Acoustoelastic
Acoustoelastic
Acoustoelastic
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: This experimental study aims to investigate the ability of the ultrasonic method (UM) by using critically re-
Stress measurement fracted longitudinal (LCR) wave for measuring stress in both elastic and plastic limits. In so doing, nine tensile
Ultrasonic method test specimens are used. In order to send and receive the LCR wave into the specimens, the investigation led to
LCR wave design two different types of ultrasonic fixtures (constant fixture and variable fixture). The constant fixture, used
Acoustoelastic constant
to evaluate and compare the results of variable fixture. Three initial distances (0, 30, 50 mm) employed for
Acoustoplastic constant
Time of flight
variable fixture to detect the accurate results and compare with the constant fixture. To determine acoustoelastic
and acoustoplastic constants different amounts of stress are applied to the specimens using uniaxial tensile
testing machine. Measurement of longitudinal applied stress by UM is done by using 2 MHz probes based on
Acoustoelasticity. The results of the study indicated that there is a significant relation between stress and time of
flight wave in both elastic and plastic limits. For the first time, this study shows that entering the plastic limit
takes tremendous sensitivity. By using variable fixture (without initial distance) enable the process to evaluate
stress in the plastic limit accurately. The outcome of the study provides three acoustoplastic and three acous-
toelastic constants. All of these constants, by increasing the initial distance between two parts of the variable
fixture will reduce. In other words, the comparison between different initial distance tests indicates that in-
creasing initial distance caused to less accuracy of measuring stress.
∗
Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Iran.
E-mail address: jafari@pmc.iaun.ac.ir (J.J. Fesharaki).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2019.04.003
Received 23 November 2018; Received in revised form 2 April 2019; Accepted 3 April 2019
Available online 08 April 2019
0963-8695/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
M. Mohammadi and J.J. Fesharaki NDT and E International 104 (2019) 69–76
70
M. Mohammadi and J.J. Fesharaki NDT and E International 104 (2019) 69–76
Table 2
Chemical constituent elements- quantometer analysis results.
Fe 98.6 Ni 0.0057
Table 4
Table 3 Data of penetration depth.
Material property.
Depth of Machining (mm) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
E Yield Point U.T.S K n
Amplitude (%) 51 46 35 21 13 Noise
110 GPa 244 MPa 390 MPa 218 MPa 0.173
71
M. Mohammadi and J.J. Fesharaki NDT and E International 104 (2019) 69–76
0
dV11/ V11
=2+
μ + 2m + μ × ν 1 + ( 2l
λ ) =L
11
dε λ + 2μ (3)
Egle and Bray derived the relation between stress in elastic limit and
change in ToF or change in velocity of the LCR wave by the following
equation:
0
E (dV11/ V11) E (dt / t0)
dσ = =−
L11 L11 (4)
The acoustoelastic constant is a dimensionless parameter which
links the stress and change in ToF or change in wave velocity. The ToF
Fig. 7. The acoustoelastic/acoustoplastic constants evaluation. curves are increases because of tensile stress and decreases in com-
pressive stress field.
The relation between stress in plastic limit and change in ToF of the
LCR wave can be calculated by the following proposed equation with
the aim of Ludwik's equation in plasticity theory [28]:
K (dt / t0)n
dσ =
φ11 (5)
In the proposed equation, φ11 define as an acoustoplastic constant
and by having K and n (strength index and strain hardening exponent
respectively) from the material property and measuring ToF, real stress
(real stress ≠ residual stress) in plastic limit can be calculated.
3. Experimental procedures
Fig. 8. Constant ultrasonic fixture and variable ultrasonic fixture with different 3.2. Material property
initial distance.
It should be considered that the acoustoelastic and acoustoplastic
constants obtained were unique to each material, it was necessary to
determine the chemical constituent elements. In order to check the
chemical composition of the specimens through an analysis of the
spectrum emitted from the material excited with a spark, quantometer
analysis testing was complete, as it shown in Fig. 4. This test gives the
results about the presence of about 20 chemical elements, with the
specifications mentioned in Table .2 and Table 3.
72
M. Mohammadi and J.J. Fesharaki NDT and E International 104 (2019) 69–76
Fig. 10. Evaluation of the acoustoelastic constant by fixed distance fixture (constant fixture).
Fig. 11. Evaluation of the Acoustoelastic Constant by Variable Fixture (0 mm initial distance).
probe membrane size 10 mm and the same nominal frequency as- and 4 mm) have been created by milling tool in a plate (with the same
sembled on the ultrasonic fixture while one of them is as a transmitter thickness and material of the specimen), to produce an obstacle and
and the other one is as a receiver. In order to keep the thickness of prevent reaching the LCR wave by the 2 MHz receiver transducer
couplant film between probe and ultrasonic fixture which effect on ToF, (shown in Fig. 6). For each groove depth the amplitude of the LCR wave
the spring was employed. The spring provides the stable pressure on the is measured (Table 4). Where the wave's amplitude becomes to the
probes to eliminate the error of couplant's thickness changing and the noise, the groove depth represents the depth of penetration of the LCR
bar clamp provides the stable pressure on the ultrasonic fixture to keep wave for 2 MHz frequency.
the couplant's thickness between wedge and the tensile specimen
(shown in Figs. 7 and 8).
3.5. Acoustoelastic and acoustoplastic constant evaluation
The stress within a specimen is measured by two different types of
ultrasonic fixtures, a constant ultrasonic fixture (fixed distance) and
To achieve stress values in elastic limit according to Eq. (4), and the
variable ultrasonic fixture (free distance).
values of stress in plastic limit according to Eq. (5), the t0 value directly
measured from the free stress specimen and the acoustoelastic/acous-
3.4. Depth of penetration toplastic constants are measured experimentally using uniaxial tensile
test machine and an ultrasonic device. To this end, the stress value of
By using the LCR technique to the limited wall thickness specimen, specimen which shown in Fig. 3 is increased step by step using the
the LCR wave's depth of penetration is working as a function of fre- uniaxial tensile test machine while the ultrasonic device measured ToF
quency. Since there isn't any definite relation between penetration by ultrasonic unite which was assembled on the specimen Fig. 7.
depth of LCR and frequency, that should be detected experimentally. In Finally, to calculate the acoustoelastic/acoustoplastic constants, all
so doing eight grooves with different depth (0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 the above-mentioned steps were repeated about three times for
73
M. Mohammadi and J.J. Fesharaki NDT and E International 104 (2019) 69–76
Fig. 12. Evaluation of the Acoustoplastic Constant by Variable Fixture (0 mm initial distance).
Fig. 13. Evaluation of the Acoustoelastic Constant by Variable Fixture (30 mm initial distance).
74
M. Mohammadi and J.J. Fesharaki NDT and E International 104 (2019) 69–76
Fig. 14. Evaluation of the Acoustoplastic Constant by Variable Fixture (30 mm initial distance).
Fig. 15. Evaluation of the Acoustoelastic Constant by Variable Fixture (50 mm initial distance).
from the variable ultrasonic fixture while a decent agreement is de- The slope of ‘Linear AVG’ lines in Figs. 13–16 provides the acous-
tected. The difference between constant ultrasonic fixture results slope toelastic constants and acoustoplastic constants when the variable ul-
2.3335, and variable fixture results slope (0 mm initial distance) 2.2521 trasonic fixture is utilized and there are 30 mm and 50 mm initial dis-
is only 0.08 and this small deviation is negligible. Therefore, the results tance between two parts of the variable fixture.
obtained from variable fixture are reliable and this type of fixture is The results obtained from the ultrasonic tests presented in Table .5,
able to use for the plastic limit. indicate that the maximum of slope calculated by 0 mm distance,
To assess the effect of initial distance between transmitter and re- 30 mm, and 50 mm respectively.
ceiver in the variable fixture, three initial distances 0, 30 and 50 will The relative change as function of stress changes more significant
compare to each other. Finally, the result of the most accurate one and as higher the stress the change tends to become more nonlinear.
compared to the results of the constant ultrasonic fixture will introduce. This behavior is very much material dependent. According to this fact,
The slope of ‘Linear AVG’ line in Fig. 12 provides the acoustoplastic the graphs shown in Figs. 12, 14 and 16 are naturally nonlinear because
constant (0.2333) when the variable ultrasonic fixture is employed and of the power term (n≠1) in the vertical axis of Figs. 12, 14 and 16.
two parts of the fixture are 0 mm apart.
The relation between stress in plastic limit and change in ToF of the
5. Conclusion
LCR wave can be calculated by proposed equation in last section (Eq.
(5)). Where K and n come from material property and just by measuring
The aims of this experimental study were to evaluate real stress in
ToF, the stress in plastic limit is measurable by using LCR wave for the
both elastic and plastic limits. The results of this study indicated that
first time. According to Fig. 12 and Eq. (5) the acoustoplastic constant is
the ultrasonic test by using critically refracted longitudinal wave is able
a dimensionless parameter which links the stress in plastic limit and
to measure the stress in both elastic and plastic limit. The constant
change in ToF.
ultrasonic fixture and variable fixture (without initial distance) which
75
M. Mohammadi and J.J. Fesharaki NDT and E International 104 (2019) 69–76
Fig. 16. Evaluation of the Acoustoplastic Constant by Variable Fixture (50 mm initial distance).
employed for the first time in this study present about the same [7] Fukuoka H. Development of acoustoelasticity in Japan. Nondestr Test Eval
acoustoelastic constant and a decent agreement is observed. To com- 1992;7:181–92.
[8] Pao YH. Acoustoelasticity and ultrasonic measurement of residual stress. Phys
pare the acoustoelastic constant (2.3335) which is obtained from the Acoust 1984:61–143.
constant fixture, with acoustoelastic constants (2.2521, 1.679 and [9] Bray DE, Junghans P. Application of the LCR ultrasonic technique for evaluation of
1.369) which are obtained from the variable fixture with 0, 30 and post-weld heat treatment in steel plates. NDT E Int 1995;28:235–42.
[10] Tanala E, Bourse G, Fremiot M, De Belleval JF. Determination of near surface re-
50 mm initial distance respectively, it is found that the acoustoelastic sidual stresses on welded joints using ultrasonic methods. NDT E Int 1995;28:83–8.
2.2521 which is obtained from the variable fixture with 0 mm initial [11] Leon-Salamanca T, Bray DF. Residual stress measurement in steel plates and welds
distance is the closest result to 2.3335 which is obtained from the using critically refracted longitudinal (LCR) waves. Res Nondestr Eval
1996;7:169–84.
constant fixture. The variable fixture showed that has the ability to
[12] Schneider E. Untersuchung der materialspezifischen Einflüsse und verfahren-
measure the ToF in the ultrasonic method. The slope of the graph of stechnische Entwicklungen der Ultraschallverfahren zur Spannungsanalyse an
stress and K ((t-t0)/t0)n is represented the acoustoplastic constant. The Bauteilen. Fraunhofer-IRB-Verlag; 1999.
[13] Hauk V. Structural and residual stress analysis by nondestructive methods: eva-
variable fixture is employed to evaluate the effect of different initial
luation-Application-Assessment. Elsevier; 1997.
distance on acoustoelastic and acoustoplastic constants. Comparison [14] Santos A, Bray DE. Application of longitudinal critically refracted waves to evaluate
between different initial distance test shows that less initial distance stresses in railroad wheels. Topics on Nondestructive Testing 2000;5.
works more accurately when zero distance fixture is employed. It shows [15] Bray DE. Ultrasonic stress measurement and material characterization in pressure
vessels, piping, and welds. J Press Vessel Technol 2002;124:326–35.
the error of variable fixture results by 50 mm is higher than the error by [16] Belahcene F, Lu J. Determination of residual stress using critically refracted long-
30 mm and the minimum occurs at 0 mm. Lower deviation for lower itudinal waves and immersion mode. J Strain Anal Eng Des 2002;37:13–20.
initial distance can be justified by the fact that the less distance between [17] Rose JL. A baseline and vision of ultrasonic guided wave inspection potential. J
Press Vessel Technol 2002;124:273–82.
transducers produces more powerful and sharp echo in the receiver [18] Santos AA, Bray DE, Caetano SF, Andrino MH, Trevisan RE. Evaluation of the
probe and it is because by increasing the initial distance, various factors rolling direction effect in the acoustoelastic properties for API 5L X70 steel used in
such as the stress field, texture and grain size are affected on mea- pipelines. 2004. p. 85–90.
[19] Qozam H, Hoblos J, Bourse G, Robin C, Walaszek H, Bouteille P, et al. Ultrasonic
surement. According to the fact that the ultrasonic method is one of the stress measurement in welded component by using Lcr waves: analysis of the mi-
non-destructive methods using variable fixture to evaluate the stress in crostructure effect. Materials science forum: Trans Tech Publ; 2006. p. 453–8.
plastic limit is the most cost-effective method and indeed a wise choice. [20] Ya M, Marquette P, Belahcene F, Lu J. Residual stresses in laser welded aluminium
plate by use of ultrasonic and optical methods. Mater Sci Eng, A 2004;382:257–64.
[21] Bray DE, Vela J, Al-Zubi RS. Stress and temperature effects on ultrasonic properties
Appendix A. Supplementary data in cross-linked and high density polyethylene. J Press Vessel Technol
2005;127:220–5.
[22] Flore D, Wegener K, Mayer H, Karr U, Oetting CC. Investigation of the high and very
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
high cycle fatigue behaviour of continuous fibre reinforced plastics by conventional
doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2019.04.003. and ultrasonic fatigue testing. Compos Sci Technol 2017;141:130–6.
[23] Lan B, Lowe MJ, Dunne FP. A generalized spherical harmonic deconvolution to
References obtain texture of cubic materials from ultrasonic wave speed. J Mech Phys Solids
2015;83:221–42.
[24] Egerton J, Lowe M, Huthwaite P, Halai H. Ultrasonic attenuation and phase velocity
[1] Noronha P, Chapman J, Wert J. Residual stress measurement and analysis using of high-density polyethylene pipe material. J Acoust Soc Am 2017;141:1535–45.
ultrasonic techniques. 1973. [25] De Luca A, Caputo F, Khodaei ZS, Aliabadi M. Damage characterization of com-
[2] Clotfelter W, Risch E. Ultrasonic measurement of stress in railroad wheels and in posite plates under low velocity impact using ultrasonic guided waves. Compos B
long lengths of welded rail. 1974. Eng 2018;138:168–80.
[3] Schramm RE, Clark AV, Mitrakovic DV, Schaps SR. Ultrasonic measurements of [26] Schajer GS. Practical residual stress measurement methods. John Wiley & Sons;
residual stress in railroad wheels. NDT E Int 1995;28:114–5. 2013.
[4] Egle DM, Bray DE. Measurement of acoustoelastic and third‐order elastic constants [27] Hughes DS, Kelly JL. Second-order elastic deformation of solids. Phys Rev
for rail steel. J Acoust Soc Am 1976;60:741–4. 1953;92:1145–9.
[5] Egle D, Bray D. Ultrasonic measurement of longitudinal rail stresses. Mater Eval [28] Johnson W, Mellor PB. Engineering plasticity. John Wiley & Sons; 1983.
1979;378:41–6. [29] Standard A, E8/E8M. Standard test methods for tension testing of metallic mate-
[6] Srinivasan M, Chundu S, Bray D, Alagarsamy A. Ultrasonic technique for residual rials. West Conshohocken PA: ASTM international; 2009. 2009.
stress measurement in ductile iron continuous cast round bars. 1992.
76