CS601 Midterm Notes 2020

CS601 Midterm Notes 2020
123 Topics:
CS601 Data Communication
ALI RAZA Virtual University
Of Pakistan
Data Communication
Topic # 01
Introduction the course: Data communication course basically about communication.
Data: Data can take different forms but it is need for communication.
Communication as always been a human need just like food water, shirt, from the very begging of time. We cannot survive without
communication. Communication in initial times took different forms.
Trends and advancements: Today the trends and advancements given us means and ways of Communication which are much
better than actually use and what we use in initial time. We don't have those fires, anymore. We have got laptop, we have got
smartphones, we have got ability to communicate to send text, to send audios, videos from point
A to point B in split second today.
What is taught in this course?
In this course we will cover only those topics which are related to communication That What happened, if we want to send anything
from point A to point B. We will go behind the scenes and we will understand and try to understand what happens.
What is not taught in this course?
we will not cover this course, we will not look at things like software applications, things like what happens when the information
leaves your local machine or phone or sending device.
Tips and tricks to do well:
Text books and if u have text book so only read Data communication topic and Skip all those topics which are related to networking
Text and References:
Data Communication is a reference book if you want to buy you can easily buy.
Data Communication is a very interesting Subject you will enjoy.
Topic # 02
Introduction to Data
Communication:
It's all about Sharing of information between two parties. It can be remote or local.
Telecommunications:
Tele means distance, communication is the Sharing information.
Communication at a distance includes telephony, telegraph and television etc.
Data communication:
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Exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission media. Both the source and transmission make up a source
system. Whatever connects the Source system to the destination system is called Transmission system or medium. Then the Receiver
receives the data and then as part of the destination system. It converts that data into format that Can be understood by the destination.
we send data from workstation like laptop, Computer, mobile. Our modem took It and transfer to next device and then other reviver
modem receive data and send to Server.
Topic # 03
Effectiveness of a Communication
We have already read about data Communication. Today we discuss some Characteristics of data communication.
There are your characteristics:
Delivery Accuracy Timeliness. Jitter
Delivery:
Delivery is the basic characteristics for any digital system. Delivery of information basically characterized that now well data
communication is performing.
Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in a transmission and left uncorrected are
unusable. So only accurate and efficient data should be sent to others.
Timeliness:
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late is useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, In the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay.
Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
Topic # 04
In lecture no # 4 we just explore more about characteristics of data Communication, with the help of diagrams.
Topic # 05
Components of a Data Communication system
There are five components of a data communication system.

1.Sender 2. Receiver 3. Transmission medium 4. message 5. protocol
Message: Message is the information of data which you want to send point A to B.
Sender: Sender is the device like computer, laptop, mobile phone, it can be mic if you make audio
call, it can be camera of video call.
Receivers: Receiver is the device which receive the data. It can be anything.
Transmission medium: It is the physical path from De the sender to the receiver. There is also fixed transmission medium, like
copper wire, it can be Libre optic cable. There is also wireless transmission medium it can be radio waves etc.
Protocol: A protocol is a standard Set of rules that allow electronic devices to commune with each other. Those rules include
what type of data may be transmitted, what commands are used to send and receive data and. how data transfers and confirms. you
can think of a protocol as a spoken language.
Topic # 06
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Data Representation and Data flow
As we know about data that data can be Text. Numbers. images. Audio, video.
Data Representations: Data Representation refers to the form in which data is stored, processed and transmitted. Such as text
Images into digital data that can be manipulated by electronic devices.
Data flow: How data flows from point A to B.
There are 3 modes that we are going to talk about
simplex mode, Half-Duplex, full Duplex.
Simplex: It's mean if we send data from one device to another is unidirectional, as in a one-way. Street, only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex made is used to send data in one direction.
Hall-Duplex: In half duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending the other can only receive.
full-duplex mode: In fall duplex modes transmission is simultaneously bi- directions. The devices can transmit and receive
Simultaneously.
Topic # 07
Networks
Networks: Interconnection of a set of devices Capable of communication. whether local or wide network. It consists of two
components, Host and Connecting device.
Host: A network host is a computer or the other device Connected to a computer network. A host may work as a server offering
information resources, services and applications to users or other hosts on the network.
Connecting Device: connecting devices are bridges between the different parts of a document that all the pieces together into one
Coherent package.
A network also must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
1. Performance:
2. Reliability:
3. Security:
Performance: Performance of a network Pertains to the measure of service quality of Perceived by the user. The characteristics of
performance are (Throughout, Delay).
Reliability: The problem of sending a packet from a source to a destination as a single data link is considered. Reliable
communication is defined as the delivery of a set of packets in order, and without any losses or duplicate.
Security: Data Security is a process of Protecting files, database, and accounts on a network by adopting a set of controls,
applications and techniques, that identify the relative importance of different data sets their sensitivity, regulatory compliance
requirements and then applying appropriate protections to secure those resources.
(Throughput): tells you how much data was transferred from a source at any given time.
(Delay :-) network delay refers to the amount of time it takes.
Topic # 08
Physical Structure
Physical Structure consists of network. Attribute. link
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There are two types of connection point to point and multipoint.
Type of connection(point-to-point) (multipoint)
Link. A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For Communication to occur, two
devices must be Connected in the same link at the same way to the link at the Same time. Connections. When two devices are
linked together, they connect with each other.
point to point: The point to point provides a dedicated connection between two devices, the entire capacity of the link is reserved
for transmission the data between those two devices only.
Multipoint: Connections more than two devices are sharing a link the entire capacity either shared spatially or temporally. This
means that either every computer shares a specific of the link or each computer shares space with the link at a specific time when
being used.
Topic # 09
Physical topology
The physical topology is the way you physically lay out the network, like a map, and the logical topology is the way the
information flows on the network. Usually, the physical and logical topology is the same, but sometimes they can differ, such as
in a physical star/logical ring topology.
Topic # 10
physical layout of network:
Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer
network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Physical topology means the physical design of a network including the
devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a network as opposed to its
physical design. In general, physical topology relates to a core network whereas logical topology relates to basic network.
Physical Topologies:
1. Mesh Topology:
Mesh topology is a type of networking where all nodes cooperate to distribute data amongst each other. they are typically used for
things like home automation, smart HVAC control, and smart buildings. A mesh network is a local network topology in which the
infrastructure nodes connect directly, dynamically and non-hierarchically to as many other nodes as possible and cooperate with
one another to efficiently route data from/to clients.
2. star topology:
A star topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all nodes are individually connected to a central
connection point, like a hub or a switch. A star takes more cable than e.g. a bus, but the benefit is that if a cable fails, only one
node will be brought down.
Topic # 11
3. Bus Topology:
A bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the nodes are connected to a single cable. The cable
to which the nodes connect is called a "backbone". If the backbone is broken, the entire segment fails.
4. Ring topology
A ring topology is a network configuration where device connections create a circular data path. Each networked device is
connected to two others, like points on a circle. Together, devices in a ring topology are referred to as a ring network.
Topic # 12
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Network Type
Network Classification:
Size
Geographical coverage
Ownership.
The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via any medium. LAN, MAN and WAN
are the three major types of the network designed to operate over the area they cover. There are some similarities and
dissimilarities between them.
Local Area Networks (LANs)
A local area network (LAN) is a collection of devices connected together in one physical location, such as a building, office, or
home. A LAN can be small or large, ranging from a home network with one user to an enterprise network with thousands of
users and devices in an office or school.
Usually privately owned
Connects some hosts in a single office, building, or campus
Can be as simple as two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office
Can extend throughout a company
Host Address
Topic # 13
Wide Area Network (WANs)
Wider geographical spam than a LAN
Spans a town, a state, a country, or even the world
Interconnects connecting devices such as switches, routers, or modems
Normally created and run by communication companies
Wide area network connects different devices together
There are three types of wide area network:
1. Point to point wan
2. Switched wan
3. internetwork
In computer networking, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a Data link layer (layer 2) communications protocol between two
routers directly without any host or any other networking in between. It can provide connection authentication, transmission
encryption, and compression.
WAN Switching is a technology where computers are connected to each other over a long distance, using telephone lines and
satellite communications utilizing serial transmission.
internetwork devices are all devices that can communicate with other networks, i.e., when there are other devices (like a router)
that give those devices access to a different physical or virtual network.
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Topic #14
Switching
Internetwork is basically switched network. You always have a need of switched network from one part to another part. Switched
network forward traffic from one part two another part.
There are two types of Switching:
Circuit switched network:
Packet switched network
Data communications network in which data is divided into small segments known as packets. These are divided so that each
packet forms part of a complete message that can be routed through a network of switches to its destination independently of all
other packets forming the same message.
Topic# 15
The Internet
• An internet (note the lowercase I) is two or more networks that can communicate with each other
• The Internet (uppercase I), and is composed of thousands of interconnected networks.
• Accessing the Internet
• An Internet service provider (ISP)) is an organization that provides services for accessing, using, or participating in the
Internet. Internet service providers can be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit,
or otherwise privately owned.
• Peering is a method that allows two networks to connect and exchange traffic directly without having to pay a third party
to carry traffic across the Internet. The Internet consists of over 25,000 autonomous systems that independently route traffic.
Peering is often used as a method by which these systems can interact and exchange traffic, allowing it to flow from one
end user, over the Internet, to another end user.
• How a Peering Works: An Internet exchange point provides a single location for all the hardware necessary to connect
multiple networks. Internet exchange providers have membership forms on their websites that you can fill out to apply for
space at their colocation. If you are approved, they will contact you directly to facilitate your physical connection to their
colocation.
Topic# 16
Internet History
• Telegraph and Telephone networks, before 1960:
• Constant-rate communication only
1947 Agency od USA present the ARPAnet.
• ARPANET- Packet Switched
In 1973 once again by WinTV albomycin
• Birth of the Internet &TCP/IP
In 1980 Also present internet in advance level
• MILNET
• CSNET
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• NSFNET
• Internet Today
• In 1990’s it introduces as a more effective way of communication till today.
Topic# 17:
Internet standard and administration
• Internet draft
• Request for Comments (RFC)
✓ Proposed Standard
✓ Draft Standard
✓ Internet Standard
✓ Historic
✓ Experimental
✓ Informational
Internet start from internet Draft, and internet draft request for comments and proposed to standard level and it take at
least six months and two tries of implementation of drafting and then Draft standard take four months and two tries of
converting from Drat to Internet standard and then all point become history of experiment and information.
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Administrations:
Who control who manage and who RFC:
ISOC: Internet society
IAB: Internet Architecture Board
IRTF: Internet research TransForce
IETF: Internet Engineering TransForce
Have multiple groups of working are controlled by them:
Topic#18
Protocol Layering - Introduction
• Protocol
Rules that both the sender and receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively
A protocol is a standard set of rules that allow electronic devices to communicate with each other. These rules include what type
of data may be transmitted, what commands are used to send and receive data, and how data transfers are confirmed. You can
think of a protocol as a spoken language.
• Protocol Layering
Simple Communication: only one simple protocol
Complex Communication, we need a protocol at each layer, or Protocol Layering
Protocol Layering - Example Scenario 1
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Topic#19
Protocol Layering - Example Scenario 2
Postal carrier facility
Protocol Layering - Advantages and Disadvantages

Layer 1 convert verbally speech into text
Layer 2 convert plain text to encrypted text
Layer 3 took this text and put it in analog and then send it by this way.
Topic # 20
Protocol Layering - Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages
✓ Modularity
✓ Separation of Service & Implementation
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✓ Reduced Complexity & Cost
• Disadvantages
✓ None Really!
Topic # 21
Protocol Layering - Principles
• Two Principles
✓ Bidirectional Communication → Each Layer performs two opposite tasks in each direction
✓ Two objects under each layer at both sites should be identical
The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each layer so that it is able to perform
two opposite tasks, one in each direction. The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects
under each layer at both sites should be identical.
Topic# 22
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
✓ Protocol suite used in Internet today
✓ Each Layer provides specific functionality
✓ Hierarchical Protocol
✓ Presented in 1973 and chosen to be the official protocol of Internet in 1983
• TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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Topic # 23
TCP/IP Protocol Suite – Function of Layers
TCP: The Transmission Control Protocol is one of the main protocols of the Internet protocol suite. It originated in the
initial network implementation in which it complemented the Internet Protocol. Therefore, the entire suite is commonly
referred to as TCP/IP.
IP: The Internet Protocol is the principal communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying datagrams
across network boundaries. Its routing function enables internetworking, and essentially establishes the Internet.
• Logical Connections between TCP/IP Layers
In the TCP/IP protocol suite, what are the identical objects at the sender and the receiver sites when we think about the
logical connection at the application layer? Identical objects are (messages). Q2-5. A host communicates with another
host using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
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Topic # 24:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite – Function of Layers
Identical objects (messages)
Identical objects (segment or user datagram)
Identical objects (datagram) Identical objects (datagram)
Identical objects (frame) Identical objects (frame)
Identical objects (bits)

Identical objects (bits)
Topic#25:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite – Layer Description
Application Layer:
An application layer is an abstraction layer that specifies the shared communications protocols and interface methods used by
hosts in a communications network. The application layer abstraction is used in both of the standard models of computer
networking: The Internet Protocol Suite and the OSI model.
Transport Layer:
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In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the layered architecture of protocols in the
network stack in the Internet protocol suite and the OSI model. The protocols of this layer provide host-to-host communication
services for applications
Layer 4 of the OSI Model: Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data
transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation and DE segmentation, and error control.
Network Layer:
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the network layer is layer 3. The network layer is responsible for packet
forwarding including routing through intermediate routers.
DATA Link Layer:
The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the protocol
layer that transfers data between nodes on a network segment across the physical layer.
Physical Layer:
In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the physical layer or layer 1 is the first and lowest layer. This layer may be
implemented by a PHY chip. The physical layer defines the means of transmitting raw bits over a physical data link connecting
network nodes.
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Topic # 26:
Encapsulation & Decapsulation
• Important Concept in Internet Protocol Layering

• Layer Header
Encapsulation
In computer networking, encapsulation is a method of designing modular communication protocols in which logically separate
functions in the network are abstracted from their underlying structures by inclusion or information hiding within higher level
objects.
Decapsulation
Decapsulation is the process of opening up encapsulated data that are usually sent in the form of packets over a
communication network. It can be literally defined as the process of opening a capsule, which, in this case, refers to encapsulated
or wrapped-up data.
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Addressing in TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• Every communication needs at least two addresses:
✓ Source Address &
✓ Destination Address
• Addressing by Layer
• Physical Layer is an exception
Topic # 27:
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• ISO established in 1947
• Close to three-fourths of countries represented
• In 1970’s Introduced OSI Model in late 1970s
• OSI: a 7-Layer Model
• Application Layer:
• An application layer is an abstraction layer that specifies the shared communications protocols and interface methods used
by hosts in a communications network. The application layer abstraction is used in both of the standard models of
computer networking: The Internet Protocol Suite and the OSI model.
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Presentation Layer:
• In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the presentation layer is layer 6 and serves as the data translator for
the network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
• Session Layer:
• In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the session layer is layer 5. The session layer provides the
mechanism for opening, closing and managing a session between end-user application processes, i.e., a semi-permanent
dialogue.
• Transport Layer:
• In computer networking, the transport layer is a conceptual division of methods in the layered architecture of protocols in
the network stack in the Internet protocol suite and the OSI model. The protocols of this layer provide host-to-host
communication services for applications
• Layer 4 of the OSI Model: Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable
data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation and DE segmentation, and error control.
• Network Layer:
• In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the network layer is layer 3. The network layer is responsible for
packet forwarding including routing through intermediate routers.
• DATA Link Layer:
• The data link layer, or layer 2, is the second layer of the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking. This layer is the
protocol layer that transfers data between nodes on a network segment across the physical layer.
• Physical Layer:
• In the seven-layer OSI model of computer networking, the physical layer or layer 1 is the first and lowest layer. This layer
may be implemented by a PHY chip. The physical layer defines the means of transmitting raw bits over a physical data
link connecting network nodes.
OSI Model vs TCP/IP Protocol suite

• Two Layers of OSI missing from TCP/IP
• Application (TCP/IP) = Application + Presentation + Session (OSI)
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Lack of OSI Model’s Success
• Three reasons OSI did not replace TCP/IP:
✓ OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place
✓ Some layers in OSI not fully defined
✓ Performance of TCP/IP better than that of OSI
Topic # 28:
Data Communication versus Computer Networks
Analog & Digital Transmission

Transmission Media
Switching
Error Detection and Correction
Media Access and Data Link Control
Wired and Wireless LANs
Topic # 29
Communication at Physical Layer
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Analog & Digital Data
• Data → Analog or Digital
• Analog Data → Continuous
• Digital Data → Discrete
• Examples: Analog Clock vs. Digital Clock
• Human voice vs. Data in Computer
Topic # 30:
• Analog & Digital Signals
• Signals represent Data
• Signals → Analog or Digital
• Analog Signal → Infinite Levels of Intensity over time
• Digital Signal → Limited number of defined values
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Periodic & Non-periodic Signals
• Analog/Digital Signal → Periodic or Non-periodic
• Periodic Signal → Pattern
• Period and Cycle
• Non-Periodic → No Pattern
• Periodic ANALOG Signals and Non-periodic DIGITAL Signals
Topic # 31
Periodic Analog Signals
• Periodic Analog Signals → Simple or Composite
• Simple Periodic Analog signal→ Sine wave
• Composite Periodic Analog signal→ Composed of multiple sine waves
Value
•••
Time
Sine Wave – Peak Amplitude
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Topic # 32
Sine Wave –Frequency
• Period (T) → Amount of time required to complete 1 cycle
• Frequency (f) → No. of Periods in 1 sec
• f = 1/T or T = 1/f
If you want to defined frequency then you are allowed to use f=1/T (Period)
If you want to defined period then you are allowed to use T=1/F (Frequency)
Topic # 33
Sine Wave –Frequency
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The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of this sine wave can be determined as follows:
The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?.
Topic# 34
Phase (or Phase Shift)
• Position of waveform relative to time 0
• Phase describes the amount of shift of the wave
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• Indicates start of the first cycle
Topics # 35
Wavelength
Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission medium.
Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium
(see Figure 3.7).
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Topic # 36
Time & Frequency Domains
Put simply, a time-domain graph shows how a signal changes over time, whereas a frequency-domain graph shows how much
of the signal lies within each given frequency band over a range of frequencies.
A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. We have been showing a sine wave by
using what is called a time domain plot. The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time (it is
an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.
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Example 3.7
The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing with more than one sine wave. For example,
Figure 3.9 shows three sine waves, each with different amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three spikes in
the frequency domain.
Figure
Topic # 37
Composite Signals
So far, we have focused on simple sine waves. Simple sine waves have many applications in daily life. We can send a single
sine wave to carry electric energy from one place to another. For example, the power company sends a single sine wave
with a frequency of 60 Hz to distribute electric energy to houses and businesses.
• Single Sine Wave can only carry limited information
• Composite Signal is made up of multiple simple sine waves
• Can be periodic or non-periodic
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• A Composite Periodic Signal
Decomposition of Composite Periodic Signal

If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies. If the composite
signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with continuous frequencies.
Amplitude
•••
Time
Amplitude
f 3f 9f Frequency
b. Frequency-domain decomposition of the composite signal
Topic # 38
Bandwidth
• An important characteristic that measures Network Performance
• Bandwidth can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring values:
• Bandwidth in Hertz
• Bandwidth in bits per second
Bandwidt
h
Bandwidt
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h in Hertz
h in bps
• Range of frequencies contained in a Composite Signal
• The bandwidth is normally a difference between two frequencies (the highest and the lowest)
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.
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Topic # 39
Digital Signals
In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two levels.
• Information can also be represented by a digital signal
• For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage
• A digital signal can have more than two levels so that we can send more than one bit for each level
In general, if a signal
has L levels, each
level needs log2 L
log2 4 = 2
bits
TOPIC # 40
In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level. Figure 3.17 shows two signals, one with two levels and the other
with four.
A digital signal has

eight levels. How
many bits are
needed per level?
We calculate the
number of bits from
the following
formula. Each signal
level is represented
by 3 bits.
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A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?
Example 3.17
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by using the formula.
Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However, this answer is not realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs
to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can represent one level.
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the number of bits by using the formula.
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Bit Rate
• Number of bits sent in 1 second
• Bit Rate is expressed in bits per second (bps)
• Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate characteristics
Topic # 41
Bit Rate
Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate characteristics. Another term—
bit rate (instead of frequency)—is used to describe digital signals. The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in
bits per second (bps). Figure 3.17 shows the bit rate for two signals.
• Number of bits sent in 1 second
• Bit Rate is expressed in bits per second (bps)
• Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate characteristics
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Example
Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per second. What is the required bit rate of the
channel?
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Example 3.18
Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1 ms (1 ms is 10–3 s) and 1 s (1 s is 106 μs). We make the following substitutions:
A digitized voice channel is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the signal at
twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit
rate?
Example 3.19
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the bit rate
is
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BIT LENGTH:
We discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance one cycle occupies on the transmission
medium. We can define something similar for a digital signal: the bit length. The bit length is the distance one bit occupies
on the transmission medium.
Topic # 42
Digital Signal as Composite Analog Signal
• Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signal
• A digital signal, in the time domain, comprises connected vertical and horizontal line segments
• Infinite Bandwidth
Vertical line in the time

domain: Frequency of infinity
Horizontal line in the time
domain: Frequency of zero
• Digital As Composite Analog

• A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity: a horizontal line in the time domain means a
frequency of zero. Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity implies all frequencies in between are
part of the domain.
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• A vertical line in the time domain means a frequency of infinity: a horizontal line in the time domain means a
frequency of zero. Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity implies all frequencies in between are
• part of the domain.
Topic # 43:
Transmission of Digital Signals
• Digital signal, periodic or non-periodic, is a composite analog signal with frequencies between zero and infinity
(Infinite Bandwidth)
• Two approaches for transmission:
✓ Baseband Transmission
✓ Broadband Transmission
Baseband Transmission is a signaling technology that sends digital signals over a single frequency as discrete electrical pulses.
The entire bandwidth of a baseband system carries only one data signal and is generally less than the amount of bandwidth
available on a broadband transmission system.
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Broadband Transmission is a signaling technology that sends signals simultaneously over a range of different frequencies as
electromagnetic waves. The bandwidth of a broadband system can usually carry multiple, simultaneous data signals.
✓ Baseband Transmission
Low Pass Channel
Sending a Digital Signal without changing it to an Analog Signal

Transmission of Digital Signals
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Topic # 44
Broadband Transmission (Modulation)
• Changing the Digital signal to an Analog signal for transmission
• Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel—a channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero
• More available than a low-pass channel
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Topic # 45
Transmission Impairments
• Transmission media are not perfect
• Cause Signal impairments
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• Signal sent is not the same as the signal received
What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise (see Figure 3.26).
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means
that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
Attenuation:
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its
energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after
a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.
To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. Figure 3.27 shows the effect of attenuation and
amplification.
Topic # 46
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Attenuation and Amplification - Decibel
• Unit of Signal strength is Decibel or dB
• Decibel (dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or one signal at two different points
• Decibel is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if signal is amplified.

Example:
• Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one half. This means that P2 =
0.5 P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as
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Example:
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1. In this case,
the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as
Topic # 47:
Distortion
Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in composite signals made up with
different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling through a medium
• Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
• Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
• Each signal component has its own propagation speed (see the next section) through a medium and, therefore, its
own delay in arriving at the final destination.
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• Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the same as the period duration.
• Figure 3.29
Topic # 48
Noise
Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of signals and data. Noise occurs in digital and
analog systems, and can affect files and communications of all types, including text, programs, images, audio, and telemetry. ...
Normally this noise is of little or no consequence.
• Noise is another cause of impairment.

• Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal.
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire, which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the
transmitter.
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• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors.
• Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
Figure 3.31
Noise – Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
• Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) is used to find the theoretical bit rate limit of a signal
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The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB
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The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are calculated as
Topic # 49:
Data Rate Limits
A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data
rate depends on three factors: The bandwidth available.
• How fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel?
• Data Rate depends on 3 factors:
✓ The Bandwidth available
✓ The level of the signals we use
✓ The level of noise
• Two theoretical formulas developed to calculate the data rate:
✓ one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel
✓ another by Shannon for a noisy channel
✓ For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate
✓ Finding balance between Bit rate and System Reliability
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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Rate
Example
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as
Topic # 50
Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity:
• In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy
• In 1944, Claude Shannon introduced a formula, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:
• Example:
• Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words,
the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is calculated as
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Example:
Theoretical highest bit rate of a Telephone line with a Bandwidth of 3000 Hz assigned for data communication. SNR is
usually 3162. The capacity is calculated as:
Using Both Limits

• In practice, we need to use both methods to find the limits and signal levels
• Shannon’s formula gives us the upper limit while the Nyquist formula gives us the signal levels
Topic # 51
Network Performance
• Data transmission (in form of Signal) over a network and how network behaves is important
• More important is the performance of the network
• How good is our network?
Network
Performance
Bandwidth Throughput Latency
• There are 3 characteristics of network performance

• Bandwidth:
• Bandwidth is measured as the amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another within a network in a
specific amount of time. Typically, bandwidth is expressed as a bitrate and measured in bits per second (bps).
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• An important characteristic that measures Network Performance
• Bandwidth can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring values:
• Bandwidth in Hertz
• Bandwidth in bits per second
• Example 3.42
• The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
• can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change the digital signal to analog.
• If the telephone company improves the quality of the line and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send
112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned in Example 3.42.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth in Bandwidth in
Hertz bps
Range of frequencies No. of bits a channel, link
or network can transmit in a composite signal
Throughput
• Measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network.
• Bandwidth is not the same as Throughput
• A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this link with T always less than B
• A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this network?
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The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a network. Although, at first glance,
bandwidth in bits per second and throughput seem the same, they are different. A link may have a bandwidth of B bps,
but we can only send T bps through this link with T always less than B.
The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination from the time
the first bit is sent out from the source.
We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and processing
delay.
Latency = propagation time + transmission time + queuing time + processing delay
Example 3.44
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
Throughput =
(12,000X10,000)/60 = 2Mbps
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.
Topic # 52:
Latency or Delay
• Latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely arrive at the destination from the
time the first bit is sent out from the source
Example
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4
× 108 m/s in cable.
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Topic # 53
Delay – Bandwidth Delay Product
• Bandwidth and delay are two performance metrics of a link
• Product of the two, The Bandwidth-Delay Product defines the number of bits that can fill a link
• Bandwidth-Delay Product
Case 1
Case 2
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Delay - Jitter
• Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter different delays and the application using the data at the
receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for example)
• Delay for first packet is 20 ms for the second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the real-time application that
uses the packets endures jitter.
Topic # 54
Digital-to-digital Conversion
• Data → Analog or Digital
• Signals → Analog or Digital
• Digital Transmission
• Analog Transmission
• Digital Transmission
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Signal Elément versus Data Elément
"A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of information (a bit). A signal element is the shortest
unit of a digital signal. Data elements are what we need to send; signal elements are what we can send. Data elements are being
carried; signal elements are the carriers."
• A Data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of information → Bit
• A Signal element is the shortest unit of a digital signal
• Data Elements: Carried
• Signal Elements: Carriers
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Topic # 55
Data rate and Signal rate:
Data rate – Number of data elements transmitted per second. Signal rate – Number of signal elements transmitted per second.
• Data Rate is number of data elements sent in 1 sec (bps)
• Signal Rate is number of signal elements sent in 1 sec (baud)
• Data Rate → Bit Rate
• Signal Rate → Pulse Rate, Modulation Rate or Baud Rate
Example:
A signal has a signal rate of 100 bauds. What is the Data rate if one data element is carried per signal element?
Topic # 56
Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. By this technique we convert a sequence of bits to a digital
signal. At the sender side digital data are encoded into a digital signal and at the receiver side the digital data are recreated by
decoding the digital signal
• Digital data to Digital signals
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• Data (Text, Numbers, Pictures, Audio, or Video) is stored in computer memory as sequences of bits
• Line coding converts a sequence of Bits to a Digital Signal
• Line Coding and Decoding
Line Coding Schemes
Line Coding Schemes

• We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad categories
Unipolar NRZ scheme(non-return-to-zero)
Unipolar encoding is a line code. A positive voltage represents a binary 1, and zero volts indicates a binary 0. ... It is
called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit, as instead happens in other line coding
schemes, such as Manchester code.
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Polar schemes (NRZ):
Polar NRZ. In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse, while a Low in data is represented
by a negative pulse.
Topic # 58:
Polar RZ
Polar RZ. In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its duration T0 is less than the
symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during
the remaining half of the bit duration.
Polar schemes (RZ)(return-to-zero)
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Topic # 59:
Line Coding Schemes
• We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five broad categories
• Polar BiPhase:
Biphase encoding: It has following characteristics: Modulation rate twice that of NRZ and bandwidth correspondingly
greater. ... Since there can be transition at the beginning as well as in the middle of the bit interval the clock operates at twice
the data transfer rate.
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Topic # 60
Bipolar schemes: AMI & Pseudoternary
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) – A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. ... Pseudoternary – Bit 1 is encoded as a zero
voltage and the bit 0 is encoded as alternating positive and negative voltages i.e., opposite of AMI scheme. Example: Data =
010010. The bipolar scheme is an alternative to NRZ.
Multilevel: 2B1Q:
Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme 10.2.5. Multiline Transmission NRZ-I and differential Manchester are classified as differential
encoding but use two transition rules to encode binary data (no inversion, inversion). If we have a signal with
2 Binary 1 Quinary
Table 4.1: Summary of line coding schemes
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Topic # 61
Block Coding
Block coding refers to the technique of adding extra bits to a digital word in order to improve the reliability of transmission. The
word consists of the message bits (often called information, or data) plus code bits. ... A block code adds bits to existing message
bits, or blocks, independently of adjacent blocks 1
• Block coding changes a block of ‘m’ bits into a block of ‘n’ bits (n>m)
• mB/nB encoding technique
• We need Redundancy to ensure Synchronization
• Block coding gives us redundancy and improves line coding performance
Example:
We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of 4B/5B and
NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
Topic # 62:
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Block Coding
Example:
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Topic # 63:
Example
• We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of 4B/5B
and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
• What is the minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of 4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 1.25 Mbps. The minimum bandwidth using NRZ-I is N/2 or 625 kHz.
The Manchester scheme needs a minimum bandwidth of 1 MHz.
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Example:
8B/10B block encoding:

8b/10b coding is DC-free, meaning that the long-term ratio of ones and zeros transmitted is exactly 50%. To achieve this, the
difference between the number of ones transmitted and the number of zeros transmitted is always limited to ±2, and at the end of
each symbol, it is either +1 or −1.
Topic # 64
Scrambling
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In telecommunications and recording, a scrambler (also referred to as a randomizer) is a device that manipulates a data stream
before transmitting. The manipulations are reversed by a descrambler at the receiving side. Scrambling is widely used in satellite,
radio relay communications and PSTN modems.
• Biphase schemes suitable for LAN but not for Long Distance
• Block Coding + NRZ-I solves synch issue but has DC component
• Bipolar AMI has a narrow bandwidth (no DC Component) but synch issue (long series of 0s)
• The system needs to insert the required pulses based on the defined scrambling rules
AMI used with scrambling:
This means that the signal cannot be corrupted, it is stronger than error detection. ... Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) used
with scrambling
Topic # 65:
Types of Scrambling Techniques
Scrambling is a digital encoding technique that is used in modern data communication schemes and can principally provide aid
in retrieving information from received data enhancing synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver.
• Two common scrambling techniques are B8ZS and HDB3
• Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)
• High-density bipolar 3-zero (HDB3)
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Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique:
Topic # 66
Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique
High-Density Bipolar-3 Zeros  Based on bipolar-AMI  String of four zeros is replaced with sequences containing one or two
pulses. B. HDB3 Number of Bipolar Pulses since last substitution Polarity of Preceding Pulse Odd Even - 000- +00+ + 000+ -00-
HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or B00V depending on the number of nonzero pulses after the last
substitution.  If no of non-zero pulses are even the substitution is B00V to make total non-zero pulse even.  If no of non-zero
pulses are odd the substitution is 000V to make total non-zero pulses even.  Example 1 of HDB3 encoding the pattern of bits " 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 “encoded in HDB3 is " + 0 0 0 V - + 0 " (the corresponding encoding using AMI is " + 0 0 0 0 - + "). Different
situations in HDB3 scrambling technique
Example 2 of HDB3 encoding the pattern of bits " 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 " encoded in HDB3 is " + 0 - 0 0 0 V
0 + - B 0 0 V - + B 0 0 V 0 0 " which is: " + 0 - 0 0 0 - 0 + - + 0 0 + - + - 0 0 - 0 0 "
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Topic # 67
Analog-to-digital Conversion
1. In electronics, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, or A-to-D) is a system that converts an analog signal, such as
a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital camera, into a digital signal. ...
2. There are several ADC architectures.
• Analog Data to Digital Data
• Process of Digitization
• Two techniques:
✓ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
✓ Delta Modulation (DM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the standard form of digital audio in
computers, CDs, digital telephony and other digital audio applications.
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding
Sampling:
In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous-time signal to a discrete-time ... Audio sampling[edit]. Digital
audio uses pulse-code modulation (PCM) and digital signals for sound reproduction. This includes analog-to-digital.
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation) is a standardized method used in the telephone network (POTS) to change an analog signal
to a digital one. The analog signal is first sampled at a 8-kHz sampling rate. Then each sample is quantized into 1 of 256
levels and then encoded into digital eight-bit words.
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Nyquist Sampling Rate
• Nyquist → fs = 2fh
• Sampling sine wave at three sampling rates:
✓ fs = 4f (2 times the Nyquist rate)
✓ fs = 2f (Nyquist rate)
✓ fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate)
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Topic # 69:
Quantization & encoding of a sampled signal:
Quantization is the process of changing a continuous-amplitude signal into on with discrete amplitudes. To communicate
sampled values, we send a sequence of bits that represents the quantized value. For 16 quantization levels, 4 bits are
required. PCM can use a binary representation of value.
• Sampling → Series of pulses with amplitude values between min and max signal amplitude
• Infinite set with non-integral values not suitable for encoding
• We quantize the sampling output into certain levels based on range of amplitudes and how much accuracy is
needed
• PCM encoding. The input to the PCM ENCODER module is an analog message. This must be constrained to a defined
bandwidth and amplitude range. The maximum allowable message bandwidth will depend upon the sampling rate to be
used.
Topic # 70
Decoding
Just for explanation:
(The voltage at Vout of the decoder is identical with s(t) above. The decoder itself has introduced no distortion of the received
signal. But s(t) is already an inexact version of the sample-and-hold operation at the encoder. This will give rise to quantization
distortion as well as the sampling distortion already mentioned. You should read about these phenomena in a Text book.
extracts a frame synchronization signal FS from the data itself (from the embedded alternate ones and zeros in the LSB position),
or uses an FS signal stolen from the transmitter (see above).
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2. extracts the binary number, which is the coded (and quantized) amplitude of the sample from which it was derived, from the
frame.
3. identifies the quantization level which this number represents.
4. generates a voltage proportional to this amplitude level.
5. presents this voltage to the output Vout. The voltage appears at Vout for the duration of the frame under examination.
6. message reconstruction can be achieved, albeit with some distortion, by lowpass filtering. A built-in reconstruction filter is
provided in the module.)
Topic # 71:
Analog-to-digital Conversion
• Analog Data to Digital Data
• Process of Digitization
• Two techniques:
✓ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
✓ Delta Modulation (DM)
Delta Modulation (DM)
A delta modulation (DM or Δ-modulation) is an analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog signal conversion technique used for
transmission of voice information where quality is not of primary importance. The analog signal is approximated with a series of
segments.
• PCM is a very complex technique
• Delta modulation is a simpler technique
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• PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample; DM finds the change from the previous sample
• No code words
The process of delta modulation:
Topic # 72:
Delta Modulation Components
• Delta modulation is a simpler technique
• DM finds the change from the previous sample
• No code words
Delta Modulation Components
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Topic # 73:
Transmission Modes
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices connected over a network. It is also
called Communication Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of information.
• Transmission of Data:
✓ Wiring
➢ Data Stream
✓ Do we send 1 bit at a time; or do we group bits into larger groups and, if so, how?
• Parallel or Serial Transmission
Parallel Transmission
When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over multiple channels at the same time.
This means that data can be sent much faster than using serial transmission methods.
• Binary data (1s ad 0s) organized in groups of ‘n’ bits
• We send ‘n’ bits at a time instead of just one
• ‘n’ wires required to send ‘n’ bits at one time
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Topic # 74
Serial Transmission
When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a specific order, since they can only be
sent one after another. The order of the data bits is important as it dictates how the transmission is organized when it is received.
• In serial transmission one bit follows another
• Only one communication channel rather than ‘n’ to transmit data
Serial Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission is a mode of serial transmission for modems and other telecommunication devices in which the
data is transmitted as a continuous stream of bytes separated by start and stop bits.
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Topic # 75
Serial Transmission
• In serial transmission one bit follows another
• Only one communication channel rather than ‘n’ to transmit data
Direction of flow
Frame Frame Frame
11110111 11111011 11110110 ••• 11110111 11110011
Isochronous Transmission
The ISOCHRONOUS (ISOC) format for data transmission is a procedure or protocol in which each information CHARACTER
or BYTE is individually synchronized or FRAMED by the use of Start and Stop Elements, also referred to as START BITS and
STOP BITS.
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• Real time Audio and Video
• Synchronization between characters is not enough
• Entire stream should be synchronized
• Isochronous guarantees fixed rate data
Topic # 76
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
• Process of changing one of the characteristics of analog signal based on the information in digital data
• A sine wave is defined by 3 characteristics:
✓ Amplitude
✓ Frequency
✓ Phase
✓ By changing one of these characteristics, we can use it to represent a digital signal
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Digital-to-analog conversion (DAC), Process by which digital signals (which have a binary state)
are converted to analog signals (which theoretically have an infinite number of states). For example, a modem converts
computer digital data to analog audio-frequency signals that can be transmitted over telephone lines.
Types of Digital to Analog Conversion

There are mainly two types of methods that are commonly used for digital to analog conversions. The Weighted Resistor
method, the R-2R Ladder Network Method along with The Serial Digital to Analog Converter, BCD Digital to Analog
Converter and the Bipolar Digital to Analog Converter.
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Topic # 77
Aspects of Digital to Analog Conversion
• Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, two basic issues must be reviewed:
✓ Bit and Baud rates and
✓ The Carrier Signal
• In Analog Transmission of Digital Data, Baud Rate is less than or equal to the Bit Rate
✓ Data Element vs. Signal Element
✓ Data Rate vs. Signal Rate
• Bandwidth Required ∝ Signal Rate (except FSK)
• Carrier Signal
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Topic # 78
• Example
• An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate?
• Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are carried by each
signal element? How many signal elements do we need?
Topic # 79
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
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Amplitude-shift keying is a form of amplitude modulation that represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier
wave. In an ASK system, the binary symbol d-amplitude carrier wave and fixed frequency for a bit duration of T seconds.
• The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes
• Binary ASK or On-Off Keying (OOK)
Topic # 80
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
• The amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements
• Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes
• Binary ASK or On-Off Keying (OOK)
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Example:
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit
rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Topic # 81
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through
discrete frequency changes of a carrier signal. The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK uses a pair of
discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s) information.
• The frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data
• The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes for the next
signal element if the data element changes
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant
• The frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data
• Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant
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Topic # 82
Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and
the bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
Implementation of BFSK
Topic # 83
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation process which conveys data by changing (modulating) the phase of a constant
frequency reference signal (the carrier wave). The modulation is accomplished by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a precise
time.
• The phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal elements
• Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant
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• PSK is relatively common than ASK or FSK
Example:
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.
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Topic # 84
Constellation Diagram
A constellation diagram is a representation of a signal modulated by a digital modulation scheme such as quadrature amplitude
modulation or phase-shift keying. It displays the signal as a two-dimensional xy-plane scatter diagram in the complex plane at
symbol sampling instants.
• Helps us define the phase and amplitude of a signal element when we are using two carriers (one in phase and
other in quadrature)
• Signal element is represented as a dot
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Topic# 85
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Quadrature amplitude modulation is the name of a family of digital modulation methods and a related family of analog
modulation methods widely used in modern telecommunications to transmit information.
• PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish small differences in phase which limits its potential bit
rate
• We have been altering only one of the three characteristics of a sine wave at a time; but what if we alter two?
• Why not combine ASK and PSK?
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Analog-to-analog conversion, or modulation, is the representation of analog information by an analog signal. It is a process by
virtue of which a characteristic of carrier wave is varied according to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
• Representation of Analog information by an Analog signal
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
Types of Analog-to-Analog Modulation
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Topic#87
Topic#88
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
• Representation of Analog information by an Analog signal
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
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VCO
d/dt
BPM = 2(1 + b )B
0
fc
Topic#89
Multiplexing
• Simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link
• As data & telecom use increases, so does traffic
✓ Add individual links each time a new channel is needed
✓ Install higher-bandwidth links and use each to carry multiple signals
In telecommunications and computer networks, multiplexing is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined
into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share a scarce resource. For example, in telecommunications, several
telephone calls may be carried using one wire.
Topic#90
Multiplexing
• Simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link
Categories of Multiplexing
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Frequency-Division Multiplexing:
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technique of multiplexing which means combining more than one signal over a
shared medium. In FDM, signals of different frequencies are combined for concurrent transmission.
• An analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted
• Signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies
• These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link
Topic#91
• These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported by the link
• An analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted
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Example
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a
bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there are no guard
bands.
Example:
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent interference?
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Topic#92
The Analog Carrier System
The electronic mechanisms that implemented FDM are called analog carrier systems. The carrier in an analog carrier system is
a signal ...
Multiplex Level: No. of Voice Circuits
Group: 12
Voice channel: 1
Jumbo group: 3,600
• Telephone companies multiplex signals from lower-bandwidth lines on to higher-bandwidth lines

• For Analog, FDM is used
Topic#93
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
In fiber-optic communications, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes a number of optical
carrier signals onto a single optical.
• Designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable
• Fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable
• Using a fiber-optic cable for a single line wastes the available bandwidth
• Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one
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Prisms in Wave-Length Division Multiplexing
Topic#94
Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting and receiving independent signals over a common signal path by
means of synchronized switches at each end of the transmission line so that each signal appears on the line only a fraction
of time in an alternating pattern.
• Digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link
• Time is shared i.e.; each connection occupies a portion of time in the link
TDM
Topic # 95
• Time is shared i.e. each connection occupies a portion of time in the link
In Figure the data rate for each input connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is
the duration of
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• each input slot,
• each output slot, and
• each frame?
Topic#96
• Time is shared i.e.; each connection occupies a portion of time in the link
Multilevel Multiplexing
Multilevel Multiplexing Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of
others. ... The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to provide a data rate equal to the last three. A second level of
multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps.
Multilevel Muxing:
When some of the input lines have half the rate of the others.
Figure 6.19 Multilevel multiplexing
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Multiple Slot Allocation:
When an input line has multiple rates of the others.
Multiple-slot multiplexing
Pulse Stuffing: (bit padding)

When the bit rates of the input lines are not multiple integers of each other.
Pulse stuffing
Pulse Stuffing: insertion of dummy bit (in the line with lower data rate).
Frame Synchronization
Mux-Demex synchronization is very important maintain the integrity of the frames exchange between
source and destination.
Framing bits
A “framing bit” is added at the beginning of a frame, alternating 0,1,0,1… between frames.
Topic#97
Digital Signal Service Hierarchy (DS-N)
Telephone companies use TDM via DS_n digital hierarchy.
Figure 6.23 Digital hierarchy
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• T lines implements (carry) the above DS-n services: T-1 carries DS-1
up to T-5 carries DS-5.
T-1 line data rate: 24 PCM channels 24 X 8 bits + 1 (framing) = 193 bits to be
transmitted every sample time 125 micro sec/sample (why?)
yielding a data rate of (193/125) X 106 = 1.544 M b/s
Notice that the sampling rate is 8000 sample/sec, since the TP line BW is 4 KHz and by Nyquist we
sample twice the channel BW (8000 sample/sec), hence 1/8000 = 125 micro sec/sample
Figure 6.24 T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines
6.47
• Tn are digital lines to carry digital data from digital or analog sources (in this case after using Delta
Code Modulation, DCM).
Topic # 98
II) Statistical TDM (STDM):
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• TDM is inefficient in case of a user not using its assigned time slot (wasting BW).
• In STDM, slots are allocated based on data availability (dynamic), instead of static assignment
of time slots, one per user, i.e., instead of having one local queue per user's station, as done in
TDM, we will have one global system queue to feed the Mux every Δt (original time slot of
TDM) in the STDM. In STDM, the global queue will be served via the n time slots (nservers),
instead of the single local queue single time slot server at each station in the TDM.
Problem? Yes, at the destination “Demux”, directing the frames to the correct destination?
Solution add address to each Muxed frame with its corresponding destination user.
• Synchronous TDM
• Statistical TDM
• Empty slots
Statistical TDM
) Statistical TDM (STDM):
• TDM is inefficient in case of a user not using its assigned time slot (wasting BW).
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• In STDM, slots are allocated based on data availability (dynamic), instead of static assignment
of time slots, one per user, i.e., instead of having one local queue per user's station, as done in
TDM, we will have one global system queue to feed the Mux every Δt (original time slot of
TDM) in the STDM. In STDM, the global queue will be served via the n time slots (nservers),
instead of the single local queue single time slot server at each station in the TDM.
Problem? Yes, at the destination “Demux”, directing the frames to the correct destination?
Solution add address to each Muxed frame with its corresponding destination user.
Topic#99
SPREAD SPECTRUM
In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal generated with a
particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth.
• In wireless applications, stations must be able to share the medium without interception by an eavesdropper and
without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder
• To achieve these goals, spread spectrum adds redundancy and spread original spectrum needed for each station
• SPREAD SPECTRUM - Principles
The core principle of spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name implies, bandwidths much wider
than that required for simple point-to-point communication at the same data rate. Resistance to jamming (interference).
Topic#100
SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES
In telecommunication and radio communication, spread-spectrum techniques are methods by which a signal (e.g., an electrical,
electromagnetic, or acoustic signal) generated with a particular bandwidth is deliberately spread in the frequency domain,
resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth.
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
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• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
• ‘M’ different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal
• At one moment, signal modulates one carrier frequency and at next moment, it modulates another
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly changing the
carrier frequency among many distinct frequencies occupying a large spectral band. ... FHSS is used to avoid interference, to
prevent eavesdropping, and to enable code-division multiple access (CDMA) communications.
Frequency Selection in FHSS:

In FHSS the message signal is transmitted by rapidly switching among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom
sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. FHSS divides the available frequency band into sub-bands or channels, and
hops among them in a predetermined order.
FHSS Cycles:
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Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly changing the carrier
frequency among many distinct frequencies occupying a large spectral band. The changes are controlled by a code known to
both transmitter and receiver. FHSS is used to avoid interference, to prevent eavesdropping, and to enable code-division multiple
access (CDMA) communications.
Bandwidth Sharing:
Shared and Dedicated Bandwidth. Shared Plans involves a set bandwidth shared among users, On a shared Internet
connection, all bandwidth (5 Mbps, 10 Mbps, etc.) is split among all users and devices. Download and upload speeds on
a shared package are “up to” a particular limit.
DSSS:
In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a spread-spectrum modulation technique primarily used to
reduce overall signal interference. The direct-sequence modulation makes the transmitted signal wider in bandwidth than the
information bandwidth.
• DSSS also expands the bandwidth of the original signal, but the process is different
• We replace each data bit with ‘n’ bits using a spreading code
• Each bit is assigned a code of ’n’ bits, called chips, where the chip rate is ‘n’ times that of the data bit
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Topic#101:
Transmission Media
The transmission medium can be defined as a pathway that can transmit information from a sender to a receiver. Transmission
media are located below the physical layer and are controlled by the physical layer. Transmission media are also called
• Located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical layer
• Belong to layer zero
• Metallic Media i.e. Twisted pair and Coaxial Cable
• Optical Fiber Cable
• Free Space i.e. Air, Vaccum
Transmission Media & Physical Payer
Topic#102:
Transmission Media
• Located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the physical layer
• Belong to layer zero
• Metallic Media i.e. Twisted pair and Coaxial Cable
• Optical Fiber Cable
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• Free Space i.e. Air, Vacuum
• Classes of Transmission Media
Guided Media:
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable. Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a specific path.
• Media that provides a conduit from one device to another
• Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable
• Signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium
Twisted-Pair Cable:
Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors of a single circuit are twisted together for the purposes of
improving electromagnetic compatibility
• Consists of 2 copper conductors, each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together
• One wire carries signals and other is ground reference
• Receiver uses difference between the two
• Interference (Noise) & Crosstalk
Topic #103:
Twisted-Pair Cable:
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Twisted-Pair Cable
• UTP
• STP
Topic # 104
Categories of Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cables
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UTP Connectors:
As UTP is a balanced transmission line, a balun is needed to connect to unbalanced equipment, for example any using BNC
connectors and designed for coaxial cable. Unshielded twisted pair is the most common kind of copper telephone wiring.
UTP Connectors:
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Topic#105
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable, or coax is a type of electrical cable consisting of an inner conductor surrounded by a concentric conducting shield,
with the two separated by a dielectric; many coaxial cables also have a protective outer sheath or jacket
• Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable
Categories of Coaxial Cables
Topic#106
Coaxial Cable
• Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable
The BNC connector is a miniature quick connect/disconnect radio frequency connector used for coaxial cable.
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Topic#107:
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable, also known as an optical-fiber cable, is an assembly similar to an electrical cable, but containing one or more
optical fibers that are used to carry light.
• Made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light
• Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance
• If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance (of a different density), the ray
changes direction
A ray of light being refracted in a plastic block. In physics, refraction is the change in direction of a wave passing from one
medium to another or from a gradual change in the medium. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed phenomenon, but
other ... This is due to the bending of light rays as they move from the water to the air.
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Topic#108
Fiber-Optic Cable
• Optical Fiber
Fiber-Optic Cable
Propagation Modes
Topic#109
Modes
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Topic#110
Fiber Types
Fiber Composition
A single fiber itself is a composite material consisting of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin, with minor amounts of sugars,
starch proteins, etc, — it is a three-dimensional biopolymer. The performance of a natural fiber depends on several factors, such
as its chemical composition and physical properties [8]
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Fiber-Optic Cable Connector:
An optical fiber connector terminates the end of an optical fiber, and enables quicker connection and disconnection than splicing.
The connectors mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers so light can pass. Better connectors lose very little light due to
reflection or misalignment of the fibers.
Optical Fiber Performance

As a beam of light, that holds signals, travels through the central region of the fiber optic, the light's power decreases. ...
Therefore, the connection strength becomes more diminished. This decrease in light energy is commonly known as fiber
optic loss or attenuation.
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Advantages & Disadvantages
• Higher Bandwidth
• Less Attenuation
• Less EM Interference
• Light Weight
• Less corrosive than copper
• Installation/Maintenance
• Unidirectional
• Cost
Topic# 111
Unguided Media
Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them.
• Unguided medium transport waves without using a physical conductor
• Often referred to wireless communication
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• Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The Electromagnetic Spectrum. The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation. Radiation is
energy that travels and spreads out as it goes – the visible light that comes from a lamp in your house and the radio waves that
come from a radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation.
Bands
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Topic #112
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation best-known for their use in communication technologies, such as television,
mobile phones and radios. These devices receive radio waves and convert them to mechanical vibrations in the speaker to create
sound waves.
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves
• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves
Omnidirectional Antenna
In radio communication, an omnidirectional antenna is a class of antenna which radiates equal radio power in all directions
perpendicular to an axis (azimuthal directions), with power varying with angle to the axis (elevation angle), declining to zero on
the axis.
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Topic# 113
Microwaves
Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with
frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm). Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves;
the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF (millimeter wave) bands.
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves
• Microwaves are unidirectional
• When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused
Unidirectional Antennas
A unidirectional antenna focuses the radiofrequency (RF) energy in one or two directions which lowers the beamwidth and
overall area covered, but increases the strength of the signal and distance covered in that direction. In fact, an indoor 14dBi
directional antenna can reach up to 3.2km indoors and 6.4km outdoors! However, for these antennas to work optimally they have
to be pointed directly at the receivers so that the signal can be detected – this can make installation a difficult process.
Infrared
Infrared radiation (IR), or infrared light, is a type of radiant energy that's invisible to human eyes but that we can feel as heat.
All objects in the universe emit some level of IR radiation, but two of the most obvious sources are the sun and fire.
• Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for
short-range communication
• Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls
• Prevents interference between one system and another
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Topic# 114
Switching
Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the destination. When data comes on a
port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it is called egress. A communication system may include number
of switches and nodes.
Switched Network
Three Methods of Switching

• Three Methods:
✓ Circuit Switching
✓ Packet Switching
✓ Message switching
• The first two are commonly used today
• The third has been phased out in general communications
Topic# 115
Three Methods of Switching
• Three Methods:
✓ Circuit Switching
✓ Packet Switching
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✓ Message switching
• The first two are commonly used today
• The third has been phased out in general communications
Taxonomy of Switched Networks
Circuit-switched Networks
• A set of switches connected by physical links
• A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links
• Each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link
• Each link is normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM
• A set of switches connected by physical links
A Circuit-Switched Network
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Topic# 116
Example:
As a trivial example, let us use a circuit-switched network to connect eight telephones in a small area. Communication is
through 4-kHz voice channels. We assume that each link uses FDM to connect a maximum of two voice channels. The
bandwidth of each link is then 8 kHz.
Example:
As another example, consider a circuit-switched network that connects computers in two remote offices of a
private company. The offices are connected using a T-1 line leased from a communication service provider. There are two
4 × 8 (4 inputs and 8 outputs) switches in this network.
Topic# 117
Three Phases in a Circuit Switched Network
• The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires 3 phases:
✓ Connection Setup
✓ Data Transfer
✓ Connection Teardown
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Three Phases in a Circuit Switched Network
Topic#118:
Efficiency of a Circuit-Switched Network
• Not as efficient as packet switching because resources are allocated during the entire duration of the connection
and these resources are unavailable to other connections
• In a telephone network, people normally terminate the communication when they have finished their conversation
• Data Network is an issue
Delay in a Circuit-Switched Network
• Circuit switched networks have low efficiency but minimal delay
• Data is not delayed at each switch; the resources are allocated for the duration of the connection
Delay in a Circuit-Switched Network
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Topic # 119
Packet Switching
Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across various networks. These data chunks or “packets” allow for faster,
more efficient data transfer. Often, when a user sends a file across a network, it gets transferred in smaller data packets, not in one
piece.
• If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it needs to be divided into packets of fixed or
variable size
• The size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol
Datagram Networks
Datagram networks
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A datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet-switched network. ... Datagrams provide a connectionless
communication service across a packet-switched network. The delivery, arrival time, and order of arrival of datagrams need not
be guaranteed by the network.
• Each packet is treated independently of all others.
• Even if a packet is part of a multi-packet transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone
• Packets are referred to as datagrams
Virtual-Circuit Networks
A virtual circuit (VC) is a means of transporting data over a packet-switched network in such a way that it appears as though
there is a dedicated physical link between the source and destination end systems of this data. The term virtual circuit is
synonymous with virtual connection.
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network
Topic # 120
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network
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Topic # 121
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network
Topic # 122
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network
Virtual-Circuit Identifier
A virtual circuit identifier (VCID) is a type of numeric identifier used to distinguish between different virtual circuits in a
connection-oriented circuit-switched telecommunication network. It enables a circuit-switched network to identify
different virtual circuits/channels involved in a device's data communication.
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Switch & table for a virtual-circuit network
Topic# 123
Structure of A Circuit Switch
• Circuit switching today can use either of two technologies:
✓ The Space-Division switch
✓ The Time-Division switch
Crossbar switch with 3 inputs & 4 outputs
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Multistage Switch
Time-Division Switch
• Uses TDM inside a switch
• Most popular technology is Time-Slot Interchange (TSI)
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If you have any question
then contact on this email:
Ar8758451@gmail.com
Thank You
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CS601 Midterm Notes 2020

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CS601 Midterm Notes 2020

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There are five components of a data communication system.

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Physical Structure consists of network. Attribute. link

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Protocol Layering - Introduction

Simple Communication: only one simple protocol

Complex Communication, we need a protocol at each layer, or Protocol Layering

Protocol Layering - Example Scenario 1

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Protocol Layering - Example Scenario 2

Postal carrier facility

Protocol Layering - Advantages and Disadvantages

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Identical objects (messages)

Identical objects (segment or user datagram)

Identical objects (datagram) Identical objects (datagram)

Identical objects (frame) Identical objects (frame)

Identical objects (bits)

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• Important Concept in Internet Protocol Layering

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OSI Model vs TCP/IP Protocol suite

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Analog & Digital Transmission

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Sine Wave – Peak Amplitude

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Sine Wave –Frequency

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The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?.

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Decomposition of Composite Periodic Signal

b. Frequency-domain decomposition of the composite signal

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A digital signal has

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Vertical line in the time

• Digital As Composite Analog

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Low Pass Channel

Sending a Digital Signal without changing it to an Analog Signal