SVPUC PHYSICS MANUAL

SRI VENKATESHWARA
PRE-UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
Vidyanagar, Bangalore

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

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Instructions and safety measures to students

• The safety rules must be always followed when you are present in the
laboratory.
• Follow all the verbal instructions given by the teacher.
• Wear shoes or slippers in the laboratory
• No foods and drinks allowed near working benches.
• Do not touch the insulation open live wires connected to the mains supply.
• Learn the complete procedure before starting experiment by the teacher.
• Collect and check the components and equipment’s supplied in the lab.
• Report any broken or defective components or equipment’s supplied.
• Work table should be tidy before and after performing the experiment.
• Ensure proper insulation of the live wires.
• Check the components and circuit connections before switching on the
equipment.
• Handle the given component terminals with care.
• Return all components and equipment’s in good working condition to the
teacher after completion of experiment.
• Collect your signed manual/observations before leaving the laboratory.

Instructions for record writing

• PLAIN SIDE / LEFT HAND SIDE: Circuit, observation, tabular column, calculations
• RULED SIDE / RIGHT HAND SIDE: Aim, apparatus, principle, formulae, procedure, result

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CONTENTS

SL NAME OF EXPERIMENT PAGE SIGN

NO. NO
1 Resistance per unit length of the wire 5

2 Resistivity of material of wire using meter bridge 9

3 Combination of resistors in series using meter bridge 12

4 Combination of resistors in parallel using meter bridge 15

5 Figure of merit of galvanometer 18

6 Conversion of galvanometer to voltmeter 21

7 Focal length of concave mirror 24

8 Focal length of convex lens 27

9 Angle of minimum deviation (PRISM) 30

10 Refractive index of glass using travelling microscope 33

11 Refractive index of water using concave mirror 36

12 Refractive index of water using convex lens and plane mirror 39

13 V-I characteristics of semiconductor diode in forward bias 42

14 V-I characteristics of semiconductor diode in reverse bias 45

15 Comparison of EMF of two cells using potentiometer 48

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PHYSICS PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

General instructions:
• Duration of practical examination: 2 hours
• Maximum marks allotted: 30 Marks
Scheme of valuation
A. Weightage of marks

SL PARTICULARS MARKS
NO.
1 Performing the experiment 20
2 Viva – Voce 04
3 Practical Record 06
TOTAL 30

B. Distribution of marks for performing the experiment

SL PARTICULARS MARKS
NO.
1 Writing the principle of the experiment 2
2 Writing the formulae and explaining the terms involved 2
3 Writing the diagram/figure/circuit with labeling (At least two parts) 2
4 Writing the tabular column/observation 2
5 Constructing the experimental setup/circuit 3
6 Performing the experiment & entering the readings into tabular column 4
7 Substitution and calculation/plotting the graph and calculations 3
8 Result with Unit 2
TOTAL 20

C. Viva – Voce
• Four questions must be asked and each question carries 1 mark

• The questions in viva-voce should be simple, direct and related to the experiment to be
performed by the student

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Experiment Number: 1 Date:

RESISTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH OF THE WIRE

Aim: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference
versus current.
Apparatus: A wire of unknown resistance, battery, voltmeter, ammeter, plug key, rheostat and
meter scale.
Principle: Ohm’s law: when temperature and other physical conditions remain constant, the
electric current flowing through a conductor is proportional to the potential
difference across the ends of the conductor.
1
Formula: 1) Resistance of the wire R=
m
Where R= Resistance of the wire
m = slope of the graph of current versus potential difference
2) Resistance per cm = 𝑅
𝐿

Where L= length of the experimental wire

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2) The rheostat is adjusted so that a small current flows through circuit.
3) The reading of ammeter and voltmeter is noted.
4) The ratio V/I is calculated and readings are tabulated.
5) A graph is plotted between V and I, taking V on X-axis and I on Y-axis. It is found to be
a straight line passing through the origin.
6) The reciprocal of slope m of graph is found which gives resistance R of the wire.
7) The length of wire is measured and resistance per unit length L is calculated.

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Diagram: Graph:

Observations:
1) Length of the resistance wire, L =..................................cm

Tabular column:

Trial Number Voltage (V) in volts Current (I) in A

2
3
4
5
6

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Calculation:

Result:

➢ Resistance of the given wire is ═ .................................... Ω

➢ Resistance per unit length of the wire is ═ ..................... Ω / cm

VIVA – VOCE

1. State ohm’s law?

2. Define resistance? On what factors does the resistance depends?
3. What happens to the resistance of the wire, if the length of the wire is doubled?
4. What happens to the resistance of the wire, if the area of the wire is doubled?
5. What are ohmic devices and non – ohmic devices
6. What are voltmeter, ammeter and rheostat?
7. What is the difference b/w resistance box and rheostat?
8. What does the slope of I-V graph give ?
9. I-V graph is straight line what is your conclusion ?

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Experiment Number: 2 Date:

RESISTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL OF THE WIRE USING METERBRIDGE

Aim: To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and hence determine the specific
Resistance (resistivity) of its material.
Apparatus: Meter bridge, experimental wire, plug key, resistance box, jockey, galvanometer
and battery.
Principle: A meter bridge works on principle of balanced whetstone’s network.
sl
Formula: 1) Resistance of the wire, R=
100−l
Where s = Standard Resistance, l = the balancing length in cm
𝜋𝑟2𝑅
2) Resistivity of the material of the wire 𝜌 =
𝐿
Where R= resistance of the wire, r = radius of the wire
L = length of the wire
Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box.
3) The slider is placed on the bridge wire near end A and near end C and deflections are
found to be oppositely directed.
4) The slider is moved gently along the bridge wire until the deflection in galvanometer is
zero.
5) The balancing length l is measured and resistance is calculated using above formula.
6) The experiment is repeated for different values of S, average value of R is found.
7) The length, L of experimental wire is measured.

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Diagram:

Observations:

1. Radius of the experimental wire (given), r = ................................. m

2. Length of the experimental wire, L = ................................. m

Tabular column:

Trial Resistance S in Balancing (100-l) in cm sl

R= in Ω
Number Ω length l in cm 100−l

1
2
3

Mean R=…............ Ω

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Calculations:

Result: Specific resistance (Resistivity) of the material of the wire = ............................ Ω m

VIVA – VOCE

1. Define resistivity.
2. On what factors does the resistivity depends on?
3. What is null point?
4. What is the principle of Meter Bridge?
5. Give the SI unit of resistivity?
6. If the resistance unplugged from resistance box increases what happens for the balancing
length?
7. What is meant by balancing length in Meter Bridge?

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Experiment Number: 3 Date:

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS IN SERIES USING METERBRIDGE

Aim: Verification of the law of combination of resistances in series using meter bridge.
Apparatus: Meter Bridge, two different resistors, plug key, resistance box, jockey,
galvanometer and battery.

Principle: A meter bridge works on principle of balanced whetstone’s network. An effective

resistance of two resistors is equal to the sum of individual resistances.

Sl
Formula: 1) Resistance 𝑅𝑆 =
100−l
Where S = Standard resistance, l = Balancing length

2) Equivalent resistance in series 𝑅𝑆= R1+R2

Where R1 and R2 are individual resistances.

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box.
3) The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing the jockey at the two ends of
the meter bridge wire AC alternately.
4) The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards C till the galvanometer shows
zero deflection.
5) The balancing length L is measured. The equivalent resistance of the series combination
Sl
is calculated using the formula 𝑅𝑆 =
(100−l)

6) The experiment is repeated different values of S and average value of Rs is calculated.

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Diagram:

Observations:

1) Resistance R1 = ................................. Ω

2) Resistance R2 = ................................. Ω

Tabular column:

Trial Resistance S in Balancing length l (100-l) in cm sl

Rs = in Ω
Number Ω in cm 100−l

Mean 𝑅𝑆 = ……. Ω

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Calculations:

Theoretical value of equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑆 = R1 + R2 = ............................. Ω

Result: Theoretical value of resistance (𝑅𝑆) is nearly equal to experimental value of resistance
(𝑅𝑆), hence verified.

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Experiment Number: 4 Date:

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS IN PARALLEL USING METERBRIDGE

Aim: Verification of the law of combination of resistances in parallel using meter

bridge
Apparatus: Meter Bridge, two different resistors, plug key, resistance box, jockey,
galvanometer and battery.

Principle: A meter bridge works on principle of balanced whetstone’s network. Effective

resistance of two resistors connected in parallel is equal to ratio of the product of
two resistors to the sum of two resistors.

Sl
Formula: 1) Resistance Rp =
100−1
Where S = Standard resistance
𝑅1 𝑅2
2) Equivalent resistance in parallel Rp =
(𝑅1+𝑅2)
Where R1 and R2 are individual resistances

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2) A suitable standard resistance S is unplugged in the resistance box.
3) The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing the jockey at the two ends of
the meter bridge wire AC alternately.
4) The jockey is moved on the wire from the end A towards C till the galvanometer shows
zero deflection.
5) The balancing length L is measured. The equivalent resistance of the parallel
Sl
combination is calculated using the formula Rp =
100−1
6) The experiment is repeated different values of S and average value of Rp is calculated.

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Diagram:

Observations:
Resistance 𝑅1= ................................. Ω

Resistance 𝑅2 = ................................. Ω

Tabular column:

Trial Resistance S Balancing length l (100-l) in cm sl

𝑹 𝑷= Ω
Number in cm 100−l
in Ω

1
2
3

Mean Rp =................Ω

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Calculations:
𝑅1 𝑅2
Theoretical value of equivalent resistance, Rp = = ............................. Ω
(𝑅1+𝑅2)

Result: Theoretical value of resistance (Rp) is nearly equal to experimental value of resistance
(Rp), Hence verified.
VIVA – VOCE
1. What is a metre bridge?
2. Which combination of resistors gives maximum value of resistance?
3. Which combination of resistors gives minimum value of resistance?
4. When do you say that two resistors are in series?
5. When do you say that two resistors are in parallel?
6. What is equivalent resistance?
7. Two resistors are in series. What is common in them? Current or Voltage?
8. Two resistors are in parallel. What is common in them? Current or Voltage?
9. Balancing point is at the midpoint of Meter Bridge. What does it imply?
10. Why the strips of meter bridge are of bigger in size?

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Experiment Number: 5 Date:

FIGURE OF MERIT OF GALVANOMETER

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its

figure of merit.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, cell, resistances boxes, and two cells.

Principle: Deflection in a galvanometer is directly proportional to the current through the
galvanometer.
Formula: I =k θ
where k is called figure of merit of galvanometer.
𝐸
Figure of merit of galvanometer, K =
(𝑅+𝐺)𝜃

Where, E – emf of the cell

R – Resistance of the galvanometer
G – Galvanometer resistance and
𝜃- Deflection of the galvanometer

Procedure:

1) The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.

2) Key k2 is opened and key k1 is closed. The suitable resistance R is unplugged to get even
deflections 𝜃 in the galvanometer.
𝜃
K
3) 2 is closed and suitable resistance S is unplugged so that deflections become . The S
2
equals the resistance of the galvanometer G.
4) The experiment is repeated for different values of 𝜃 and the average value of G is found.
5) The emf of the cell is measured using a voltmeter.

6) The figure of merit of galvanometer calculated using the formula,

𝐸
K= and mean k is found.
(𝑅+𝐺)𝜃

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Diagram:

Observation:

Emf of the battery, E₌ ................................................. V

Tabular Column:

Trial No Resistance Deflection ø S=G for 𝑹𝑺 𝑬

G= in Ω K= in A/Div
R in Ω in Div ∅/𝟐 in Ω 𝑹−𝑺 (𝑹+𝑮)𝜽

Average G ₌ ..........................................Ω

Average K ₌ ........................................ A/Div

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Calculations:

Result:

➢ The resistance of the galvanometer ₌ ............................................. Ω

➢ The figure of merit of the pointer galvanometer ₌ ....................... A/Div

VIVA – VOCE
1. What is a galvanometer?
2. What is figure of merit of galvanometer?
3. How does the galvanometer resistance vary as the current through the galvanometer
increases?
4. Is galvanometer resistance is constant?
5. Define current sensitivity of galvanometer?
6. Which part of galvanometer gives the resistance?
7. Give the difference between ammeter and galvanometer?

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Experiment Number: 6 Date:

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO VOLTMETER

Aim: To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of the required range and
verify the same.

Apparatus: Pointer galvanometer, battery, voltmeter, resistance box, key and rheostat.

Principle: Galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by connecting suitable high

resistance in series with it.

Formula: 1) Current required for full scale deflection, Ig = NK

Where N =Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer
K =Figure of merit of the galvanometer
3) High resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer,

R = (𝑉/𝐼𝑔) − 𝐺

Where G =Galvanometer resistance

V =Maximum voltage to be measured

Procedure:

1. The value of resistance is calculated using the formula R = (𝑉 ) − 𝐺

𝐼𝑔
2. The circuit connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram
3. The calculated high resistance R is unplugged in the standard resistance box and the
rheostat is adjusted so that the voltage shown in the voltmeter is equal to the desired
range (say 3V).
4. R is adjusted such that galvanometer shows full scale deflection. Then 𝑅𝐼 from the
resistance box is noted.
5. 𝑅𝐼 is equal or nearly equal to R. Hence conversion is verified.

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Diagram:

Observations

➢ Resistance of the galvanometer, G (given) = ............................... Ω

➢ Figure of merit of the galvanometer, K (given) = ....................... A/div
➢
➢ Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale,
N= ....................... div

➢ Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions, Ig = NK=

…………….. A
➢ Maximum voltage to be measured, V (given) = ....................... V
𝑣
➢ The value of resistance to be connected in series, R= - G =………….
𝐼𝑔

Calculations:

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Result: The conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter is perfect since the difference
between readings using galvanometer and standard voltmeter is very small.
VIVA – VOCE

1. What is voltmeter?
2. How do you convert galvanometer to voltmeter?
3. What is resistance of an ideal voltmeter?
4. Can you convert ammeter to voltmeter and vice versa?
5. How do you convert ammeter to voltmeter and vice versa?
6. Why voltmeter is always connected in parallel in any circuit?
7. What is a moving coil galvanometer?
8. Why galvanometer cannot be used to measure the current?
9. Define voltage sensitivity?

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Experiment Number: 7 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to
find the focal length.

Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp edged pins, concave mirror, three uprights with clamps
and meter scale.

Principle: Focal length is the distance between the pole and principle focus of the concave
mirror.
𝒖𝒗
Formula: Focal length of concave mirror, f =
𝒖+𝒗

Where u – Distance of object from mirror

V- Distance of image from the mirror

Procedure:

1. Keep the mirror mounted on a holder facing a distant building or tree.

2. Obtain inverted image of building or a tree on the screen. Measure the distance of screen
from the mirror. This will be rough focal length of concave mirror.
3. Now place the concave mirror in front of the illuminated object O at a distance greater
than its focal length.
4. Place the image screen in front of the mirror and adjust the position to obtain a sharp,
inverted image I of the object O.
5. Measure the distance u of object from mirror and distance v of the image screen from the
mirror.
6. Increase the distance of mirror from the object screen and repeat the experiment and
tabulate the data.

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Diagram:

Tabular Column

Object distance Image distance 𝒖𝒗

Trial Number f= in m
u in m v in m 𝒖+𝒗
1

Mean f = ......................... m
Calculations:

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Result: The focal length of the concave mirror, f= ............................. m

VIVA – VOCE

1. Define the terms a. pole, b. centre of curvature of a mirror, c. radius of curvature d.

principal axis of mirror.
2. Define mirror.
3. Define concave mirror.
4. Define object distance and image distance.
5. Define real image and virtual image
6. What is the nature of image formed by concave mirror?
7. Why concave mirror is used in shaving mirror?

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Experiment Number: 8 Date:

FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim: Determination of the focal length of a convex lens by plotting a graph of u versus
v.
Apparatus: Optical bench, two sharp- edged pins, convex lens of focal length less than 20 cm,
three uprights with clamps and meter scale.
Principle: Focal length is the distance between the optical centre and principal focus of the
convex lens. The object distance must be greater than focal length of the convex
lens.
Formula: Focal length of the convex lens,
OA+OB
f=
4
Where OA – image distance

OB – object distance

Procedure:
1) The given convex lens is moved forward and backward to obtain the sharp image of the
distant tree on the white sheet of paper kept vertically behind the lens. The distance
between the lens and white sheet of paper is measured. This is the approximate focal
length f of the lens.

2) The uprights mounted with convex lens; object pin P1and image pin P2 are placed on one
side of the optical bench as shown in figure.

3) The heights of the object pin P1 and image pin P2 are adjusted such that their tips lie on
the principal axis of the lens.

4) The position of the object pin P1 is adjusted such that it will be at a distance u which is
greater than f of the lens.

5) Seeing the inverted and enlarged image of the object pin P1, the position of the image pin
P2 is adjusted so that its tip coincides with the tip of the image without parallax. Then the
distance between the convex lens and image pinP2 becomes image distance v.

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6) The experiment is repeated for different values of u and readings are tabulated.

7) A graph is plotted between u on x-axis and v on y-axis. The angular bisector OZ is drawn
and OA and OB are measured.

8) Focal length f of the convex lens is calculated using the formula

OA+OB
f=
4

Observation:

Trial No. Object distance u in cm Image distance v in cm

1

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Calculations:

Result: The focal length of convex lens, f = ---------------m

VIVA – VOCE

1. Give the difference between mirror and lens?

2. On what factors does the focal length of lens depends?
3. What type of image is formed by convex lens?
4. What type of lens is used in magnifying glass?
5. What is power of a lens?
6. Why convex lens is used to correct long sightedness (hypermetropia)
7. Why convex lens is used in telescope or microscope, why not concave?
8. What is the difference between lens and prism?

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Experiment Number: 9 Date:

ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION

Aim: To Determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a
graph between angle of incidence and minimum deviation.

Apparatus: Drawing board, White sheet of paper, glass prism, drawing pins, and protractor.

Principle: A. In a prism angle of deviation is the between the ray of incidence and ray of
emergence.
B. n the minimum deviation position of prism, the light ray passes through prism
symmetrically. Then i1=i2, r1=r2 and d=dm.

Procedure:

1) A straight line XY is drawn on the sheet of white paper fixed on the drawing board. Mark
Points O1, O2, O3, O4, O5 on line XY at a distance of about 10 cm.
2) Draw normal N1o1 to the line XY at Q1 and straight line D1O1 is drawn to represent ray
of incidence which makes an angle 350 with N1o1.
3) Prism ABC is placed on the paper as shown in fig and boundary is drawn.
4) Two pins P1and Q1 are vertically fixed about 5cm apart on the ray of Incidence D1O1.
5) While seeing the images of pin P1and Q1 through BC, two more pins R1andS1 are fixed on
the side of BC so that R1andS1 and the images of pin P1and Q1 will be collinear.
6) Pins are removed and their pricks are encircled. A straight line is drawn through pin
pricks of R1and S1 to obtain ray of emergence.
7) Ray of incidence and ray of emergence are extended as shown in the figure to find angle
of deviation(d)
8) Experiment is repeated for different values of angle of incidence 40o, 45 o, 50o and 550
and reading are tabulated.
9) A graph of angle of incidence (i) versus angle of deviation (d) is drawn and angle of
minimum deviation is found from graph.

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Diagram:

Observation:

Angle of Angle of
Trial
incidence (i) deviation (d)
No.
in degree in degree
1

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Result: Angle of minimum deviation dm= ------------

VIVA – VOCE

1. What is dispersion of light

2. What is the cause for dispersion of light
3. Name the consequences of dispersion
4. What is angle of minimum deviation?
5. Name the most deviated color in the spectrum of light
6. Does the angle of minimum deviation depend upon the color of light?
7. What are the factors on which dispersive power depend upon?
8. On what factor does angular deviation depend upon?

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Experiment Number: 10 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS USING TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Aim: Determination of the refractive index of glass using glass slab and travelling
microscope.
Apparatus: Travelling microscope and glass slab.
Principle: The refractive index of the glass slab with respect to air is the ratio of real thickness
of glass slab to its apparent thickness.
Formula: Refractive index of glass with respect to air,
𝑹𝟑−𝑹𝟏
ng =
𝑹𝟑−𝑹𝟐
R1 = Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark through air
R2 = Reading of the microscope when focused on the ink mark through glass slab
R3 = Reading of the microscope when focused on the chalk dust on the upper
surface of the glass slab.

Total reading, TR = MSR + (CVD x LC)

Procedure:

1) The least count of travelling microscope is calculated

2) A sheet of white paper is placed on the base of the travelling microscope and the ink
mark is put on it.
3) The microscope is adjusted to focus on the ink mark on the paper. MSR and CVD are
noted in vertical scale and reading R1 is calculated using the formulae.
TR = MSR + ( CVD x LC)

4) Glass slab is placed on the paper and microscope is raised to focus on the ink mark
through glass slab and corresponding reading R2 is found.
5) Chalk dust placed sprinkled on the upper surface of the glass slab and microscope is
again raised to focus on the chalk dust and corresponding reading R3 is found.

6) Refractive index is calculated using the formula, ng = 𝑹𝟑−𝑹𝟏

𝑹𝟑−𝑹𝟐

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Diagram:

Observation:

➢ Value of one MSD, S ₌ ............................................................. cm

➢ Number of divisions on the vernier, N ₌ ………………………

..................
➢ Least count of the travelling microscope, LC=𝑆/𝑁 cm
➢ Reading of ink mark 𝑅1₌ ......................................................... cm

➢ Reading of image of ink mark 𝑅2₌ ......................................... cm

➢ Reading of upper surface of glass slab 𝑅3 ₌ ........................... cm

Calculations:

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Result: The refractive index of glass = -----------

VIVA-VOCE:
1. What do you mean by refraction of light?
2. Which of the following does not change during refraction of light? Wave length, frequency.
3. Define Snell’s law
4. Define refractive index of material
5. What is normal shift?
6. what is the difference between ordinary microscope and travelling microscope?
7. what is the application of calculating refractive index of a material?

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Experiment Number: 11 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER USING CONCAVE MIRROR

Aim: Determination of refractive index of water using a concave mirror.

Apparatus: Concave mirror, water, a pin and a meter scale.
Principle: The refractive index of a material is the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the
sine of angle of refraction.
𝑅
Formula: Refractive index of water with respect to air, nw =
𝑅′
Where R – radius of curvature of concave mirror

𝑅𝐼 – Apparent radius of curvature of concave mirror with water

Procedure:

1. A concave mirror is placed on the base of laboratory stand as shown in the figure.

2. A sharp edge bright pin AB is placed horizontally just above the pole of the mirror and
clamed.

3. The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that it coincides exactly with the image
A’B’ without parallax.

4. The vertical distance R between the mirror and the pin is measured.

5. Now water is poured into the concave mirror.

6. The position of the pin AB is lowered such that it coincides such that it coincides its
image A’’B’’ without parallax.

7. The vertical distance R’ between mirror and the pin is measured after removal of water
𝑅
8. Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula nw = 𝑅′

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Diagram:

Observation:

1. Radius of curvature of concave mirror, R ................................... cm.

2. Radius of curvature of concave mirror with water, 𝑅𝐼 ..................................................cm.

Calculations:

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Result: Refractive index of water, nw …………………

VIVA-VOCE
1. What is reflection of light?
2. State the laws of reflection
3. What is concave mirror
4. What is aperture?
5. What is pole of a concave mirror
6. Define radius of curvature of a concave mirror
7. What are the values of refractive index of a. water b. air c. glass
8. What property does the mirror exhibit reflection or refraction?

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Experiment Number: 12 Date:

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER USING CONVEX LENS AND PLANE MIRROR

Aim: Determination of refractive index of water using a convex lens and plane mirror.
Apparatus: Convex lens, plane mirror, water and illuminated object.
Principle: The reciprocal of focal length of the combination of the lens is equal to the sum of
the reciprocal of focal lengths of individual lenses.
𝑓𝑓′
Formula: 1. Focal length of lens formed by water fw=
𝑓−𝑓′
Where f - focal length of convex lens

𝑓𝐼- Focal length of combination of glass lens and water lens.

𝑅
2. Refractive index of water, nw = 1+
𝑓𝑤
Where R- is the radius of curvature of equiconvex lens formed by water.

Procedure:

1) A plane mirror is placed on the base of the laboratory stand keeping its reflecting surface
upward
2) A convex placed on the plane mirror as shown in the figure.
3) A sharp-e dg ed bright pin AB placed horizontally just above the optic center (o) of
theconvex lens and clamped.
4) The position of the pin AB is adjusted such that it coincides with its image A’B’ without
parallax.
5) The vertical distance between the convex lens and pin is measured which equals focal
length of the convex lens.
6) A few drops of water is put under the lens with the help of dropper so that the space
between the mirror and lens is filled with water.
7) The position of the pin AB is lowered such that it coincides with its image A’’B’’ without
parallax.
8) Then the vertical distance between the convex lens and the pin AB is measured with
which equals focal length f’ of combination of convex lens and water lens.
9) The focal length of the water lens is calculated using the formula.
10) Refractive index of water is calculated using the formula.

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Diagram:

Observation:

1) Radius of curvature of equiconvex lens (given),R .................................. cm

2) Focal length of convex lens f = ....................................... cm

3) Focal length of lens combination f1= ....................................... cm

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Calculations:

Result:

Refractive index of water, nw …………………

VIVA – VOCE
1. What is refractive index?
2. State Snell’s law .
3. Define refraction.
4. What is the refractive index of air?
5. Which element has highest refractive index?
6. What is apparent depth?
7. What is normal shift?
8. RI of medium A is greater than B the in which medium light travels faster?
9. What is convex lens?
10. What is parallax?

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Experiment Number: 13 Date:

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE IN FORWARD BIAS

Aim: To draw the I-V characteristics curves of a p-n junction in forward bias.
Apparatus: Semiconductor diode, milliammeter, voltmeter rheostat and battery
Principle: When a semiconductor diode is forward biased it conducts and offers very low
resistance.
Definition: Cut-in voltage is the characteristic voltage at which the diode current increases
exponentially even for small increase in bias voltage, when the diode is in forward
bias.
Procedure:

1. The connections are made as shown in the figure.

2. Using the rheostat the voltage is adjusted for a value v. The voltage v and the
corresponding current I are noted.
3. The experiment is repeated for different values of voltage and readings are tabulated.
4. A graph is plotted for current I versus voltage V.

5. The break down voltage Vbr is noted from the graph.

Diagram: Graph:

Observation:

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Voltage V
in V
Current I
in mA
Graph:

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Result: The cut-in voltage of the given diode=------------ V

VIVA – VOCE

1. What is semiconductor?
2. What is diode?
3. How do you forward bias the diode?
4. What do you mean by cut in voltage?
5. What is the order of current in forward bias?
6. What is p-n junction?
7. What happens for the junction resistance when a diode is forward bias?

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Experiment Number: 14 Date:

V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE IN FORWARD BIAS

Aim: To draw the I-V characteristics curves of a p-n junction in reverse bias.
Apparatus: Semiconductor diode, micro ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat and battery.

Principle: When the diode is reversed biased it offers very high resistance.
Definition: As the applied voltage increase in reverse bias starting from zero, the current
increases and soon becomes constant. This constant value is called reverse
saturation.
Procedure:

1. The connections are made as shown in the figure.

2. Keeping plug key closed; the rheostat is adjusted for a suitable values of voltage v. The
voltage v is noted.
3. Then the key 𝐾2 is opened and the current I is noted.
4. The experiment is repeated for different values of V and the readings are tabulated.
5. A graph is plotted for the current I versus voltage V and reverse saturation current OB is
found from the graph.
Diagram:Graph:

Observation:

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Voltage V
in V
Current I
in µ A

Graph

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Result:The reverse saturation current for the given diode=------------ µA

VIVA – VOCE

1. What is reverse bias?

2. What causes depletion region region in p-n junction?
3. Which type of biasing gives a semiconductor diode very high resistance?
4. What is reverse breakdown voltage?
5. Under what condition does a junction diode works as open switch?
6. What is potential barrier?

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Experiment Number: 15 Date:

COMPARISION OF EMF OF TWO CELLS USING POTENTIOMETER

Aim: To compare the emf’s of two given primary cells using potentiometer.

Apparatus: Potentiometer, battery, given two cells, galvanometer, two- way key, rheostat and
plug key.

Principle: principle of potentiometer: when a study current flows through a material wire of
uniform thickness, potential difference between any two points on it is directly
proportional to the length of the wire between the points.
𝑬𝟏
Formula: The ratio of emf of the cells = 𝑳𝟏
𝑬𝟐 𝑳𝟐

Where E1 = emf of the first cell

E2 = emf of the second cell
L1 = Balancing length for first cell
L2 = Balancing length for second cell
Procedure:

1. The connections are made as shown in circuit diagram.

2 The circuit is checked for opposite deflections by placing jockey at the two ends of the
wire PQ alternately.
3 E1 is connected and slider is moved on the potentiometer wire from P towards the end Q
till galvanometer shows Zero deflection. The balancing length L1 is measured.
4 E 1 is disconnected and E 2 is connected and balancing length L2 is found.
E1
5 The ratio of is calculated using the above formula.
E2
6 The experiment is repeated for different values of current and average value of ratio of
emfs of the cells is found.

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Diagram:

Tabular column:

Trial Number Balancing length 𝑳𝟏 in Balancing length 𝑳𝟐 in 𝑬𝟏 𝑳𝟏

=
cm cm 𝑬𝟐 𝑳𝟐

𝑬𝟏
Average value of = …………
𝑬𝟐

Calculations:

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Result:
𝑬𝟏
The ratio of emf’s of the cells, =……
𝑬𝟐

VIVA – VOCE
1. What is the difference between emf and voltage?
2. What is a potentiometer?
3. Give the applications of potentiometer?
4. State Kirchhoff’s voltage rule and current rule?
5. What is the principle of potentiometer?
6. What is the net emf when two cells E1 and E2 are connected in a. parallel b. series
7. What is electrolytic cell?

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RESISTANCE, RESISTIVITY, SERIES AND PARALLEL RESISTANCE

1. Define Ohm’s law
Answer: The current that flows through most conductors is directly proportional to the voltage
applied. The voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing through
it, provided all physical conditions and temperatures remain constant.

2. What is the formula of Ohm’s law?

Answer: Ohm’s law is given by the formula: V=IR
Where, I=current, V=voltage, and R=Resistance.

3. What is specific resistance?

Answer: The resistance offered per unit length and unit cross-sectional area when a known
amount of voltage is applied is known as the specific resistance.

4. What is the SI unit of the potential difference?

Answer: The SI unit of the potential difference is volt.

5. The current is measured in which unit?

Answer: The unit of electric current is Ampere.

6. What is the unit of resistance?

Answer: The unit of the electrical resistance is Ohms.

7. Does the resistance depend on the temperature?

Answer: Yes, the resistance depends on the temperature. As the temperature increases, the
resistance also increases.

8. What are the various sources of error while performing this experiment?
Answer: Various sources of error are:
The instrument screws may be loose.
Lack of thick connecting wires.
Using rheostat of high resistance.

9. What is electrical conductivity?

Answer: It is the measure of the ability of the material to allow the electric current to pass
through it.

10.Define a rheostat.
Answer: A rheostat is a two-terminal electrical device. The rheostat is a variable resistor whose
resistance can be changed to change the current flowing amount through a circuit.
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11.State true or false: The potential difference across the wire varies linearly with the
current.
Answer: TRUE. The potential difference across the wire varies linearly with the current.

12.Does the resistance depend on the dimensions of the conductor?

Answer: Yes, the resistance depends on the dimensions of the conductor.

13.What is meant by specific resistance or resistivity?

Answer: Specific resistance or resistivity is the resistance of one-metre length wire and the
cross-sectional area m2.

14.What is the difference between potential difference and emf?

Answer: The potential difference is the work done in displacing a unit charge from one point to
another. Emf is the potential difference among the terminals of a cell when no current is
extracted from it.

15.Why is a connecting wire thick and enveloped with cotton thread?

Answer: Thick copper wires only possess negligible resistance, and covering them with
cotton helps to avoid short-circuiting.

16.What is the SI unit of resistivity?

Answer: Ohm-metre or Ωm is the SI unit resistivity.

17.What is the wire material used in a rheostat?

Answer: Constantan or manganin is the material of wire used in a rheostat.

18.How can we convert a galvanometer into (a) voltmeter (b) ammeter?

Answer: By linking a high resistance in series.
(b) By linking a low resistance in parallel.

19.What is the influence of temperature on resistance?

Answer: Wire resistance increases with temperature.

20.Can we consider Ohm’s law as a universal law?

Answer: No, Ohm’s law is not a universal law. It totally fails on semiconductor materials and
for resistances at extremely low temperatures.

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21.What happens when the voltmeter is linked in series in a circuit?
Answer: A voltmeter is a device used for measuring the potential difference across two
points. So, the voltmeter is linked between the two points. Furthermore, the voltmeter has
a high resistance, and therefore, the current in the circuit is drastically reduced.

22.What is meant by superconductivity?

Answer: In specific materials, the resistance completely vanishes below a distinct temperature.
This is called superconductivity.

23.What is a metre bridge?

Answer: A slide wire bridge, also termed a metre bridge, is an instrument that works on the
principal Wheatstone bridge. To find unknown resistance of a conductor, a metre bridge is used.

24.In a series combination of resistance, how do you find the equivalent resistance?
Answer: Since the same current passes through each resistor in series combination, the total
resistance RT can be calculated using the below equation:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ……. Rn

25.What is the use of a metre bridge?

Answer: To measure the resistance precisely for a resistor, a metre bridge is used.

26.Which principle is followed by the metre bridge for its working?

Answer: The principle of the Wheatstone bridge is followed by a metre bridge for its efficient
working.

27.Which material wire is used in a metre bridge?

Answer: The materials such as nichrome, constantan or manganin are used in making the wire
of a metre bridge because these materials have a high value of resistance, and the coefficient of
the temperature of their resistances is low.

28.What is the case when the metre bridge is in a more sensitive condition?
Answer: The metre bridge circuit will be very sensitive when all four resistors have the same
resistance values.

29.What is the balanced condition of a Wheatstone bridge?

Answer: When no current flows through the galvanometer, the Wheatstone bridge is said to be
in a balanced condition. By adjusting the known resistance and variable resistance, this
condition can be achieved.

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30.What is the working principle of a Wheatstone bridge?
Answer: It is the principle of null deflection which is responsible for the working of a
Wheatstone bridge, i.e., no current flows through the circuit, and the ratio of their resistances
are equal.

31.What are the restrictions of Wheatstone bridge?

Answer: The resistance of the leads and contacts becomes important for low resistance
measurement, but the Wheatstone bridge shows errors while measuring them.

32.When two resistances, R1 and R2, are connected in series, what formula is used to find the
series combination resistance?
Answer: The formula to find series combination resistance is RS = R1 + R2.

33.Does the resistance depend on the dimensions of the conductor?

Answer: Yes, the resistance depends on the dimensions of the conductor.

34.What is the resistance which obeys Ohm’s law?

Answer: Ohmic resistance is the resistance which obeys Ohm’s law.

35.What is the resistance which does not obey Ohm’s law?

Answer: Non-ohmic resistance is the resistance which does not obey Ohm’s law.
36.Give two examples of non-ohmic resistance.
Answer: Vacuum tube diodes and transistors are two examples of non-ohmic resistances.

37.Give three examples of ohmic resistance.

Answer: Metallic resistance like silver, aluminium, and copper are three examples of ohmic
resistances.

38.When two resistances, r1 and r2, are connected in parallel, what formula is used to find
the parallel combination resistance?
1 1 1
Answer: The formula is: = +
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2

39.Is semiconductor diode an ohmic resistance or non-ohmic resistance?

Answer: A semiconductor diode is a non-ohmic resistance.

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FIGURE OF MERIT OF GALVANOMETER AND CONVERSIONS
40.What is a galvanometer?
Answer: A galvanometer is a measuring device that measures a small electrical current or a
function of the current by deflection of a moving coil.

41.What is the formula to calculate the figure of merit of the galvanometer?

𝐸
Answer: The formula to calculate the figure of merit of the galvanometer is 𝐾 =
(𝑅+𝐺)𝜃

42.What is an ammeter?
Answer. An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to calculate the current in a circuit.

43.What is the unit to measure electric current?

Answer: Ampere is the unit used to measure the electric current.

44.Define ampere.
Answer: An ampere is a unit of measure of the rate of electron flow or current in an electrical
conductor.

45.How is a galvanometer converted to an ammeter?

Answer: A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by connecting a low resistance in
parallel with the galvanometer.

46.On the galvanometer scale, why is zero placed in the middle?

Answer: Zero is placed in the middle of the galvanometer since the galvanometer needle can
deflect on both sides.

47.How is an ammeter connected in a circuit?

Answer: An ammeter should be connected in the series pattern with the circuit. When the
ammeter is placed in series, the entire current of the circuit can be calculated when it passes
through it.

48.Why is this method known as the half deflection method?

Answer: Here, the deflection is made half using a shunt resistance S. Hence It is known as the
half deflection method.

49.Are there positive and negative terminals in the galvanometer?

Answer: There are no positive and negative terminals in the galvanometer.

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ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
50.What are the materials required for this experiment?
Answer: The materials required for this experiment are a drawing board, a white sheet of paper,
a prism, drawing pins, a pencil, a half-metre scale, office pins, a protractor, and graph paper.

51.What is the theory behind this experiment?

Answer: Refraction happens when a light ray moves through two adjacent mediums with
different refractive indices or densities. This results in the deviation of the emergent light ray
compared to the incident light ray.

52.What is a prism?
Answer: A prism is a transparent optical device with polished, flat surfaces that refract light. At
least one of its surfaces must be angled. A similar optical device with two parallel sides is not a
prism.

53.How many edges are there in a prism?

Answer: There are nine edges in a prism.

54.What is meant by the angle of deviation?

Answer: The angle of deviation is the angle at which a light ray turns away from the original
way while moving through a prism.

55.What are the factors that control the angle of deviation?

Answer: It depends on,
The angle of incidence
the material of the prism
The refracting angle (prism)
The wavelength of the light used (colour)

56.What is the angle of minimum deviation?

Answer: The minimum value of the deviation angle is called the angle of minimum deviation.

57.What is the importance of minimum deviation?

Answer: At the condition of minimum deviation, light beams move inside the prism parallel to
the prism’s base, and the angle of emergence is equal to the angle of incidence.

58.Does the colour of light influence the angle of minimum deviation?

Answer: Yes, it is varied for different wavelengths or colours.

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59.Which word is used as the abbreviation for remembering the names of seven colours in
white light?
Answer: VIBGYOR is the word used for remembering the names of seven colours in white
light.

60.What is the full form of VIBGYOR?

Answer: The full form of VIBGYOR is,
Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red.

61.What is meant by the dispersion of light?

Answer: The process of splitting pure white light into its seven constituent colours is known as
the dispersion of light.

62.What is the conclusion of the graph of ‘i’ and ‘D’?

Answer: The deviation is minimum only at one special value of incidence angle.

63.Why are there dual values of incidence angle for one value of deviation angle?
Answer: The reversed light ray will possess the exact deviation as before.

64.Does a ray of white light produce a spectrum on travelling through a hollow prism?
Answer: For the generation of the ideal spectrum, light needs a perfect prism.

65.Which colour deviates the least?

Answer: Red colour deviates the least.

66.Which colour deviates the most?

Answer: Violet colour deviates the most.

67.Which colour possesses the highest refractive index?

Answer: Violet colour has the highest refractive index.

68.Which colour has the lowest refractive index?

Answer: Red colour possesses the lowest refractive index.

69.What is the Cauchy relation?

Answer: The Cauchy relation is the connection between the wavelength of light and the
refractive index of the given transparent medium.

70.What is the dispersive power of a prism?

Answer: A prism’s dispersive power is the ratio of the angular dispersion for the given two
colours to the average deviation generated by the prism.
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71.What is the factor that controls dispersive power?

Answer: Dispersive power depends on the refractive index of the prism’s material.

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF WATER

72.What is refractive index of a transparent medium?
Answer: The ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of light in the given
medium.
n = C / V = Sin i / Sin υ
Where c = velocity of light in the vacuum, v = velocity of light in the given medium.

73.What are the factors affecting the refractive index?

Answer: (a) Wave length of the light used. (b) Nature or the medium.

74.What is meant by monochromatic light?

Answer: Light consisting of only one colour or wave-length.

75.Can you see all the wave-lengths?

Answer: No, wave lengths from 4000Ao (violet) to 6000 Ao (Red) are visible only.

76.Can the refractive index of a medium be less than or equal to 1?

Answer: No, since in the relation: n = C / v and we always have: V < C, n > 1

77.What is the refractive index of? (a) glass (b) water (c) air (d) vacuum
Answer: (a) 1.5 (b) 1.33 (c) 1.003 (d) (V = C in vacuum)

78.What type of lens is formed by water?

Answer: Plano-concave lens.

79.What type of combined lens is formed?

Answer: Plano-concave lens.

80.What is function of plane mirror?

Answer: To reflect the rays refracted by the lens of liquid. When the pin is at the centre of
curvature of the combination, the reflected rays form the image at the position of the pin.

81.What are the laws of reflection?

Answer: (a) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. (b) The angle of
incidence, angle of refraction and the normal to the point of incidence, all lie in one plane.

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82.What are laws of refraction?
Answer: The ratio Sin i / Sin r is always constant give a given medium and is called refracted
index,μ or n (Snell’s Law). (b) The incident ray, the refracted ray and normal to the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.

83.Which substance has greatest value of refractive index?

Answer: Diamond (2.42)

84.What defect may be produced in the image when very small quantity of water and hence
the image produced will be distorted.
Answer: The water surface will not be flat due to the small quantity of water and hence the
image produced will be distorted

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF GLASS SLAB USING TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

85.What is the depth of focus in a microscope?
Answer: The distance between the objective lens and the model plane in a microscope is known
as its depth of focus. The depth of focus differs from person to person, and also it depends on
the quality of focus.

86.What is the depth of field in a microscope?

Answer: The distance from the farthest plane in focus to the nearest object plane in the same
focus is known as the depth of field in a microscope. In microscopes, the depth of field is
measured in units of microns because it is very short.

87.What is the field of view in a microscope?

Answer: The diameter of the circle, which is illuminated and is seen through the eyepiece in a
microscope, is known as its field of view. There is a decrease in the field of view with an
increase in the magnification.

88.What is a refractive index?

Answer: When a light ray passes from a medium to some other medium, then the measurement
of bending of that light ray is known as the refractive index. It can be expressed as n = c/v.

89.What is the formula to calculate the refractive index of a medium?

Answer: The following formula can be used to compute the refractive index of a medium:
n = c/v
where, the refractive index of the medium is denoted by ‘n’
the velocity of light in a vacuum is denoted by ‘c’
the velocity of light in the medium is denoted by ‘v’

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90.Is the speed of light faster in glass or water?
Answer: As compared to glass, the speed of light is faster in water since the refractive index of
glass is 1.5, and the refractive index of water is 1.3. According to the equation n = c/v, we know
that the refractive index of a medium and the velocity of light in that medium is inversely
proportional to each other. Hence light travels faster in water.

91.What is the normal shift?

Answer: There exists an apparent shift in the position of an object when placed in a particular
medium and viewed along the normal from another medium, and this shift is known as the
normal shift.

92.What is the apparent shift?

Answer: The difference between the distance of the object and the distance of the image from
the refracting surface is known as apparent shift.

93.What are the sources of error in the experiment – To determine the refractive index of a
glass slab using a travelling microscope.
Answer: It may be possible that the scale used in the microscope might not be adjusted
properly.
Thin lycopodium powder layer on the glass slab.

94.On what factors does apparent depth depend?

Answer: Apparent depth depends on the following factors:
The thickness of the medium
Nature of the medium
Colour of the light

PN JUCNTION DIODE
95.What are the three types of materials based on electrical conductivity?
Answer: Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors are the three types of materials based on
electrical conductivity.

96.What is electrical conductivity?

Answer: Electrical conductivity is a measure of how smoothly a body allows current to
move through it.

97.What is the relationship between resistivity and electrical conductivity?

Answer: The electrical conductivity of the material is reciprocal to resistivity.

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98.What is a hole in the context of a semiconductor?
Answer: A hole is a place in the crystal lattice of a material which is vacated by an electron. It is
considered a positive charge.

99.What is an intrinsic semiconductor?

Answer: An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure semiconductor that does not possess any
significant dopant species. It is also called an i-type semiconductor or undoped semiconductor.

100.What is an extrinsic semiconductor?

Answer: An extrinsic semiconductor is an impure semiconductor that possesses significant
dopant species.

101.What is an n-type semiconductor?

Answer: An n-type semiconductor is a type of intrinsic semiconductor doped using arsenic
(As), antimony (Sb) or phosphorus (P) as an impurity.

102.What is meant by doping?

Answer: Doping is the process of deliberately adding appropriate impurities to pure
semiconductors.

103.What is meant by a junction?

Answer: A junction is a common surface of p-type and n-type semiconductors.

104.What is meant by a junction potential barrier?

Answer: A junction potential barrier is a potential difference between junction terminals of
semiconductors.

105.What are the two types of biasing?

Answer: Forward biasing and reverse biasing are the two types of bias

106.What is the law of reflection for a mirror?

Answer: The laws of reflection for a mirror are:
• The normal, incident ray and refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
• The angle of refraction and the angle of incidence are equal.

107.Define the radius of curvature.

Answer: The radius of curvature, R for a curved mirror, can be defined as the radius of the
sphere of a hollow glass of which the spherical mirror is a part.

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108.What are the principal focus and principal axis?

Answer: For the spherical mirror, a point on the principal axis at which the rays reflected from
the mirror meet or appear to meet is known as the principal focus. For a convex mirror, the
principal focus lies behind the mirror, whereas for a concave mirror, the principal focus lies in
the front of the mirror or lens. The imaginary line passing through the centre of curvature and
pole of the spherical mirror is known as the principal axis.

109.What is reflection?

Answer: One of the fundamental and main properties of light is reflection. At an interface in-
between two different media, when the travelling light ray changes its direction, this type of
phenomenon is known as reflection. Reflection is nothing but the images you see in the mirrors.

110.Define refraction.

Answer: Refraction is basically the bending of light when it passes from one medium to
another. Several devices, such as magnifying glasses, microscopes, corrective lenses etc., use
this property of refraction.

111.What is wave optics in physics?

Answer: The branch of optics that talks about the study of interference, diffraction, polarization,
and other phenomena, is known as wave optics.

112.What is magnification?

Answer: Magnification of the lens is basically the ratio of the linear size of the image to the
linear size of the object.

m = (linear size of the image/linear size of the object)

113.What is a convex lens?

Answer: A lens that is curved outwards is known as a convex lens. Convex lenses are also
known as converging lenses. The thickness at the centre of a convex lens is more than its edge.
A convex lens has the capability to converge a parallel beam of light into a point.

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114.What is a concave lens?

Answer: The type of lens with at least one side curved inwards is known as a concave lens. A
Biconcave lens is a concave lens with both sides curved inward. Concave lenses are also known
as diverging lenses because they spread out or diverge the rays of light that are refracted
through it.

115.What are cylindrical lenses?

Answer: Cylindrical lenses are those lenses that have a curvature along only one axis. The main
purpose of cylindrical lenses is to focus light into a line or to alter laser diode elliptical light into
a round beam.

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