal
persons they see in their dreams. This technique involves clients acting as if they could do whatever they would
like to do, such as being more confident or being a better listener. The technique promotes a positive “can-do”
spirit and a self-fulfilling prophecy, which can help clients experience success.
5. Task setting and commitment, clients initially set short-range, attainable goals and eventually work up to
long-term, realistic objectives. Once clients make behavioral changes and realize some control over their lives,
counseling ends. Adlerians do not believe that change occurs by osmosis. They believe instead that it takes work
and effort to change. Task setting and commitment are therefore essential aspects of Adlerian psychotherapy.
Homework assignments can be useful in this regard by providing a structure through which clients can try out
new modes of behaving.
Adlerian Brief approaches to counseling
According to the Adlerian scholar Ansbacher (1989), Adlerian counseling and psychotherapy was the first form
of brief counseling. Adler believed that time limits in counseling could be beneficial and typically restricted his
sessions to a 10-week period with two sessions per week. A number of Adlerian constructs are particularly
relevant to brief-counseling theory and practice. For example, the use of encouragement and focusing on clients’
assets is consistent with the strength perspective advocated in contemporary brief-counseling models.
Contemporary Adlerians are making innovative advances in developing brief-counseling approaches. Sperry
(1987) was one of the first Adlerians to set forth specific procedures for conducting brief counseling. He
developed a simple cognitive map that clinicians can use to organize all forms of brief consultations, including
“sidewalk consults” and emergency phone calls. Maniacci (1996) developed a brief-counseling model for treating
personality disorders. He notes that Adlerian procedures such as the lifestyle assessment are particularly useful
to understanding core personality issues. Adlerian brief therapy represents an integration of Adlerian theory and
solution-focused therapy. Factors that help keep the approach brief include time limits, therapeutic focus,
counsellor directiveness and optimism, symptoms as solutions, and assignments of behavioral tasks.
Post-modern trends and Adlerian Psychology
The postmodern trends of constructivism and social constructionism appear to have much in common with
Adlerian psychology. Adlerian psychology has been recognized as laying the theoretical foundations for
constructivism. Constructivism and Adler’s theory have several psychological constructs in common. For
example, both theories emphasize the role of cognition in psychological functioning, noting the active role people
play in creating their own reality. As Adler contended, the creative self allows each person an opportunity to
make a unique response based on one’s past experiences and the capacity for self-determination. Adlerian
psychology also appears to have much in common with social constructionism. Social constructionism stresses
the role of social forces, such as the narratives reflected in cultures, in creating personal meanings or “storied
lives.” Adler’s construct of social interests also reflects an ecological perspective in the sense that mental health
and meaning in life are to a large degree achieved through interest, concern, and involvement with others.
Summary and Evaluation
His psychological insights stressed the importance of phenomenology, holism, and social interest, concepts that
are incorporated into most contemporary counseling theories. Adlerian psychology is perhaps best known for
concepts that can be used to understand individual differences in lifestyle, family dynamics, birth order, and
sibling rivalry. Another strength of Adlerian psychology is its influence on programs like systematic training for
effective parenting (STEP) and other guidance programs.
A criticism of the contemporary Adlerian approach is that Adlerian counselors may be trying too hard to adhere
to Adler’s original concepts in terms of theory, research, and practice. Another criticism of Adlerian
psychotherapy is its narrow focus on and use of the concept of basic mistakes. Adlerian psychology focuses on
cognitions rather than behaviors, emotions, and cognitions (Jones, 1995). It would seem that a more
comprehensive treatment program would focus on all three of these domains of psychological functioning. The
manner in which cognitions are conceptualized in Adlerian psychotherapy can also be problematic. From an
Adlerian perspective, cognitions are primarily thought of in terms of basic mistakes. Jones notes that basic
mistakes are key to understanding lifestyle and emotional disorders.
Strength; the Adlerian approach to counseling has a number of unique contributions and emphases:
 The approach fosters an equalitarian atmosphere through the positive techniques that counselors promote.
Rapport and commitment are enhanced by its processes, and the chances for change are increased.
Counselor encouragement and support are valued commodities.
 Adlerian counselors approach their clients with an educational orientation and take an optimistic outlook
on life.
 The approach is versatile over the life span. “Adlerian theorists have developed counselling models for
working with children, adolescents, parents, entire families, teacher groups, and other segments of
society”. Play therapy for children ages 4 to 9 seems to be especially effective.
 The approach is useful in the treatment of a variety of disorders, including conduct disorders, antisocial
disorders, anxiety disorders of childhood and adolescence, some affective disorders, and personality
disorders.
 The approach has contributed to other helping theories and to the public’s knowledge and understanding
of human interactions. Many of Adler’s ideas have been integrated into other counseling approaches.
 The approach can be employed selectively in different cultural contexts. For instance, the concept of
“encouragement” is appropriately emphasized in working with groups that have traditionally emphasized
collaboration such as Hispanics and Asian Americans, whereas the concept “sibling rivalry” may be
highlighted with traditional European North Americans who stress competition.
Limitations; Adlerian theory is limited in the following ways:
 The approach lacks a firm, supportive research base. Relatively few empirical studies clearly outline
Adlerian counseling’s effectiveness.
 The approach is vague in regard to some of its terms and concepts.
 The approach may be too optimistic about human nature, especially social cooperation and interest. Some
critics consider this view neglectful of other life dimensions, such as the power and place of the
unconscious.
 The approach’s basic principles, such as a democratic family structure, may not fit well in working with
clients whose cultural context stresses the idea of a lineal social relationship, such as with traditional Arab
Americans.
 The approach, which relies heavily on verbal erudition, logic, and insight, may be limited in its
applicability to clients who are not intellectually bright.
CARL JUNG
JUNG’S ANALYTIC PSYCHOLOGY
Background information
Jung’s analytic theory was unique in its varied theoretical foundations. He was able to integrate his early interests
in religion, mythology, archaeology, literature, history, and philosophy into the study of psychology, resulting in
what may be the most comprehensive understanding of the human condition.
View of Human nature
Jung’s theory of personality is very robust, incorporating elements from disciplines including Eastern philosophy,
theology and religion, medicine, and psychology. Jung (1928) had a positive view of the human condition,
believing that people had inherent tendencies toward individualization, i.e., becoming unique individuals capable
of wholeness and self-realization. This process of individualization is characterized by a union or integration of
conscious and unconscious processes.
Key concepts
Jung identified the following concepts associated with his theory of personality.
1. The ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious, according to Kaufmann (1989), Jung
believed that the psyche is made up of autonomous yet interdependent subsystems of the ego, the personal
unconscious, and the collective unconscious. The ego represents the conscious mind and the personal unconscious
and collective unconscious make up the unconscious domain of the psyche.
The ego is the centre of consciousness and is made up of conscious perceptions, memories, thoughts, and feelings.
It provides consistency and direction in people’s lives. The personal unconscious is similar to Freud’s
preconscious, containing thoughts based on personal experience just beyond the reach of conscious recall. It
contains forgotten or repressed material that had once been conscious and could become conscious in the future.
The information in the personal unconscious clusters around several complexes, which revolve around themes,
such as prestige or control, that can interfere with effective living. For example, a client could have a “mother
complex” whereby he behaves as if he were under his mother’s domination or control.
The collective unconscious is sometimes referred to as the transpersonal or nonpersonal unconscious since it is
not associated with personal experiences. It is considered the most provocative yet controversial aspect of Jung’s
theory. The collective unconscious is made up of memory traces inherited from one’s ancestral past. Jung called
it collective because he believed that all people shared common images and thoughts regarding such things as
mother, earth, birth, and death. Jung referred to these universal thoughts as archetypes. He believed that the
collective unconscious creates the foundation for the personality. Starting from birth, the collective unconscious
guides an individual’s life experiences, thereby influencing perceptions, emotions, and behavior. It is therefore
the most powerful and influential aspect of the personality.
2. Archetypes, Jung discovered that several archetypes evolved so completely that they could be considered
separate systems within the personality. These are the persona, the anima and animus, the shadow, and the self.
The persona is the public self-one projects as opposed to the private, personal view of oneself. The persona is
reflected in various roles, such as work, marriage and family, and social situations. According to Jung, awareness
of the persona has an inverse relation to awareness of one’s personal self or individuality. For example, the more
aware one is of the persona, the less aware one will be of individuality and the private, personal self.
The anima and animus refer to the suggestion that people have both masculine and feminine dimensions to their
personality. The anima is the feminine archetype in men, and the animus is the masculine archetype in women.
Jung believed these archetypes resulted from years of men and women living together. This archetype appears in
dreams and fantasies as figures of the opposite sex and functions as the primary mediator between unconscious
and conscious processes.
The shadow represents the negative or evil side of the personality that people do not want to recognize. The
shadow is associated with thoughts that originate from animal instincts inherited through the evolutionary
process.
The self is the centre of the personality, including the conscious and unconscious parts of the mind. The self
provides the personality with a sense of unity, equilibrium, and stability. The self cannot emerge until the other
systems of the personality have fully developed, which is usually not until middle age, when the centre of the
individual shifts from the conscious ego to the midpoint between conscious and unconscious. This midpoint
region becomes the domain of the self. It is not surprising that Jung discovered the existence of the self when he
was studying Eastern meditation practices, which emphasize the interaction between conscious and unconscious
processes.
3. Personality types, Jung noted that personality types could be differentiated in terms of attitudes and functions.
He identified two types of attitudes: extroverted (or outgoing) and introverted (or introspective). According to
Jung, people have both attitudes in their personality makeup. The dominant attitude is represented in the conscious
mind and the subordinate attitude exists in the unconscious psyche. Jung also described four functions that
provide additional means of differentiating personality types. These include thinking, feeling, sensation, and
intuition. Jung contended that although people rely on all these functions to react to events, the function that is
the best developed will be relied on most and becomes the superior function.
Theory and process of counseling
Jung’s approach to counseling and psychotherapy is called analytic psychotherapy. It emphasizes the role of
unconscious processes in psychological functioning. Through dream analysis and other procedures, the client
becomes aware of unconscious processes and learns to use that understanding to maximize mental health and
wellness.
The overall aim of analytic psychotherapy is to help the self-emerge so that the client can be free to move toward
self-realization. For this to occur, the analyst must help the client develop the other major systems of the
personality. Much of psychotherapy therefore involves exploring unconscious processes in order for clients to
gain insight into the structure of their personality. In time, clients can learn how to make the various systems
develop to their fullest and function in a complementary fashion. For example, a client describing himself as a
real “macho-type” person seeks help for marital problems. The analytic psychotherapist may encourage the client
to recognize the feminine (anima) dimension to his personality. According to analytic theory, this will help the
client become a more fully functioning person and develop a better understanding of life. Jung had a unique
conception of psychopathology. He believed the symptoms associated with psychopathology could be instructive
for both the client and analyst, could serve as warning signals that something was wrong, and could also provide
clues into the functioning of the personality. Jung was therefore reluctant to use medication to treat mental
disorders because he was afraid it might mask important messages that symptoms could communicate.
The nature of the therapeutic relationship in analytic psychotherapy is also unique. Analysts are required to
undertake their own analysis, which helps them gain a respect for what is involved in being a client. They do not
see the counseling relationship as a healthy analyst treating a sick patient. Instead, Jungian analysts view therapy
as one person who has journeyed into the unconscious helping another person develop a meaningful dialogue
with unconscious processes. The Jungian analyst also believes it is critical for the client to feel a sense of
acceptance during therapy.
Fadiman and Frager (1976) describe two major stages utilized in Jungian psychotherapy. In the analytic stage,
clients attempt to identify unconscious material. This is followed by the synthetic stage, which initially involves
helping clients use insight to formulate new experiences. The final phase of the synthetic stage is called
transformation, in which clients engage in self-education and thus, become more autonomous and responsible
for their own development.
Technique
Jung advocated a flexible approach to psychotherapy, believing that the method of treatment should be
determined by the unique features of each client. His approach shares the characteristics associated with the art-
of-counseling model, in that he recommended the analyst be creative and flexible in working with the client.
Jungian psychotherapy is a practical approach based on the guiding principle that anything goes, as long as it
seems to work. When one client complained of difficulty falling asleep, for example, Jung simply sang the client
a lullaby.
Jung was skeptical of using techniques in therapy because he thought they could be unnecessarily restrictive. At
the same time, he believed dream analysis could be a useful vehicle for helping clients explore unconscious
processes. Unlike Freud, Jung found little value in analyzing a single dream. He believed it was essential to
investigate the interrelationship of several dreams recorded over a period of time. In this process, Jung would
help the client understand the symbolic meaning of dreams and how they provide clues to the various systems of
the personality.
Contemporary issues
Jungian psychology continues to be a major force in psychotherapy. Douglas suggests that the Jung’s analytic
psychotherapy provides a meaningful theoretical perspective for understanding an increasingly complex world
and also notes that psychological constructs from Jung’s theory are constantly evolving (e.g., reassessment of
anima and animus in terms of changing views of masculine and feminine). An emerging trend is the
conceptualization of Jungian psychology from a paradoxical perspective. Jung’s theory is founded on the concept
of paradox, and paradox implies “ambiguity, a puzzle or dilemma, a tension between opposite poles of an issue,
even incongruity between elements of a larger whole”. Harris suggests that there are no simple answers in Jungian
psychology. Instead, balance and wholeness can evolve from working with opposing paradoxical forces. In this
regard, analytic psychotherapy involves helping clients seek out painful opposing forces in their lives to generate
creative new solutions to old problems.
Additional trends in Jungian psychology are directed at diversification and integration. There are three schools
of Jungian psychology: classical, developmental, and archetypal. The classical school emphasizes the role of the
self as the major personality construct, the developmental school focuses on the use of transference and
interpretation to work through problems associated with childhood experiences, and the archetypal school relates
primarily to issues pertaining to archetypes. Samuels (1989) suggests that the emerging schools of Jungian
psychology need not be viewed as a form of conflict. He believes differences should be encouraged to foster
creative developments in Jungian psychology. Jungian psychology is also expanding its horizons in an attempt
to incorporate other theories and approaches. Jungian concepts have been incorporated into the development of
a number of psychological tests, such as the Myers-Briggs, the Thematic Apperception Test, and the Rorschach.
For example, the Myers-Briggs utilizes Jung’s concept of attitudes and functions in terms of introvert, extrovert,
thinking, and feeling. The Myers-Briggs has become popular with individuals who want to gain self-
understanding and for use in organizational and industrial psychology.
Jungian Brief approaches to counseling
Analytic psychotherapy has traditionally been a long-term form of treatment directed at maximizing the
functioning of the personality. Harris (1996) suggests that owing to the restrictions on the length and nature of
counseling imposed by managed care, Jungian clinicians must develop flexible practices and approaches. She
contends that Jungian principles and strategies have been successfully adapted to time-limited counseling,
focused on resolving specific problems with clients of various ages and socioeconomic status. Harris also believes
that Jungian long-term counseling and psychotherapy can be valuable, especially in cases requiring personality
restructuring. In these instances, the analyst may work with a client to provide the necessary services outside of
the restrictions imposed by managed care.
Summary and Evaluation
Jung has had a major influence on many aspects of contemporary thought, such as religion, art, music, literature,
and drama (Douglas, 2008). For example, Jung’s theories and interest in Eastern philosophy and spirituality
appear to have played a key role in the current interest in holistic health and its use of yoga and meditation. Jung
believed that wholeness and psychological balance occur when the conscious and unconscious mind learn to work
in harmony. He also believed that people have the inherent capacity for psychological growth and self-healing.
Jung’s theories have also played a role in the evolution of psychological theories. Jung’s deep caring for his
clients and sense of hope and optimism have also laid the foundation for the humanistic theories of Maslow,
Rogers, and others. Jungian concepts have also influenced counseling procedures, especially the use of the
creative arts such as art therapy, dance therapy, and sand-tray therapy. Jung used the creative arts in his own
therapeutic procedures. He would, for example, encourage clients to express themselves through art or expressive
movement and would also engage in these processes himself to better understand the client. During his own self-
analysis, Jung constructed a stone village as a means of working through some of his issues, a concept later
modified into what is currently known as sand-tray therapy.
Jungian psychology has attracted several criticisms. The existence of a collective unconscious has been
challenged more than any other of his constructs.
 EXPERIENTIAL THEORIES AND APPROACHES
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF EXPERIENTIAL COUNSELING
The art and science of counseling and psychotherapy are reflected in experiential theories and approaches. The
art of counseling plays a key role in experiential counseling. Experiential counselors, like artists, attempt to bring
out the hidden beauty in their clients. They often use creative arts modalities (such as music, art, dance, drama,
and bibliotherapy) to help clients discover strengths they can use to enhance their psychological functioning.
The counseling relationship is based on humanistic psychology, which recognizes the benefits of allowing one’s
humanness to stimulate and enhance interpersonal relationships. Open, candid interactions are common and
encourage immediacy and authenticity in the counseling process. The art of experiential counseling also allows
for intense therapeutic encounters. In these instances, the counselor may use self-transcendence to move beyond
empathy and understanding to directly experience the client’s joy or suffering. The science of experiential
counseling provides objectivity as a necessary balance to the art of counseling. Experiential counseling can be
emotionally exhausting and taxing for both counselors and clients. The science of experiential counseling
monitors the degree of psychological intensity and, enables the counselor and client to chart a realistic and
productive course for therapy. The science of experiential counseling is directly related to research methodology.
Experiential theorists like Carl Rogers (and his person-centered approach) have played a key role in counseling
research. Rogers was keenly aware of the interrelationship between theory, research, and practice. He developed
his person-centered theory based on empirical research and extensive clinical practice and pioneered the research
procedure of listening to counseling tapes to gain an understanding of the change process in counseling. Much of
the recent interest in the change process can be traced to Rogers’s early work.
Other trends in experiential counseling research focus on analyzing the impact of specific experiential counseling
strategies (such as the Gestalt empty-chair technique) on the change process. This line of research is qualitative
in nature, whereby the counselor and client attempt to discover (as co-investigators) the subtle nuances of the
change process, and much of the research in experiential counseling is directed at this type of methodology.
Experiential theories like existentialism appear to foster this perspective, because they encourage an exploration
of philosophical concepts such as the meaning of life. Experiential theories involve making the necessary
modifications to these theories by utilizing multicultural research findings and maintaining a sensitivity to the
evolving needs of clients.
EXPERIENTIAL THEORIES
The experiential theories focus on what the client is experiencing during the counseling process. In person-
centered counseling, the client is encouraged to experience the self in an open and flexible manner. The focus of
Gestalt counseling is to help clients become aware of what they are thinking and feeling in the here and now.
Existential therapy suggests that a client can obtain personal meaning by experiencing both the joys and sorrows
of life. The theories maintain a humanistic orientation regarding the nature of people. They tend to view people
as inherently positive with self-actualizing tendencies. The experiential theories can therefore be particularly
attractive to counselors who share this optimistic point of view.
PERSON-CENTERED COUNSELLING
Background information
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) is the person most identified with person-centered counseling. Indeed, it was Rogers
who first formulated the theory in the form of nondirective psychotherapy in his 1942 book, Counseling and
Psychotherapy. The theory later evolved into client-centered and person-centered counseling with multiple
applications to groups, families, and communities as well as individuals.
Theory of Personality
The theory of personality in person-centered counseling has a humanistic orientation focusing on phenomenology
and the role of the self in psychological functioning.
The term humanistic, as a descriptor of counseling, focuses on the potential of individuals to actively choose and
purposefully decide about matters related to themselves and their environments. Professionals who embrace
humanistic counseling approaches help people increase self-understanding through experiencing their feelings.
The term is broad and encompasses counseling theories that are focused on people as decision makers and
initiators of their own growth and development. Three of these theories are covered here: person-centered,
existential, and Gestalt.
View of Human nature
Rogers (1951) held a positive view of human nature, noting the inherent self-actualizing tendencies of people.
He believed that if the right conditions existed, people would naturally proceed toward self-actualization. His
theory emphasizes the phenomenological perspective, suggesting that an individual’s internal frame of reference
is the best vantage point for understanding the person.
Implicit in person-centered counseling is a particular view of human nature: People are essentially good. Humans
are characteristically “positive, forward-moving, constructive, realistic, and trustworthy”. Each person is aware,
inner directed, and moving toward self-actualization from infancy on. According to Rogers, self-actualization is
the most prevalent and motivating drive of existence and encompasses actions that influence the total person.
Person-centered theorists believe that each person is capable of finding a personal meaning and purpose in life.
Dysfunctionality is really a failure to learn and change. Rogers views the individual from a phenomenological
perspective: What is important is the person’s perception of reality rather than an event itself. This way of seeing
the person is similar to Adler’s. The concept of self is another idea that Rogers and Adler share. But for Rogers
the concept is so central to his theory that his ideas are often referred to as self-theory. The self is an outgrowth
of what a person experiences, and an awareness of self helps a person differentiate himself or herself from others.
For a healthy self to emerge, a person needs positive regard—love, warmth, care, respect, and acceptance. But
in childhood, as well as later in life, a person often receives conditional regard from parents and others. Feelings
of worth develop if the person behaves in certain ways because conditional acceptance teaches the person to feel
valued only when conforming to others’ wishes. Thus, a person may have to deny or distort a perception when
someone on whom the person depends for approval sees a situation differently. An individual who is caught in
such a dilemma becomes aware of incongruities between self-perception and experience. If a person does not do
as others wish, he or she will not be accepted and valued. Yet if a person conforms, he or she opens up a gap
between the ideal self (what the person is striving to become) and the real self (what the person is). The further
the ideal self is from the real self, the more alienated and maladjusted a person becomes.
Key concepts
Raskin and Rogers (2005) note that trust is the most fundamental concept in person-centered therapy. This theory
contends that clients can be trusted to establish their own goals and monitor their progress toward these goals,
and all individuals have inherent self-actualizing tendencies. Many other key concepts can be derived from
Rogers’s (1951) theory of personality, which is described in 19 propositions. The key concepts emphasize the
role of a person’s internal frame of reference and the self in understanding the dynamics of behavior. The
following four propositions characterize Rogers’s personality theory:
 1. People react to the phenomenal field as they experience and perceive it. A person’s phenomenal field is
his or her internal frame of reference for perceiving the world. This proposition suggests that what a
person perceives will be influenced by past experiences.
2. The best point from which to understand behavior is the person’s internal frame of reference. This
proposition is logically related to the first proposition. Since each person’s perception is unique, it can
only be understood from the person’s internal frame of reference. Rogers therefore advocated developing
a phenomenological perspective, which involves understanding things from the client’s perspective.
3. People tend to behave in a manner consistent with their concept of self. The self is the center of the
organism and consists of how a person sees the self in relation to others.
4. The more people perceive and accept experiences, the more they will tend to be accepting and
understanding of others. Self-acceptance and understanding are viewed as contributing factors in
understanding and accepting others as unique individuals.
Theory and process of counseling
Rogers’s person-centred theory can be described as an “if-then” approach. If certain conditions exist in the
counseling relationship, then the client will move toward self-actualization. Rogers (1957) identified the
following three core conditions as necessary and sufficient for personal growth to occur:
1. Counselor congruence; counselor congruence means counselors are congruent in terms of what they are
experiencing and what they communicate. For example, when counsellors feel threatened by a client, it
would be inappropriate for them to say they enjoy being with the client. This would communicate a
confusing double message and the counselor would not be genuine or authentic.
2. Empathic understanding; the counselor attempts to understand the client from the client’s internal frame
of reference. This phenomenological perspective involves understanding what the client is thinking,
feeling, and experiencing and communicating this understanding to the client.
3. Unconditional positive regard; Rogers believed that it is essential for the counselor to communicate a
sense of acceptance and respect to the client. There has been some misunderstanding of what Rogers
meant by unconditional positive regard. He did not mean the counsellor should tolerate and accept
anything the client did. He instead believed the counsellor should try to “separate the deed from the doer”.
The counselor should accept the client as a person worthy of respect even though the client’s behavior
may be inappropriate.
In addition to these therapist-offered core conditions, Rogers (1957) identified three other conditions that must
occur for successful counseling to occur. The first two are considered preconditions for therapy: The therapist
and client are in psychological contact, or aware of each other’s presence, and the client is experiencing some
discomfort in life to be motivated for therapy. The third condition is that the client must be able to accurately
perceive and experience the core conditions set forth by the therapist.
A number of goals and therapeutic outcomes emerge from person-centred therapy. This style of counseling is
unique in that it does not attempt to resolve the client’s presenting problem. It instead assists the client in the
growth process to become a fully functioning individual. Rogers (1961) identified the following changes that
tend to occur as the client moves toward self-actualization:
 Open to experience; clients are capable of seeing reality without distorting it to fit a preconceived self-
structure. Instead of operating from a rigid belief system, clients are interested in exploring new horizons.
 Self-trust; initially, clients tend to have self-doubts. They may believe that no matter what they decide, it
will be wrong. As therapy progresses, clients can learn to trust their own judgment and become more self-
confident.
 Internal source of evaluation; person-centred therapy fosters the development of an internal locus of
control. This occurs as clients are encouraged to explore their inner choices and are discouraged from
looking to others for a sense of direction or locus of evaluation.
 Willingness to continue growing; as a result of person-centred therapy, clients will realize that self-
actualization is a process and not an end goal. In this sense, no one ever becomes self-actualized. Instead,
a fully functioning person is always in the state of becoming.
Role of counsellor
The counselor’s role is a holistic one. He or she sets up and promotes a climate in which the client is free and
encouraged to explore all aspects of self. This atmosphere focuses on the counselor–client relationship, which
Rogers describes as one with a special “I-Thou” personal quality. The counselor is aware of the client’s verbal
and nonverbal language, and the counselor reflects back what he or she is hearing or observing. Neither the client
nor the counselor knows what direction the sessions will take or what goals will emerge in the process. The client
is a person in process who is “entitled to direct his or her own therapy”. Thus, the counselor trusts the client to
develop an agenda on which he or she wishes to work. The counselor’s job is to work as a facilitator rather than
a director. In the person-centered approach, the counselor is the process expert and expert learner (of the client).
Goals of Counselling
The goals of person-centered counseling center around the client as a person, not his or her problem. Rogers
(1977) emphasizes that people need to be assisted in learning how to cope with situations. One of the main ways
to accomplish this is by helping a client become a fully functioning person who has no need to apply defense
mechanisms to everyday experiences. Such an individual becomes increasingly willing to change and grow. He
or she is more open to experience, more trusting of self-perception, and engaged in self-exploration and
evaluation. Furthermore, a fully functioning person develops a greater acceptance of self and others and becomes
a better decision maker in the here and now. Ultimately, a client is helped to identify, use, and integrate his or her
own resources and potential.
Technique
Rogers (1951, 1961) minimized the importance or use of techniques. Instead of relying on techniques, he
emphasized the importance of the counseling relationship. He believed that the counseling relationship could
create core conditions that are the necessary and sufficient conditions for the client’s self-actualization. The
person-centred therapist uses listening skills to communicate empathic understanding and help the client explore
inner choices. Moon (2007) suggests that Rogers’s approach can be best understood in terms of an attitude
towards clients.
For person-centered therapists, the quality of the counseling relationship is much more important than techniques.
Rogers (1957) believed there are three necessary and sufficient (i.e., core) conditions of counseling:
1. Empathy,
2. Unconditional positive regard (acceptance, prizing), and
3. Congruence (genuineness, openness, authenticity, transparency).
Empathy may be subjective, interpersonal, or objective. “Subjective empathy enables a counselor to
momentarily experience what it is like to be a client, interpersonal empathy relates to understanding a client’s
phenomenological experiencing, and objective empathy uses reputable knowledge sources outside of a client’s
frame of reference”. In therapeutic situations, empathy is primarily the counselor’s ability to feel with clients and
convey this understanding back to them. This may be done in multiple ways but, essentially, empathy is an
attempt to think with, rather than for or about, the client and to grasp the client’s communications, intentions,
and meanings.
Unconditional positive regard, also known as acceptance, is a deep and genuine caring for the client as a person,
that is, prizing the person just for being.
Congruence is the condition of being transparent in the therapeutic relationship by giving up roles and facades.
It is the “counselor’s readiness for setting aside concerns and personal preoccupations and for being available
and open in relationship with the client”.
Since 1980, person-centered counselors have tried a number of other procedures for working with clients, such
as limited self-disclosure of feelings, thoughts, and values. Motivational interviewing (MI) has also grown out
of the person-centered approach and has been used to help ambivalent clients more clearly assess their thoughts
and feelings as they contemplate making changes. At the heart of person-centered counseling, regardless of
procedures, is that clients grow by experiencing themselves and others in relationships. Methods that help
promote the counselor–client relationship include, but are not limited to, active and passive listening, accurate
reflection of thoughts and feelings, clarification, summarization, confrontation, and general or open-ended leads.
Questions are avoided whenever possible.
Summary and evaluation
Carl Rogers made a phenomenal contribution to counseling. He was the major figure behind the humanistic
movement. In addition, many principles of his person-centred therapy have been incorporated into other current
psychotherapies. For example, listening skills are frequently used to help establish a positive relationship, obtain
a phenomenological understanding of the client, and promote the core conditions identified by Rogers.
Several studies have provided support for Rogers’s theory and its application to a wide range of counseling
procedures. Watkins (1993) notes that person-centred theory can be used in the contemporary practice of
psychological testing, such as maintaining a client-centred focus to ensure that the client understands and can use
test results and using facilitating conditions (such as listening skills and core conditions) to maximize the client’s
readiness for positive involvement throughout the assessment process.
One limitation associated with the person-centred approach is that counseling goals are unclear, creating
ambiguity in the counseling process. Usher (1989) also notes that the person-centred approach could be open to
cross-cultural bias because of its emphasis on independence and individualism. In addition, research suggests that
Rogers’s core conditions are not necessary and sufficient, but can more accurately be viewed as facilitative for
personality change.
Strengths; person-centered counseling’s unique aspects include the following:
 The approach revolutionized the counseling profession by linking counseling with psychotherapy and
demystifying it by making audiotapes of actual sessions and publishing actual transcripts of counseling
sessions.
 The person-centered approach to counseling is applicable to a wide range of human problems, including
institutional changes, labor–management relationships, leadership development, career decision making,
and international diplomacy. For instance, Cornelius-White (2005) has found the person-centered
approach can be effective in promoting multicultural counseling.
 The approach has generated extensive research. It initially set the standard for doing research on
counseling variables.
 The approach is effective in a number of settings. Person-centered counseling helps improve
psychological adjustment, learning, and frustration tolerance and decrease defensiveness. It is appropriate
in treating mild to moderate anxiety states, adjustment disorders, and conditions not attributable to mental
disorders, such as uncomplicated bereavement or interpersonal relations.
 The person-centered approach may be especially helpful in working with clients who have experienced
tragedies since it allows them “to struggle through emotions and actually become less affected in time by
fully realizing feelings related to the tragedies”.
 The approach focuses on the open and accepting relationship established by counsellors and clients and
the short-term nature of the helping process.
 The basics of the approach take a relatively short time to learn. With its emphasis on mastering listening
skills, person-centered counseling is a foundation for training many paraprofessional helpers.
Furthermore, it is the basis for several new and emerging approaches to treatment, and it is frequently
combined with other theoretical orientations to counselling such as cognitive and behavioral.
 The approach has a positive view of human nature and it continues to evolve.
Limitations; The limitations of person-centered theory are also noteworthy:
 The approach may be too simplistic, optimistic, leisurely, and unfocused for clients in crisis or who need
more structure and direction.
  The approach depends on bright, insightful, hard-working clients for best results. It has limited
applicability and is seldom employed with the severely disabled or young children.
 The approach ignores diagnosis, the unconscious, developmental theories, and innately generated sexual
and aggressive drives. Many critics think it is overly optimistic.
 The approach deals only with surface issues and does not challenge the client to explore deeper areas.
Because person-centered counseling is short term, it may not make a permanent impact on the person.
 The approach is more attitudinal than technique-based. It is void of specific techniques to bring about
client change.
GESTALT COUNSELLING
Background information
Frederick (Fritz) Perls (1893–1970) is credited with establishing Gestalt therapy and popularizing it both through
his flamboyant personality and his writings. Laura Perls (his wife) and Paul Goodman helped Perls develop and
refine his original ideas. A number of other theorists, particularly Joen Fagan and Irma Lee Shepherd (1970),
developed the model further.
Theory of Personality
The Gestalt theory of personality emphasizes the concepts of phenomenology, independence, and being
integrated and centered in the now.
Gestalt therapy is associated with Gestalt psychology, a school of thought that stresses perception of completeness
and wholeness. The term gestalt means whole figure. Gestalt psychology and therapy arose as a reaction to the
reductionist emphasis in other schools of psychology and counseling, such as psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
Thus, Gestalt therapy emphasizes how people function in their totality.
View of Human nature
Similar to the person-centered position, the Gestalt view of human nature is that people are self-determined,
striving for self-actualization, and best understood from a phenomenological perspective. The term Gestalt is
taken from the principles of Gestalt psychology, which suggests that people are a whole compiled of interrelated
parts of body, emotions, thoughts, sensations, and perceptions. Each of these aspects of a person can be
understood only within the context of the whole person.
Gestaltists believe that human beings work for wholeness and completeness in life. Each person has a self-
actualizing tendency that emerges through personal interaction with the environment and the beginning of self-
awareness. Self-actualization is centered in the present; it “is the process of being what one is and not a process
of striving to become”. The Gestalt view of human nature places trust on the inner wisdom of people, much as
person-centered counseling does. Each person seeks to live integratively and productively, striving to coordinate
the various parts of the person into a healthy, unified whole. From a Gestalt perspective, persons are more than a
sum of their parts. The Gestalt view is anti-deterministic: Each person is able to change and become responsible.
Individuals are actors in the events around them, not just reactors to events. Overall, the Gestalt point of view
takes a position that is existential, experiential, and phenomenological: The now is what really matters. One
discovers different aspects of oneself through experience, not talk, and a person’s own assessment and
interpretation of his or her life at a given moment in time are what is most important.
According to Gestalt therapy, many troubled individuals have an overdependency on intellectual experience.
Such an emphasis diminishes the importance of emotions and the senses, limiting a person’s ability to respond to
various situations. Another common problem is the inability to identify and resolve unfinished business—that
is, earlier thoughts, feelings, and reactions that still affect personal functioning and interfere with living life in
the present. The most typical unfinished business in life is not forgiving one’s parents for their mistakes.
Gestaltists do not attribute either of these difficulties to any unconscious forces within persons. Rather, the focus
is on awareness, the ability of the client to be in full mental and sensory contact of experiencing the now. Every
person operates on some conscious level, from being very aware to being very unaware. Healthy individuals are
those who are most aware.
According to Gestaltists, a person may experience difficulty in several ways. First, he or she may lose contact
with the environment and the resources in it. Second, the person may become overinvolved with the environment
and out of touch with the self. Third, he or she may fail to put aside unfinished business. Fourth, he or she may
become fragmented or scattered in many directions. Fifth, the person may experience conflict between the top
dog (what one thinks one should do) and the underdog (what one wants to do). Finally, the person may have
difficulty handling the dichotomies of life, such as love/hate, masculinity/femininity, and pleasure/pain.
Key concepts
Perls (1969) and Yontef and Jacobs (2008) identify the following key concepts that are associated with Gestalt
therapy:
1. An existential–phenomenological perspective; the Gestalt therapist functions from an existential–
phenomenological perspective. From this perspective, the therapist attempts to understand clients from the
clients’ perspective and helps clients gain personal meaning from their existence.
2. Helping clients move from dependence to independence; Perls referred to this concept when he said that
Gestalt therapy helps clients make the transcendence from environmental support to self-support. When clients
seek counseling, they tend to expect environmental support, such as reassurance, from the counselor. The Gestalt
therapist avoids reinforcing clients’ dependency needs and helps the client become an independent person. Clients
will often resist moving toward self-support because change is threatening. When this occurs, the Gestalt therapist
willusually frustrate and confront clients to help them work through the impasse.
3. Being integrated and centered in the now; Perls believed that nothing exists except the now, since the past
is gone and the future is yet to come. From this perspective, self-actualization is centered in the present rather
than oriented to the future. It requires that clients become centered in the now and aware of what they are
experiencing. From a Gestalt perspective, being focused and centered in the here and now is referred to as contact.
Anxiety can result when clients are not centered in the now, but are preoccupied with the future. When this occurs,
clients may develop excessive worry about what might happen and lose touch with what is happening. Unresolved
difficulties from the past can also cause problems, resulting in emotional reactions such as anger, guilt, or
resentment. Being unaware of this “unfinished business” can interfere with one’s functioning in the now.
Resentment is seen as the most frequent and worst kind of unfinished business. Perls believed that unexpressed
resentment often converts to guilt. For example, a man finds out his wife has had an affair and becomes angry
and resentful. Unfortunately, he doesn’t express his resentment. Instead, he wonders what he could have done to
prevent the affair, resulting in feelings of guilt.
4. Experimentation; gestalt therapy encourages clients to try something new to achieve genuine understanding.
Experimentation goes beyond the status quo and involves thought and action versus mere behavioral change.
Experimentation also generates data about the client that can be used to obtain a phenomenological understanding
of the client’s experience.
5. Health; from a Gestalt perspective, health requires; self-regulation (i.e., meeting one’s needs via awareness,
prioritizing, and organization and utilization of appropriate behavior), and having contact with the person-
environment field (i.e., being focused and centered in the here and now in terms of oneself in relation to the
environment).
6. Relational focus; gestalt therapy views personality functioning in relational–contextual terms (i.e., the self in
relation to others). The interpersonal perspective emphasizes the interrelationship between the individual and the
environment.
Theory of counseling
The counseling process in Gestalt therapy is experiential. It focuses on what is occurring in the here and now of
the moment. Gestalt therapy involves a dialogue between the therapist and client in which the client experiences
from the inside what the therapist observes from the outside. Warwar and Greenberg (2000) suggest that Gestalt
therapy has shifted from a focus on techniques to the counselor–client relationship as the key to the change
process. The goals that emerge from Gestalt therapy are not specific to a client’s concerns. The only goal is
awareness, which includes knowledge of the environment, taking responsibility for choices, self-knowledge, and
self-acceptance. Passons (1975) identifies common problems that can impede a client’s progress in Gestalt
therapy. It can occur with clients who are overly dependent on others and lack self-responsibility, become out of
touch with the world around them, allow unresolved experiences from the past to interfere with being aware of
what is occurring in the now, disown their own needs, or define themselves in absolutistic, either–or terms.
Role of counsellor
The role of the Gestalt counselor is to create an atmosphere that promotes a client’s exploration of what is needed
to grow. The counselor provides such an atmosphere by being intensely and personally involved with clients and
being honest. The counselors must be exciting, energetic, and fully human. Involvement occurs in the now, i.e.,
a continuing process. It involves having the counselor help a client focus on blocking energy and using that energy
in positive and adaptive ways. It entails the counselor’s helping the client recognize patterns in his or her life.
Goals of Counselling
The goals of Gestalt therapy are well defined. They include an emphasis on the here and now and a recognition
of the immediacy of experience. Further goals include a focus on both nonverbal and verbal expression, and a
focus on the concept that life includes making choices. The Gestalt approach concentrates on helping a client
resolve the past to become integrated. This goal includes the completion of mentally growing up. It emphasizes
the coalescence of the emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of the person. A primary focus is the
acceptance of polarities within the person. As a group, Gestalt therapists emphasize action, pushing their clients
to experience feelings and behaviors. They also stress the meaning of the word now. Perls (1969) developed a
formula that expresses the word’s essence: “Now = experience = awareness = reality. The past is no more and
the future not yet. Only the now exists”.
Techniques
It is essential for therapists to be authentic since they cannot teach what they do not know. The Gestalt therapist
also utilizes several techniques: assuming responsibility (I take responsibility), using personal pronouns (I-thou
language), and using the “now I’m aware” and “empty-chair” techniques.
Assuming responsibility requires the client to rephrase a statement in order to assume responsibility. For
example, a client can be asked to end all statements with “and I take responsibility for it.” The client may also be
requested to change “can’t” to “won’t” or “but” to “and.” For example, instead of saying, “I want to get in shape
but I don’t exercise,” the client says, “I want to get in shape and I don’t exercise.”
Using personal pronouns encourages clients to take responsibility by saying I or me instead of using the
generalizations we or us, or people. Clients will tend to feel they own their thoughts and feelings more by saying,
“It scares me to think of going to college” than by saying, “It scares people to go to college.”
Now I’m aware is a technique that can help clients get in touch with the self. One way to use this technique is to
have clients close their eyes to encourage them to get in touch with their inner world and say, “Now I’m aware”
before each statement. For example, “Now I’m aware of my breathing”; “Now I’m aware of some tension in my
stomach”; “Now I’m aware of feeling embarrassed and self-conscious of having my eyes closed”; “Now I’m
aware of feeling afraid of something, but I don’t know what”. The exercise can continue after clients open their
eyes to help them become aware of themselves in relation to their environment.
Empty-chair technique can be used to help clients work through conflicting parts of their personality, such as
in an approach-avoidance conflict. For example, a client wants to ask a girl out but is afraid of rejection. The
empty-chair technique involves placing an empty chair in front of the client. The client is then told that sitting in
the empty chair is the part of his personality that does not want to ask the girl out; and is then encouraged to start
a conversation with the empty chair by stating the reasons why he wants to ask the girl out. After the client
expresses the positive side of the argument, he is asked to sit in the empty chair and respond with the reasons
why he does not want to ask her out. The client continues to move back and forth until he has resolved the issue.
The empty-chair technique can be useful in helping clients work through unfinished business so that they can be
centered in the now.
Some other powerful Gestalt exercises that are individually oriented are often used in groups.
• Making the rounds, this exercise is employed when the counselor feels that a particular theme or feeling
expressed by a client should be faced by every person in the group. The client may say, for instance, “I can’t
stand anyone.” The client is then instructed to say this sentence to each person in the group, adding some remarks
about each group member. The rounds exercise is flexible and may include nonverbal and positive feelings, too.
By participating in it, clients become more aware of inner feelings.
• I take responsibility, in this exercise, clients make statements about perceptions and close each statement with
the phrase “and I take responsibility for it.” The exercise helps clients integrate and own perceptions and
behaviors.
• Exaggeration, clients accentuate unwitting movement or gestures. In doing so, the inner meaning of these
behaviors becomes more apparent.
• May I feed you a sentence? the counselor, who is aware that implicit attitudes or messages are implied in what
the client is saying, asks whether the client will say a certain sentence (provided by the counselor) that makes the
client’s thoughts explicit. If the counsellor is correct about the underlying message, the client will gain insight as
the sentence is repeated.
Summary and Evaluation
Gestalt therapy can be particularly appropriate for clients who lack self-awareness and feel “out of touch” with
themselves. Several research studies provide some support for the efficacy of Gestalt therapy. Guinan and Foulds
(1970) found clients to have increased self-actualization and self-concepts after Gestalt therapy. Clarke and
Breeberg (1986) found the empty-chair technique to be more effective than problem-solving techniques in
resolving decisional conflict, and Paivio and Greenberg (1992) noted that empty-chair dialogue is effective in
resolving “unfinished” emotional issues clients have toward others. The main weakness of the Gestalt approach
is that it lacks a strong theoretical base. It appears to emphasize techniques of therapy rather than provide an in-
depth theoretical foundation for understanding human behavior or a comprehensive approach to psychotherapy.
Additional research on Gestalt techniques and principles appears warranted.
Strengths; gestalt therapy strengths and contributions include the following:
 The approach emphasizes helping people incorporate and accept all aspects of life. An individual cannot
be understood outside the context of a whole person who is choosing to act on the environment in the
present.
 The approach helps a client focus on resolving areas of unfinished business. When a client is able to make
these resolutions, life can be lived productively.
 The approach places primary emphasis on doing rather than talking. Activity helps individuals experience
what the process of change is about and make more rapid progress.
 The approach is flexible and not limited to a few techniques. Any activity that helps clients become more
integrative can be employed in Gestalt therapy.
 The approach is appropriate for certain affective disorders, anxiety states, somatoform disorders,
adjustment disorders, and DSM diagnoses such as occupational problem and interpersonal problem. In
short, Gestalt therapy is versatile.
Limitations; gestalt therapy also has some limitations:
 The approach lacks a strong theoretical base. Some critics view Gestalt counseling as all experience and
technique, that is, as too gimmicky. They maintain that it is antitheoretical.
 The approach deals strictly with the now and how of experience.
 The approach eschews diagnosis and testing.
 The approach is too concerned with individual development and is criticized for its self-centeredness.
 The focus is entirely on feeling and personal discovery.
 COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL COUNSELLING
COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
Cognitive–behavioral theories emphasize the role of cognition and/or behavior in psychological functioning and
well-being. Theories that originally had a cognitive focus have incorporated behavioral techniques (e.g., cognitive
therapy and rational–emotive behavior therapy) and behaviorally oriented theories have incorporated cognitive
techniques and concepts (e.g., behavior therapy and reality therapy).
BEHAVIORAL COUNSELLING
Behavioral theories of counseling focus on a broad range of client behaviors. Often, a person has difficulties
because of a deficit or an excess of behavior. Counselors who take a behavioral approach seek to help clients
learn new, appropriate ways of acting, or help them modify or eliminate excessive actions. In such cases, adaptive
behaviors replace those that were maladaptive, and the counselor functions as a learning specialist for the client.
Behavioral counseling approaches are especially popular in institutional settings, such as mental hospitals or
sheltered workshops. They are the approaches of choice in working with clients who have specific problems such
as eating disorders, substance abuse, and psychosexual dysfunction. Behavioral approaches are also useful in
addressing difficulties associated with anxiety, stress, assertiveness, parenting, and social interaction.
Background information
The historical roots of behavior therapy can be traced to three learning theories: classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and social-learning theory. Classical conditioning evolved from Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with
dogs. In these experiments, Pavlov (1906) demonstrated that he could condition a dog to salivate at the sound of
a bell. This was the first demonstration of what Pavlov called classical conditioning, the principle of conditioning
people to respond to a stimulus. Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning were later applied to counseling.
Joseph Wolpe (1958, 1973) played a key role in this process, integrating the principles of classical conditioning
into a systematic desensitization process to treat phobias. This technique continues to be one of the most popular
approaches for the treatment of phobias. B. F. Skinner developed the second major field of learning theory,
operant conditioning. Skinner (1938, 1953, 1961) proposed that learning cannot occur without some form of
reinforcement. He contended that behaviors that are reinforced will tend to be repeated, and those that are not
will tend to be extinguished. Compared to classical conditioning, operant conditioning is a more active process
of learning in that the person must do something to be reinforced. Skinner developed the principles of operant
conditioning in his now-famous Skinner Box experiments, which involved training a rat to press a bar for food.
More recently, the principles of operant conditioning have been utilized in programmed learning, self-control,
behaviorally oriented discipline procedures, and management of clients in institutions by use of token economies.
The third major learning theory that helped formulate behavior therapy is social-learning theory. Along with the
various cognitive theories, social-learning theory represents a more recent dimension to the behavioral school.
Among the individuals associated with these new trends are Beck (1991), Meichenbaum (1986), Mahoney (1991),
and Bandura (1986). In particular, Albert Bandura was instrumental in the integration of cognition into behavior
therapy. Bandura’s (1977) early work on social-learning theory focused on how learning occurs from observation,
modeling, and imitation. The idea that learning could occur entirely as a function of cognitive control was a direct
challenge to the traditional behavioral stimulus-response model. Bandura (1982, 1986, 1989) developed a theory
of self-efficacy, which relates to a person’s belief in the ability to successfully accomplish a particular task.
Perceived self-efficacy plays a central role in mediating constructive behavior change. Bandura’s theory contends
that self-efficacy can directly influence what activities people will choose to engage in, how much effort they
will exert, and how long they will continue when faced with adversity.
B. F. (Burrhus Frederick) Skinner (1904–1990) is the person most responsible for the popularization of behavioral
treatment methods. Applied behavior analysis is a direct extension of Skinner’s (1953) radical behaviorism,
which is based on operant conditioning. Other notables in the behavioral therapy camp are historical figures, such
as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Mary Cover Jones. Contemporary figures, such as Albert Bandura, John
Krumboltz, Neil Jacobson, Steven Hayes, and Marsha Linehan, have also greatly added to this way of working
with clients.
Theory of Personality
Behavior therapy’s theory of personality is integrated into its theory of counseling and psychotherapy. In this
sense, assessment and intervention are interrelated. For example, counselors and clients chart changes in
behaviors to assess the relative impact of various intervention procedures.
View of human nature
Historically, behaviorists viewed human nature as neutral. A person was not inherently good nor bad but would
become what the environment dictated. This position was in direct contrast to the humanistic stance, which
suggested that people were capable of self-determination. The more recent behavioral point of view recognizes
the possibility of self-determined behavior, whereby individuals can take an active role in their destiny.
Behaviorists, as a group, share the following ideas about human nature:
 A concentration on behavioral processes—that is, processes closely associated with overt behavior
(except for cognitive–behaviorists).
 A focus on the here and now as opposed to the then and there of behavior.
 An assumption that all behavior is learned, whether it be adaptive or maladaptive.
 A belief that learning can be effective in changing maladaptive behavior.
 A focus on setting up well-defined therapy goals with their clients.
 A rejection of the idea that the human personality is composed of traits.
In addition, behaviorists stress the importance of obtaining empirical evidence and scientific support for any
techniques they use. Some behaviorists, who embrace the social-cognitive form of learning, stress that people
acquire new knowledge and behavior by observing other people and events without engaging in the behavior
themselves and without any direct consequences to themselves (i.e., modeling). This type of learning does not
require active participation.
Key concepts
Behavior therapy is currently in a state of rapid change and evolution. Rimm and Cunningham (1985) identified
the following common elements that characterize behavior therapy:
1. Behavior therapy concentrates on overt, observable behavioral processes and cognitions, early
behaviorists focused on overt behavior.More recently, the cognitive realm is also viewed as an important
mediating factor in relation to behavior.
2. Behavior therapy focuses on the here and now the focus is on understanding and treating current problems
relating to behavior and cognitions.
3. Maladaptive behaviors are primarily the result of learning, models of learning (operant, classical, and
social-learning theories) can be used to understand the etiology of maladaptive behavior. Learning principles can
therefore be used to change maladaptive behavior.
4. Well-defined, concrete goals are used, goals are stated in observable, measurable terms whenever possible.
5. Behavior therapy is committed to the scientific methods, behavior therapy utilizes the principles of the
scientific method to evaluate techniques and procedures. Assessment and treatment are viewed as part of the same
process, creating a built-in mechanism for research and accountability.
Theory and process of counseling
The counselor takes an active and directive approach, which often incorporates problem-solving strategies. The
client is also expected to take an active role in the counseling process in terms of assessment by engaging in
processes such as self-monitoring and treatment by acquiring new skills and behaviors through work and practice.
A misconception regarding behavior therapists is that they view a positive counseling relationship as unimportant
to the counseling process. Brady (1980) notes, however, that the nature of the counseling relationship can have a
direct bearing on the outcome of behavior therapy. Behavior therapy has concrete, specific goals that include
acquiring necessary behaviors and coping skills and overcoming self-defeating cognitive processes. When
possible, clients assume primary responsibility for determining treatment goals. The therapist’s role and function
are therefore directed at how to accomplish goals in therapy rather than focusing on which goals to work on.
Role of counsellor
A counselor may take one of several roles, depending on his or her behavioral orientation and the client’s goal(s).
Generally, however, a behaviorally based counselor is active in counseling sessions. As a result, the client learns,
unlearns, or relearns specific ways of behaving. In the process, the counselor functions as a consultant, teacher,
adviser, reinforcer, and facilitator. He or she may even instruct or supervise support people in the client’s
environment who are assisting in the change process. An effective behavioral counselor operates from a broad
perspective and involves the client in every phase of the counseling.
Goals of Counselling
The goals of behaviorists are similar to those of many other counselors. Basically, behavioral counselors want to
help clients make good adjustments to life circumstances and achieve personal and professional objectives. Thus,
the focus is on modifying or eliminating the maladaptive behaviors that clients display, while helping them
acquire healthy, constructive ways of acting. Just to eliminate a behavior is not enough; unproductive actions
must be replaced with productive ways of responding. A major step in the behavioral approach is for counselors
and clients to reach mutually agreed-on goals.
Techniques
Most behavior therapy procedures are short-term in duration, although some may extend as long as 25 to 50
sessions. Behavior therapists use a wide variety of techniques and procedures: cognitive behavior modification,
self-management and self-control, self-efficacy, participant modeling, assertiveness training, systematic
desensitization, and token economy.
Cognitive Behavior Modification Donald Meichenbaum’s (1986) cognitive behavior modification employs
several useful strategies, such as self-instructional therapy and stress-inoculation training. Self-instructional
therapy is a form of self-control therapy in which clients learn to use tools to take control of their lives. This
theory suggests that people have a set of beliefs or cognitive structures that influence how they react to events in
terms of an inner speech or self-talk. To a large degree, cognitive structures and inner speech determine how
people behave. The focus of therapy is on restructuring faulty cognitive structures, altering inner speech so that
it triggers coping behaviors, and if necessary, using behavior therapy to teach coping responses.
Stress-inoculation training is another useful approach that employs a number of cognitive– behavioral
techniques, such as “cognitive restructuring, problem-solving, relaxation training, behavioral and imaginal
rehearsal, self-monitoring, self-reinforcement, and efforts at environmental change” . It can be used to treat
different disorders but is especially useful in treating anxiety. The procedure focuses on helping clients learn
coping mechanisms that they can use to “inoculate” or protect themselves against stress-related reactions. A major
premise of this approach is that clients can be taught to cope with stressful situations and enhance their
performance by modifying their self-statements. Stress-inoculation training is comprehensive, attempting to go
beyond symptom relief and teach skills that can be useful to prevent problems in the future, including relapse.
The actual process of implementing stress inoculation typically involves three stages: conceptualization, skill
acquisition and rehearsal, and application and follow-through.
Self-Management and Self-Control Kanfer and Goldstein (1986), Bandura (1986), and Meichenbaum (1986)
are associated with self-management and self-control procedures, which are directed at helping clients become
their own agents for behavior change. In this process, the counselor provides support and expertise in terms of
behavioral management. The client assumes responsibility for implementing and carrying out the program. A
wide range of skills can be used to promote self-management and self-control. For example, Kanfer and Goldstein
(1986) identify skills in (a) self-monitoring, (b) establishing rules of conduct by contracting, (c) obtaining
environmental support, (d) self-evaluating, and (e) generating reinforcing consequences for behaviors that
promote the goals of self-control. Other self-control skills are progressive relaxation to reduce stress; biofeedback
to treat psychophysiological disorders; and self-instructional training for control of anger, impulsivity, and other
coping problems.
Self-Efficacy is a theory developed primarily by Bandura (1982, 1986, 1989) that relates to a person’s belief in
his or her ability to accomplish a particular task. Self-efficacy is not a behavioral technique. It can be better
viewed as a concept that should be considered when implementing a technique. Rimm and Cunningham (1985)
suggest that treatment efficacy can be increased by promoting methods that foster efficacy information to clients.
Efficacy information can be transferred to clients by (a) actual performance, which is the most powerful
information source; (b) vicarious learning or modeling; (c) verbal persuasion; and (d) psychological arousal.
Participant Modeling is based on Bandura’s (1977, 1986, 1989) social learning theory, which emphasizes the
role of observation and imitation in learning. It is used primarily to treat phobias and fears. Participant modeling
involves two stages: observation and participation. During the observation stage, the client observes a model
engaged in the feared behavior (e.g., petting a dog). Research suggests that efficacy increases when the model is
similar to the client in terms of age and gender and the manner in which the model approaches the feared task.
The second stage involves the client participating or engaging in the feared behavior. During this process, the
counselor guides the client through a series of exercises relating to the feared task.
Assertiveness Training can be used for clients who find it difficult to stand up for their rights or who are unable
to express their feelings in a constructive manner. Rimm and Cunningham (1985) describe the following steps
involved in assertiveness training. First, the therapist and client determine whether there is a need for assertiveness
training. Second, the therapist describes how increased assertiveness can be beneficial. The third step is the most
important and involves a process of behavioral rehearsal, during which, the therapist models an assertive
behavior, then asks the client to “rehearse” the assertive behavior, and finally provides feedback and appropriate
reinforcement.
Systematic Desensitization is a technique developed by Wolpe (1958, 1973) to treat problems resulting from
classical conditioning, such as phobias. It has also been used to treat a variety of other maladaptive behaviors,
including excessive fears about issues such as death, injury, and sex. The following steps can be used to
implement this technique:
1. Teach deep relaxation, systematic desensitization utilizes the principle of counterconditioning by introducing
a relaxation response to replace the previously conditioned adverse response. It is based on the assumption that a
person cannot be anxious and relaxed at the same time. The client is therefore taught to experience a state of deep
relaxation when the therapist describes a relaxing scene.
2. Develop a hierarchy, the therapist and client develop a hierarchy of situations that elicit a fear response. The
situation that elicits the lowest level of anxiety is the first item in the hierarchy, and the one that elicits the highest
level of anxiety is last. It is important that the statements are specific enough so the client can visualize the
situation.An example is, “I walked up a flight of stairs to the fourth floor and looked out the window.”
3. Proceed through the hierarchy, the therapist helps the client enter into a state of deep relaxation. The therapist
then asks the client to imagine the first item in the hierarchy. By introducing a relaxation response to a situation
that previously elicited a fear response, the therapist helps the client become desensitized by the
counterconditioning process.
4. Address the fear in vivo, this step involves desensitizing the client to in vivo or real-life situations associated
with the fears. For example, if the client has a snake phobia, an item on the hierarchy may be to imagine looking
at a snake. During the in vivo experience, the client will be asked to look at a real snake.
5. Follow up and evaluate, the final step is to evaluate the client’s success in dealing with the fear response in a
variety of situations over an extended period of time.
Token Economy Ayllon and Azrin (1968) developed the technique of token economy to teach psychiatric patients
to become more responsible. The technique, used primarily in hospitals, residential settings, and schools, is based
on the principles of operant conditioning and involves giving tokens to reinforce a desired behavior, such as
cleaning one’s room. After collecting enough tokens, clients can exchange them for goods or privileges, such as
being able to watch TV. To increase intrinsic motivation, the tokens must be gradually eliminated and replaced
by social reinforcers, such as encouragement, to enable clients to maintain newly acquired behaviors after they
leave the treatment setting.

General behavioral techniques, general techniques are applicable in all behavioral theories, although a given
technique may be more applicable to a particular approach at a given time or in a specific circumstance. Some of
the most general behavioral techniques are briefly explained here.
Use of reinforcers, einforcers are those events that, when they follow a behavior, increase the probability of the
behavior repeating. A reinforcer may be either positive or negative.
Schedules of reinforcement, when a behavior is first being learned, it should be reinforced every time it occurs,
in other words, by continuous reinforcement. After a behavior is established, however, it should be reinforced
less frequently, in other words, by intermittent reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement operate according to
either the number of responses (ratio) or the length of time (interval) between reinforcers. Both ratio and interval
schedules may be either fixed or variable.
Shaping, behavior learned gradually in steps through successive approximation is known as shaping. When
clients are learning new skills, counselors may help break down behavior into manageable units.
Flooding is less traumatic, as the imagined anxiety-producing scene does not have dire consequences.
Time-Out is a mild aversive technique in which a client is separated from the opportunity to receive positive
reinforcement. It is most effective when employed for short periods of time, such as 5 minutes.
Summary and Evaluation
Behavior therapy focuses on overt behavior. The counseling process emphasizes the importance of establishing
clear goals stated in behavioral terms. Progress in therapy is indicated when there is a change or modification in
behavior. Treatment and assessment are seen as part of the same process, creating a built-in mechanism for
research and accountability. Emmelkamp (1994) in summarizing the research on behavior therapy concludes that
it has been effective in treating a number of mental disorders and client concerns, for example:
• Anxiety disorders such as phobias, posttraumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety, and aggressive–
compulsive disorder.
• Depression (behavioral counseling is especially effective when used in conjunction with cognitive approaches
such as cognitive therapy).
• Alcoholism (including treatment of controlled drinking).
• Sexual disorders (behavioral counseling is quite useful in treating sexual dysfunctions such as premature
ejaculation and missed orgasm but not so effective in treating paraphilias such as exhibitionism and pedophilia).
The behavioral approach has some weaknesses such as disregarding the importance of feelings and emotions in
the counseling process. It also tends to ignore historical factors that can contribute to a client’s problem and
minimize the use of insight in the counseling process.
Strengths; among the unique and strong aspects of the behavioral approach are the following:
 The approach deals directly with symptoms. Because most clients seek help for specific problems,
counselors who work directly with symptoms are often able to assist clients immediately.
 The approach focuses on the here and now. A client does not have to examine the past to obtain help in
the present. A behavioral approach saves both time and money.
 The approach offers numerous techniques for counselors to use.
 The approach is based on learning theory, which is a well-formulated way of documenting how new
behaviors are acquired.
 The approach is buttressed by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT), which
promotes the practice of behavioral counseling methods.
  The approach is supported by exceptionally good research on how behavioral techniques affect the
process of counseling.
 The approach is objective in defining and dealing with problems and demystifies the process of
counselling.
Limitations; the behavioral approach has several limitations, among which are the following:
 The approach does not deal with the total person, just explicit behavior. Critics contend that many
behaviorists have taken the person out of personality.
 The approach is sometimes applied mechanically.
 The approach is best demonstrated under controlled conditions that may be difficult to replicate in normal
counseling situations.
 The approach ignores the client’s past history and unconscious forces.
 The approach does not consider developmental stages.
 The approach programs the client toward minimum or tolerable levels of behaving, reinforces conformity,
stifles creativity, and ignores client needs for self-fulfillment, self-actualization, and feelings of self-
worth.
RATIONAL EMOTIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY
Background information
Albert Ellis (1913–2008), in the 1950s, initially developed his theory of counseling, which he called rational
therapy. In 1962, Ellis published Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy, which laid the foundation for his revised
theory, which he called rational emotive therapy (RET). Ellis changed the name of his theory in 1993 to rational–
emotive behavior therapy (REBT) to acknowledge the interrelationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
in human functioning. His theory has similarities to Aaron Beck’s cognitive therapy (which was formulated
independently at about the same time) and David Burns’s new mood therapy.
Theory of Personality
The REBT theory of personality emphasizes the role of cognitions (and to some degree behaviors) on emotions.
REBT contends that people can be best understood in terms of the nature of their self-talk (internal cognitive
dialogue).
View of human nature
He contends that people perceive, think, emote, and behave simultaneously. Thus, to understand self-defeating
conduct, it is necessary to understand the interrelationship between thinking, feeling, and behavior. Ellis believes
that people have both self-interest and social interest. Irrational thinking, or as Ellis defines it, irrational Beliefs
(iBs), may include the invention of upsetting and disturbing thoughts. Although Ellis does not deal with the
developmental stages of individuals, he thinks that children are more vulnerable to outside influences and
irrational thinking than adults are. By nature, he believes, human beings are gullible, highly suggestible, and
easily disturbed. Overall, people have within themselves the means to control their thoughts, feelings, and actions,
but they must first realize what they are telling themselves (self-talk) to gain command of their lives. This is a
matter of personal, conscious awareness. The unconscious mind is not included in Ellis’s conception of human
nature. Furthermore, Ellis believes it is a mistake for people to evaluate or rate themselves beyond the idea that
everyone is a fallible human being.
Key concepts
The major concepts in REBT (Ellis, 1962, 1996, 2005) relate to the role of cognition and how irrational thoughts
can create self-defeating, emotionally disturbing outcomes.
The Role of Cognition, the basic premise is that emotional disturbance results primarily from cognitive processes
that are fundamentally irrational or illogical in nature. Ellis and Harper (1975) define rational as anything that
promotes happiness and survival for the individual and irrational as anything that inhibits personal happiness and
survival. One way to identify illogical or irrational thought processes is to look for statements that contain the
unconditional should or the absolutistic must or ought. Examples of these self-defeating statements are;
• “I should get all A’s, and if I don’t, I’m stupid.”
• “I ought to know better when it comes to choosing a boyfriend. The ones I pick are all duds.”
• “I must do well at my job, and if I don’t, I’m no good.”
Ellis (1977, 2008) suggested that not all statements of irrational beliefs contain shoulds, oughts, and musts.
According to Ellis, irrational thoughts can also be in the form of other self-defeating self-statements, such as
• Self-damnation: “I am a worthless good-for-nothing.”
• I-can’t-stand-it-itis: “I can’t stand the thought of losing my girlfriend.”
• Awfulizing: “I would never want to bring a child into this insane and awful world.”
The A-B-C-D-E Acronym, in part, REBT’s popularity is due to its simplicity. The basic procedures associated
with REBT can be taught to the client by using the A-B-C-D-E acronym. The letter “A” in the acronym stands
for the activating event. This can be whatever the client may be reacting to, such as a recent phone conversation
or a report that was received by a supervisor. “B” represents the client’s belief system or cognitive reaction to the
activating event. “C” is the emotional consequence that the client is experiencing, such as feeling anxious or
depressed. “D” suggests that the client learn to dispute self-defeating thought processes, and “E” is the effect of
the disputing process. Ellis contends that it is not “A” that causes a serious emotional reaction (“C”). For “C” to
occur, a self-defeating thought process must occur at “B.” The client is therefore taught how to dispute self-
defeating processes (“D”) to generate a positive effect (“E”). Ellis also suggests that self-defeating cognitive
reactions follow a predictable pattern. People usually start with a sane or rational reaction to the activating event.
Next, they tend to engage in self-talk that is illogical or irrational. Finally, they grossly overreact to the situation,
making it seem like a catastrophe. It is important to note that for REBT to be effective, counselors must be careful
to not just focus on the client’s sentences and self-statements. They should also help clients explore and dispute
self-defeating “meanings, evaluations, images, and other forms of cognitions”. From this perspective, Ellis
contends that REBT has always been consistent with postmodern trends, which recognize the multiple voices
reflected in social forces such as culture, language, and narratives.
Theory and process of counseling
The primary goal of REBT is restructuring the client’s self-defeating cognitions and helping the client acquire a
more realistic philosophy of life. The actual process of therapy is educational and confrontational in nature. The
therapist teaches the client how to dispute irrational thoughts and also confronts and even attacks, if necessary,
the client’s self-defeating belief system. Once clients become aware of their negative self-talk, they can create a
cognitive reaction that generates a more positive emotional consequence. In terms of the counseling relationship,
He believes the therapist must fully accept clients but must also point out discrepancies in their behavior when
necessary.
Role of Counsellor
In the REBT approach, counselors are active and direct. They are instructors who teach and correct the client’s
cognitions. Therefore, counselors must listen carefully for illogical or faulty statements from their clients and
challenge beliefs. Ellis (1980) and Walen, DiGuiseppe, and Dryden (1992) have identified several characteristics
desirable for REBT counselors. They need to be bright, knowledgeable, empathetic, respectful, genuine, concrete,
persistent, scientific, interested in helping others, and users themselves of REBT.
Goals of Counselling
The primary goals of REBT focus on helping people realize that they can live more rational and productive lives.
REBT helps clients stop making demands and becoming upset through “catastrophizing.” Clients in REBT may
express some negative feelings, but a major goal is to help them avoid having more of an emotional response to
an event than is warranted. Another goal of REBT is to help people change self-defeating habits of thought or
behavior. One way this is accomplished is through teaching clients the A-B-C-D-E model of REBT:
A signifies the activating experience;
B represents how the person thinks about the experience;
C is the emotional reaction to B;
D is disputing irrational thoughts, usually with the help of a REBT counselor, and replacing them with;
E is effective thoughts and hopefully a new personal philosophy that’ll help clients achieve great life satisfaction.
Through this process, REBT helps people learn how to recognize an emotional anatomy, that is, to learn how
feelings are attached to thoughts. Thoughts about experiences may be characterized in four ways: positive,
negative, neutral, or mixed.
REBT also encourages clients to be more tolerant of themselves and others and urges them to achieve personal
goals. These goals are accomplished by having people learn to think rationally to change self-defeating behavior
and by helping them learn new ways of acting.
Techniques
The therapeutic REBT techniques that Ellis (1962, 1996, 2008) identified include cognitive, emotive, and
behavioral techniques.
Cognitive Techniques, to a large degree, REBT focuses on helping clients overcome self-defeating cognitions.
Cognitive restructuring is the main technique used. It involves restructuring irrational and illogical cognitions
through the A-B-C-D-E acronym. Other cognitive methods include techniques such as reframing, which involves
redefining (or reframing) a negative situation into a more positive perspective, and referenting, which involves
helping clients conceptualize problems from a holistic rather than fragmented perspective. Bibliotherapy is also
used in REBT to help clients learn how to apply REBT in everyday life.
Emotive Techniques, emotive (or emotive–evocative) techniques focus on the client’s affect or emotional
domain. These techniques can play a major role in helping clients learn how to accept themselves. For example,
humor can be used to help clients put their situation in perspective and stop putting themselves down. Other
emotive techniques include the use of imagery to create more positive emotional patterns (e.g., imagining what
it would feel like to overcome fear) and shame-attacking exercises, in which clients learn to overcome shame by
becoming less concerned about how they are perceived by others.
Behavioral Techniques, REBT utilizes the full range of behavioral techniques to help clients achieve their goals.
Examples of behavioral techniques include the use of operant conditioning (e.g., behavior modification),
assertiveness training, systematic desensitization, relaxation therapy, and self-management (including self-
monitoring). Homework assignments play an integral role in the application of behavioral techniques, whereby
clients try out and practice what they learn in counseling in their day-to-day activities.
REBT encompasses a number of diverse techniques. Two primary ones are teaching and disputing. Teaching
involves having clients learn the basic ideas of REBT and understand how thoughts are linked with emotions and
behaviors. This procedure is didactic and directive and is generally known as rational emotive education (REE).
Disputing thoughts and beliefs takes one of three forms: cognitive, imaginal, and behavioral. The process is
most effective when all three forms are used. Cognitive disputation involves the use of direct questions, logical
reasoning, and persuasion. Imaginal disputation uses a client’s ability to imagine and employs a technique
known as rational emotive imagery (REI). Behavioral disputation involves behaving in a way that is the
opposite of the client’s usual way, including role-playing and the completion of a homework assignment in which
a client actually does activities previously thought impossible to do. Sometimes behavioral disputation may take
the form of bibliotherapy, in which clients read self-help books such as A Guide to Rational Living or Staying
Rational in an Irrational World. Two other powerful REBT techniques are confrontation and encouragement.
REBT counsellors explicitly encourage clients to abandon thought processes that are not working and try REBT.
Counselors will also challenge a client who claims to be thinking rationally but in truth is not.
Summary and Evaluation
A literature review of REBT concludes that there is some encouraging support for its efficacy. REBT is an
educationally oriented approach that attempts to teach a client how to overcome self-defeating cognitive
reactions. One of its strengths is its simplicity. It can be taught to the client in terms as simple as the A-B-C-D-E
acronym. In time, clients can learn to use the tools necessary to become their own self-therapists and gain control
over their mental health.
The major weakness of REBT may be its overemphasis on the role of cognition in the etiology of mental disorders
and emotional disturbances. In addition, it may oversimplify what is required to effectively restructure cognition.
For many clients,much more may be required than simply changing irrational statements to rational statements.
REBT also avoids exploring other factors, such as traumatic early-life experiences, which could represent
important treatment considerations.
Strengths; REBT has a number of unique dimensions and special emphases:
 The approach is clear, easily learned, and effective. Most clients have few problems in understanding the
principles or terminology of REBT.
 The approach can easily be combined with other behavioral techniques to help clients more fully
experience what they are learning.
 The approach is relatively short term, and clients may continue to use the approach on a self-help basis.
 The approach has generated a great deal of literature and research for clients and counselors. Few other
theories have developed as much bibliotherapeutic material.
 The approach has continued to evolve over the years as techniques have been refined.
 The approach has been found effective in treating major mental health disorders such as depression and
anxiety.
Limitations; the limitations of the REBT approach are few but significant:
 The approach cannot be used effectively with individuals who have mental problems or limitations, such
as schizophrenics and those with severe thought disorders.
 The approach is direct, and the potential for the counselor being overzealous and not as therapeutic as
would be ideal is a real possibility.
 The approach’s emphasis on changing thinking may not be the simplest way of helping clients change
their emotions.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
Background information
Eric Berne (1910–1970) is the originator of transactional analysis (TA). TA is unique in its effort to avoid
psychological jargon. Instead, the language of TA is easy to understand, using such terms as parent, adult, child,
strokes, games, rackets, decisions, and re-decisions. Its use of clear, simple language helped TA become attractive
not only as a form of therapy but also as a self-help approach.
More recently, TA has become an example of an emerging school of counseling that emphasizes the role of
interpersonal relationships in psychological functioning. In this regard, TA can be considered one of the first
major theories of counselling to focus on interpersonal relations. The interpersonal orientation is reflected in the
name of the theory, (i.e., transactional analysis, suggesting that people can learn to understand and enhance the
transactions and communication patterns between people.
Several other individuals have gone on to develop interpersonal psychotherapy as a shortterm, present-centered
approach to treat depression. Teyber (2000) summarizes the basic premises in interpersonal psychotherapy as
follows:
1. Problems are conceptualized from an interpersonal perspective.
2. Familial interaction patterns are the best means of understanding oneself and others.
3. The counselor-client relationship can be used to work through relationship issues.
Theory of Personality
TA possesses a rich tapestry of concepts with which to generate a theory of personality. The concepts that can be
used to provide an in-depth understanding of personality dynamics include stroking, the games people play, and
the four life positions.
View of human nature
Berne (1961, 1964) believed that people have the capacity to determine their own destiny but that few people
acquire the necessary self-awareness to become autonomous. Berne (1961) also stressed the importance of early
life experiences in personality development, suggesting that people develop scripts at that time that they follow
throughout life. These scripts are derived from parental messages and other sources, such as fairy tales and
literature.
Key concepts
Berne (1961, 1964), Dusay and Dusay (1989), and Prochaska and Norcross (2002) provide an overview of the
key concepts associated with TA.
1. Interpersonal perspective, TA is considered one the first major theories of counseling to emphasize the role
of interpersonal functioning in mental health. Many of the key concepts in TA (such as transactional analysis and
analysis of games) are directed at understanding and enhancing interpersonal relations. TA is therefore usually
conducted in group counselling to encourage interpersonal expression. In this format, clients can gain valuable
insights into their problems and learn how to use TA techniques and other counseling strategies to overcome their
difficulties.
2. Ego states Berne identified the three ego states of parent, adult, and child. The parent ego state represents the
person’s morals and values and can be either critical or nurturing. The critical parent attempts to find fault,
whereas the nurturing parent is supportive and promotes growth. The adult ego state is the rational-thinking
dimension. It is devoid of feelings and acts as a mediator between the child and parent ego states. The child ego
state is the uninhibited side of the personality, characterized by a variety of emotions such as fear, happiness, and
excitement. The child ego state has two dimensions: the free child and the adapted child. The free child is
uninhibited and playful, whereas the adapted child is rebellious and conforming.
An ego-gram can be used to assess the relative strengths and weaknesses of the various ego states. The ego-gram
“reflects the type of person one is, one’s probable types of problems, and the strengths and weaknesses of the
personality”. Interpreting an ego-gram is a complex process that requires specialized training. Clinicians are
especially interested in ego states that are particularly high or low relative to the client’s other ego states. For
example, low critical parent (CP) suggests problems with exploitation; low nurturing parent (NP) implies
loneliness; low adult (A) indicates difficulty concentrating; low free child (FC) suggests a lack of zest for life;
and low adapted child (AC) indicates a person who is rigid and difficult to get along with.
3. Transactional analysis, the concept of transactional analysis involves analyzing the transactions between
people. It entails assessing the three ego states of parent, adult, and child of each person to determine whether the
transactions between the people are complementary, crossed, or ulterior.
Complementary transactions occur when each person receives a message from the other person’s ego state that
seems appropriate and expected.
Crossed transactions occur when one or more of the individuals receives a message from the other person’s ego
state that does not seem appropriate or expected.

Ulterior transactions occur when a person’s communication is complex and confusing. In these transactions, a
person sends an overt message from one ego state and a covert ulterior message from another ego state. The
ulterior message can be communicated verbally, nonverbally via body language, or by tone of voice.

4. Games people play Berne (1964) defined games as “an ongoing series of complementary ulterior transactions
progressing to a well-defined, predictable outcome”. These games are usually played at an unconscious level,
with the people unaware they are playing a particular game. Some of the different games people can play are
“Now I’ve got you, you SOB” and “Kick me.” Although game playing results in bad feelings for both players, it
also offers payoffs for the participants. The following example illustrates what might occur during the game of
“Kick me.”
Mary fears dating because she believes things will never work out. She reluctantly accepts a date with John,
whom she finds attractive. Within the first 10 minutes of the date, she criticizes John’s hair style and then
complains about the movie they are going to see. After the movie, John gets tired of Mary’s insults and takes her
home. As he pulls up to her house, he proceeds to tell her off (“kicks her”), saying what an ungrateful person she
is. Although Mary initially feels hurt by John’s comments, she will receive a payoff from her game. As she goes
into the house, she can ask herself, “Why do I always get rejected? Things never work out. I guess dating isn’t
for me.” The game therefore provides Mary with the payoff of having an excuse to avoid dating in the future.
John also receives a payoff in that her rudeness made him feel free to “kick her.”
5. The four fife positions Berne (1961) suggested that in developing life scripts, people put themselves in the
role of being “OK”or “not OK.”They also tend to see others as basically friendly (OK) or hostile (not OK). The
following four possible life positions represent combinations of how people define themselves and others:
1. “I’m OK, you’re OK” represents people who are happy with themselves and others.
2. “I’m OK, you’re not OK” suggests people who are suspicious of others, could have a false sense of superiority,
or may be suffering from a mental disorder such as paranoia.
3. “I’m not OK, you’re OK” indicates people who have a low self-concept and feel inadequate in relation to
others.
4. “I’m not OK, you’re not OK” implies people who have given up on themselves and life and may even be
suicidal.
5. Life Scripts, a major part of personality structure relates to the life scripts that are created beginning in
childhood. A life script is composed of parental messages—for example, a parent saying, “You’re my darling
angel”—and complementary messages from other sources that may include fairy tales, movies, and literature.
These messages create a role that a person identifies with and acts out throughout life. For instance, a person
could identify with the Superman character and play the role of the “good person who comes to the rescue” in
interpersonal relations. Another possible life script is identifying with the Cinderella character, which might lead
to feelings of self-pity, being taken advantage of, and never having a chance to get out and have fun.
6. Strokes TA suggests that the basic motivation for social interaction is related to the need for human
recognition, or strokes. Strokes can be physical, verbal, or psychological and can be positive, negative,
conditional, or unconditional. Positive strokes tend to communicate affection and appreciation and are essential
to psychological development. TA attempts to identify what types of strokes are important to clients and
encourages them to take an active role in getting these strokes. For instance, after having a rough day, people
could tell their partner that they need some extra strokes that evening.
Theory and process of counseling
The ultimate goals of TA are to help clients become autonomous, self-aware, and spontaneous and have the
capacity for intimacy. Some of the shortterm goals TA uses to help clients achieve these ultimate goals are:
• Making new decisions, called redecisions, regarding their behavior and approach to life
• Rewriting their life script so they feel OK about themselves and can relate effectively to others
• Ceasing to play games that confuse communication and interfere with authentic interpersonal functioning
• Understanding their three ego states of parent, adult, and child and how they can function in an effective and
complementary fashion
• Avoiding communicating in a manner that promotes crossed or ulterior transactions
• Learning how to obtain and give positive strokes
The counseling process in TA is educative in nature. The therapist takes on the role of teacher, providing clients
information on how to use the TA concepts. TA emphasizes cognition in its approach by showing clients how
they can use their intellect to apply TA principles to overcome mental disorders. The counseling process in TA
is also active, in that it emphasizes the importance of clients doing something outside of counseling via homework
assignments. TA also relies on the use of a counselling contract, which the therapist and the client develop
together. The contract is very specific in identifying the counseling goals, treatment plan, and roles and
responsibilities for achieving these goals.
Technique
The following TA techniques relate to the key concepts described earlier:
• Structural analysis is a technique that helps clients become aware of their three ego states and learn to use them
effectively.
• Transactional analysis helps clients learn to communicate with complementary transactions (e.g., adult to
adult).
• Script analysis is a process that explores the type of life script the client has developed and how it can be
rewritten in a more effective manner.
• Analysis of games involves clients identifying what games they play and how the games interfere with
interpersonal functioning.
Summary and Evaluation
TA is an educative, cognitively oriented process in which clients learn to apply TA principles so that they can
become self-therapists and lead autonomous, fully functioning lives. It was one of the first theories of counseling
whose goal was to focus on the role that interpersonal relations play in mental health and well-being. Its valuable
tools include analysis of games, which can help clients understand and enhance their interpersonal functioning
as an important step in overcoming their psychological problems. The strength of TA is that the concepts are
written in easily understandable words, such as parent, adult, child, strokes, and games, instead of psychological
jargon.
One weakness of TA is the possibility of focusing too much attention on self-analysis and intellectualization.
When this occurs, clients may become self-absorbed and calculating in their relationships with others. There is
evidence to suggest that TA is becoming more popular with practitioners as they begin to integrate it with other
schools of counseling, such as Gestalt and psychodrama. This wider base of application has allowed TA to be
used in industry such as airlines and utility companies. TA has also been shown to promote a variety of positive
outcomes such as wellness, communication skills, parent education, family counseling, and school functioning.
For example, there appears to be a positive relationship between getting strokes and overall physical and
psychological wellness. In addition, TA has been used to enhance communication skills and productivity. In
terms of parent education, TA has been shown to foster the self-esteem of parents in parent education programs.
In addition, TA’s concepts and procedures (such as ego states and transactional analysis) have been useful in
family counseling. Poidevant and Lewis (1995) went on to note that TA does not seem to be appropriate for some
populations, such as people who suffer from schizophrenia and severe anxiety disorders such as phobias.
A major problem with TA is that many of the concepts (such as parent, adult, and child) are difficult to evaluate
empirically. In addition, these concepts (while easy to understand) may be an oversimplification of Freud’s
theory, which appears to have left major theoretical constructs “lost in the translation” (such as the id as the major
driving force in the personality). From a postmodern perspective, TA may also be lacking in terms of not going
far enough with its interpersonal perspective. For example, additional emphasis should be placed on sociocultural
forces that can have an impact on psychological functioning.
 BRIEF COUNSELLING APPROACH
Brief counseling has grown in scope and influence in recent years. Some older systemic approaches, like the
Mental Research Institute (MRI) approach to strategic therapy in Palo Alto, California, are brief in nature and
have been designated as brief therapy. Likewise, some newer approaches to counseling, specifically solution-
focused counseling and narrative therapy, have been explicitly designed to be brief in regard to treatment.
Regardless, brief therapies are particularly important in an age when people and institutions are demanding quick
and effective mental health services. The skills employed in these approaches are vital for counselors working in
managed care settings and for counselors in public settings who are expected to do more in less time.
Brief counseling approaches are characterized by both their foci and time-limited emphasis. Most brief counseling
is not systemic in nature. However, as has been previously mentioned, strategic counseling is both systemic and
time limited. Techniques used in brief counseling are concrete and goal oriented. In addition, counselors are
active in helping foster change and in bringing it about. The emphasis in brief counseling is to identify solutions
and resources rather than to focus on etiology, pathology, or dysfunction. Therefore, the number of sessions
conducted is limited to increase client focus and motivation.
SOLUTION FOCUSED COUNSELLING
Founders and Developers
Solution-focused counseling, also commonly known as solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT), is a midwestern
phenomenon, having been originated in its present form in the 1980s by Steve deShazer (1940–2005) and Bill
O’Hanlon, both of whom were influenced directly by Milton Erickson (1901–1980), the creator of brief therapy
in the 1940s. Other prominent practitioners and theorists connected with solution-focused counseling are Michele
Weiner-Davis and Insoo Kim Berg.
View of Human Nature
Solution-focused counseling does not have a comprehensive view regarding human nature, but it focuses on client
health and strength. It traces its roots, to the work of Milton Erickson (1954), particularly Erickson’s idea that
people have within themselves the resources and abilities to solve their own problems even if they do not have a
causal understanding of them. In addition to its Ericksonian heritage, solution-focused counseling sees people as
being constructivist in nature, meaning that reality is a reflection of observation and experience. Finally,
solution-focused counseling is based on the assumption that people really want to change and that change is
inevitable.
Role of the Counselor
The solution-focused counselor’s first role is to determine how active and committed a client is to the process of
change. Clients usually fall into three categories:
1. Visitors, who are not involved in the problem and are not a part of the solution;
2. Complainants, who complain about situations but can be observant and describe problems even if they are
not invested in resolving them, and;
3. Customers, who are not only able to describe problems and how they are involved in them, but are willing to
work on finding solutions.
In addition to determining commitment, solution-focused counselors act as facilitators of change to help clients
“access the resources and strengths they already have but are not aware of or are not utilizing”. They encourage,
challenge, and set up expectations for change. They do not blame or ask “why?” They are not particularly
interested in how a problem arose. Rather, they are concerned with working together with the client to arrive at a
solution to the problem. Basically, they allow the client to be the expert on his or her life.
Goals of Counselling
A major goal of solution-focused counseling is to help clients tap inner resources and to notice exceptions to the
times when they are distressed. The goal is then to direct them toward solutions to situations that already exist in
these exceptions. Thus, the focus of sessions and homework is on positives and possibilities either now or in the
future.
Techniques used
Solution-focused counseling is a collaborative process between the counsellor and client. Besides encouraging
the client to examine exceptions to times when there are problems, several other techniques are commonly used.
One is the miracle question, which basically focuses on a hypothetical situation where a problem has
disappeared. One form of it goes as follows: “Let’s suppose tonight while you were sleeping a miracle happened
that solved all the problems that brought you here. How would you know it? What would be different?”. Another
technique is scaling, where the client is asked to use a scale from 1 (low) to 10 (high) to evaluate how severe a
problem is. Scaling helps clients understand both where they are in regard to a problem and where they need to
move in order to realistically achieve their goals. Another intervention is to give clients compliments, which are
written messages designed to praise clients for their strengths and build a “yes set” within them (i.e., a belief that
they can resolve difficulties). Compliments are usually given right before clients are given tasks or assignments.
Strength and contributions
Unique strengths of solution-focused family counseling include the following:
 The approach emphasizes brevity and its empowerment of client families.
 The approach displays flexibility and excellent research in support of its effectiveness.
 The approach reveals a positive nature to working with a variety of clients in various settings, including
school children.
 The approach focuses on change and its premise that emphasizes small change in behaviors.
 The approach can be combined with other counseling approaches, such as existentialism.
Limitations
Solution-focused counseling has its limitations. These include the following:
 The approach pays almost no attention to client history.
 The approach has a lack of focus on insight.
 The approach uses teams, at least by some practitioners, which makes the cost of this treatment high.
NARRATIVE COUNSELLING
Founders and Developers
Michael White (1948–2008) and David Epston (1990), practitioners from Australia and New Zealand,
respectively, created narrative counseling, a postmodern and social constructionist approach. Other prominent
practitioners and theorists in the field include Michael Durrant and Gerald Monk.
View of Human Nature
Narrative counselors emphasize “that meaning or knowledge is constructed through social interaction”. There is
no absolute reality except as a social product. People are seen as internalizing and judging themselves through
creating stories of their lives. Many of these stories highlight negative qualities about individuals or situations in
their lives and are troublesome or depressing. Through treatment, clients can reauthor their lives and change their
outlooks in a positive way.
Role of the Counselor
The narrative approach to change sees counselors as collaborators and masters of asking questions. Like
counselors in other traditions, those who take a narrative orientation engage their clients and use basic relationship
skills such as attending, paraphrasing, clarifying, summarizing, and checking to make sure they hear the client’s
story or problem correctly. They assume that symptoms do not serve a function and are, in fact, oppressive.
Therefore, an effort is made by counselors to address and eliminate problems as rapidly as possible. Overall,
counselors use narrative reasoning, which is characterized by stories, meaningfulness, and liveliness, in an
effort to help clients redefine their lives and relationships through new narratives.
Goals of Counselling
According to the narrative viewpoint, “people live their lives by stories”. Therefore, the emphasis in this approach
is shifted to a narrative way of conceptualizing and interpreting the world that is more expansive and filled with
more possibilities. Clients who undergo narrative therapy learn to value their own life experiences and stories if
they are successful. They will also learn how to construct new stories and meaning in their lives and, in the
process, create new realities for themselves.
Technique
The narrative approach seeks to empower clients and play to their strengths. It emphasizes developing unique
and alternative stories of life in the hope that clients will come up with novel options and strategies for living. In
order to do so, the problem that is brought to counseling is externalized. In externalization, the problem is the
problem. Furthermore, externalization of the problem separates a person from a problem and objectifies
difficulties so that the resources of clients can be focused on how a situation, such as chaos, or a feeling, such as
depression, can be dealt with. Awareness and objectivity are raised through asking how the problem affects the
person and how the person affects the problem. Other ways narrative therapists work are raising dilemmas,
so that a client examines possible aspects of a problem before the need arises, and predicting setbacks, so the
client will think about what to do in the face of adversity. Reauthoring lives is one of the main foci for the
treatment, though. By refining one’s life and relationships through a new narrative, change becomes possible. In
changing their stories, clients perceive the world differently and are freed to think and behave differently.
Counselors send letters to families about their progress. They also hold formal celebrations at the termination
of treatment and give certificates of accomplishment when clients overcome an externalized problem such as
apathy or depression.
Strength and contributions
In the narrative approach a number of unique qualities have contributed to counseling. Among them are the
following:
 Blame is alleviated and dialogue is generated as everyone works to solve a common problem.
 Clients create a new story and new possibilities for action. Stories can be used even as early as the
elementary school counseling level.
 Exceptions to problems are highlighted as in solution-focused therapy.
 Clients are prepared ahead of time for setbacks or dilemmas through counselor questions.
Limitations
Narrative counseling is not without its limitations, however.
 This approach is quite cerebral and does not work well with clients who are not intellectually astute.
 There are no norms regarding who clients should become.
 The history of a difficulty is not dealt with at all.