Chapter 16 Communication

CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL
PHYSICS
COMMUNICATION
MODULATION
I. What is modulation?
When we tune to our favourite radio
station, we tune to a particular
frequency; e.g. 94.5 MHz, 92.9 MHz.
These frequencies are the frequencies
of the carrier signal, a very high
frequency signal that transports the
information signal.
MODULATION
I. What is modulation (contd)?
The information signal, e.g. audio, video,
media, is the information send out by the
transmitter.
Modulation is the variation of either the
amplitude or frequency of the carrier
signal in synchrony with a property of
the information signal.
MODULATION
II.
a.
Why modulation?
To prevent interference of different
sources. For example, if radio stations
transmit using human audible range,
information from different sources would
interfere.
b. The carrier signal is a high frequency
signal. Modulating the information signal
with a high energy signal increases the
energy content of the modulated signal.
MODULATION
II. Why modulation?
c. The modulated signal has a high
frequency, thus a shorter wavelength.
Antennae that receive the signal must

have length . If the frequency of

the modulated signal is low, the
antennae size has to be longer, to
extend of kilometres.
MODULATION
III. Two types of modulation:
We will learn two kinds of
modulation:
a. amplitude modulation (AM),
and
b. frequency modulation (FM).
MODULATION
a. Amplitude modulation (AM):
Definition:
In
amplitude
modulation, the amplitude of
the carrier signal is made to vary
in
synchrony
with
the
displacement of the information
signal.
MODULATION
a. Amplitude modulation (contd):
carrier wave
information signal
Fig. 3.2 , page 26,

A Level Science
Applications
Booklet: Physics,
University of
Cambridge
International
Examinations,
Cambridge,
England, 2006.
MODULATION
modulated wave
Fig. 3.2 , page 26, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of
Cambridge International Examinations, Cambridge, England, 2006.
MODULATION
a.
Amplitude modulation (contd):
A few observations:
The information signal forms an envelope
around the carrier signal to produce the
modulated signal. This means that the
information signal cannot have an amplitude
larger than the carrier signal.
By finding the time for two successive loops
in the modulated signal, we can obtain the
period of the information signal, hence its
frequency.
MODULATION
a.
By using mathematical analysis, we can

obtain the frequency spectrum of an
amplitude modulated signal.
The frequency spectrum shows us the
signal
power
versus
frequency
components of the signal we have
analysed.
MODULATION
The graph on the next slide shows

the frequency spectrum of a
particular amplitude modulated
signal.
The information signal is of a single
frequency, .
MODULATION
Figure 20.5, page
313, Chapter 20:
Communications
Systems;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
MODULATION
a.
The term frequency

of the carrier
wave while frequency of the
information
signal
(sideband
frequencies).
The spectrum shows that the lowest
frequency present (the lower sideband)

MODULATION
a.
The spectrum shows that the highest

frequency present (the upper sideband)

The range between the lower and upper
sidebands is known as the bandwidth.
The bandwidth (BW)
MODULATION
Why is the frequency spectrum

important? The receiver must be
capable of receiving all the
frequencies in the bandwidth,
otherwise some of the information
will be lost.
MODULATION
How will the frequency spectrum look like if
the information signal has a range of
frequencies, as seen below?
Fig. 3.5 , page 28,
A Level Science
Applications
Booklet: Physics,
University of
Cambridge
International
Examinations,
Cambridge,
England, 2006.
MODULATION
We will obtain a frequency spectrum as shown
below
-----Bandwidth -------
MODULATION
Questions 2 and 3,
page 311, Chapter
20:
Communications
Systems; Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
MODULATION
Question 6, page
314, Chapter 20:
Communications
Systems;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
MODULATION
b. Frequency modulation (FM):
Definition:
In
frequency
modulation, the frequency of the
carrier signal is made to vary in
synchrony with the displacement
of the information signal.
MODULATION
b. Frequency modulation (contd)
carrier wave
information signal
Fig. 3.2 , page 26,

A Level Science
Applications
Booklet: Physics,
University of
Cambridge
International
Examinations,
Cambridge,
England, 2006.
MODULATION
b. Frequency modulation (contd)
MODULATION
b.
Frequency modulation (contd):
A few observations:
The amplitude of the modulated wave
is constant.
The frequency of the modulated wave
increases as the displacement of the
information signal increases and is
maximum when the displacement of
the information signal is maximum.
MODULATION
b.
Frequency modulation (contd):
A few observations (contd):

For negative values of displacement of
the information signal, the frequency
of the modulated wave decreases. The
frequency of the modulated signal is
minimum when the displacement of
the information signal has the largest
negative value.
MODULATION
b. Frequency modulation (contd):
Questions 4 and 5,
page 312, Chapter
20:
Communications
Systems;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
MODULATION
IV. Comparing AM and FM:
Noise and electrical interference (e.g.
external noise, lightning, etc. ) effect
the amplitude of a signal, not its
frequency. AM signals are prone to
interference due to electrical impulses
compared to FM signals.
MODULATION
IV. Comparing AM and FM (contd):
AM signals have a bandwidth of 9 kHz.
This means that the maximum frequency
of the information signal is 4.5 kHz. FM
signals have a typical bandwidth of about
200 kHz. FM signals would have
frequencies of 15 kHz and higher, which
leads to better quality of sound.
MODULATION
AM signals have a longer wavelength. This
means that AM signals from a single
transmitter can travel a greater distance
due to diffraction.
AM signals have a smaller bandwidth. This
means that more stations can transmit
using AM for a given frequency spectrum.
MODULATION
The electronic circuits for AM
transmission is cheaper and less
complex
compared
to
FM
transmission.
The table on the next slide summarises
the relative advantages of AM and FM.
MODULATION
Table 20.1 , page 314, Chapter 20: Communications Systems; Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
MODULATION
Questions 7, 8 and
9, page 314,
Chapter 20:
Communications
Systems; Cambridge
International AS
and A Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition, Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.
HOMEWORK
Modulation:
1. Question 11, Paper 4, Summer 2008.
2. Question 11, Paper 42, Winter 2009.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
What is the difference between digital and analogue
signals?
I. Analogue signals:
Analogue signals are signals that can
have any value
in between some
prescribed limits.
Examples: voltage signals produced by a
microphone
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
What is the difference between digital and analogue
signals?
II. Digital signals:

Digital signals are signals that consist of
sequence of values of 0s and 1s.
Examples: The sequence 011110 is a
digital signal.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Decimal numbers and binary numbers:
Decimal digits can have any value

between 0 and 9.
We can represent numbers using the
decimal representation by using a
sequence of decimal digits.
Example: 124, 302345 are all numbers
represented using the decimal digits.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Decimal numbers and binary numbers (contd):
Binary digits can only have values of 0 or

1.
We can represent numbers using the
binary representation by using a
sequence of decimal digits.
Example: 10110, 111001 are all numbers
represented using the binary digits.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I. Conversion of a decimal number to its
binary equivalent:
To convert a decimal number into its

binary equivalent, we perform long
division of the decimal number by 2.
The remainders of the division
process give us the binary number.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I. Conversion of a decimal number to its binary
equivalent:
The resulting binary number is read up from

the most significant bit (MSB, the last
remainder) up to the least significant bit
(LSB, the first remainder).
We will look at an example in the next slide
that converts 156 (a decimal number) into its
binary equivalent.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I. Conversion of a decimal to a binary number:
Source:
http://www.wikihow.
com/Image:Convertfrom-Decimal-toBinary-Step-4Version-2.jpg
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
II.
Conversion of a binary number to its

decimal equivalent:
A binary number can be converted

into its decimal equivalent by
multiplying each binary digit (bit) in
the sequence by its weight, and
then sum the products.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
II.
Conversion of a binary number to its

decimal equivalent:
The weight is equal to , where

, , , , .
The LSB has weight 2 . The bit to the left

of the LSB will have a weight 2 and so
on.
An example is shown in the next slide
where the 6 bit binary number 110100 is
converted into its decimal equivalent.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
II. Conversion of a binary number to its
decimal equivalent:
Source: http://www.kkhsou.in/main/EVidya2/electronics/electronic/138.gif
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Binary numbers and decimal numbers (contd):
Example:
Questions 10 and 11,
page 317, Chapter 20:
Communications
Systems; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Representing decimal numbers as their binary
equivalent:
In digital data transmission, we need to represent
decimal numbers as their binary equivalent.
How do we find the minimum number of bits we must
use to represent a decimal number as its binary
equivalent?
Answer: We use the equation ,
where:
1.
minimum number of bits needed (rounded
up to the nearest integer), and
2.
the decimal value
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Representing binary numbers as their decimal
equivalent:
In digital data transmission, we often are
limited by the number of the bits we can use
to transmit data.
We often need to find the largest decimal
value, that can be represented given the
number of bits, .
The largest decimal value,

D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Example:
For example, we need 3 bits to
represent the binary numbers 000
(decimal 0) to 111 (decimal 7), and we
need at least 4 bits to represent 8
(1000).
Use the equations above to show that
this is indeed correct.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Comparing digital data transmission with
analogue data transmission:
Data can be transmitted either in digital or
analogue format.
Here, we will discuss two advantages of digital
data transmission as compared to analogue
data transmission.
Before that, we need to understand what is
meant by attenuation and noise.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I.
Attenuation:
Definition: Attenuation is the

gradual reduction in the
power of a signal as it
propagates.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I. Attenuation (contd):
The amplitude of an attenuated signal is
lower than the original signal, since the
attenuated signal carries lower power
compared to the original signal.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I.
Attenuation (contd):
Attenuation is caused by:

a. the transmission medium; the
particles of the medium absorb
some of the power of the signal.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I.
b. the distance that the signal
propagates; recall the inverse square
law ! "#,
c. scattering of the transmitted wave,
e.g. light may undergo scattering.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Comparing digital data transmission with analogue
data transmission:
I.
Attenuation can be overcome by:

a. adding repeaters (amplifiers of analogue
signals),
b. adding regenerators (amplifiers of digital
signals)
along the length of the propagation medium.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
data transmission:
II.
Noise:
Noise (or electrical noise) is the

unwanted random power that adds
itself to the signal.
This electrical noise distorts the
transmitted signal.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
II.
Noise (contd):
Noise is caused by the thermal

vibrations of the particles of the
medium through which the signal is
transmitted. Hence, noise cannot be
eliminated.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
II.
Noise (contd):
Sources of noise:
a. Internal sources such as the thermal
vibrations of the particles of the medium
through which the signal is transmitted.
This noise cannot be eliminated.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
data transmission:
II.
Noise (contd):
Sources of noise (contd):

b. External sources such as electrical storms,
electrostatic
interference,
electromagnetic interference (due to
electric currents), and radio frequency
interference (due to radiation of noise in
radio frequency and radio signals).
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Data transmitted in either analogue or digital
forms will be subject to both noise and
attenuation.
Hence, we need to use repeaters (for
analogue signals) and regenerators (for digital
signals).
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Repeaters, however, also amplify the noise
together with the transmitted signal.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Repeaters, however, also amplify the noise
together with the transmitted signal.
This causes the received signal to be a very
noisy version of the original.
It will be hard for the receiver to recover the
original signal.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Regenerators, need only to produce high (a
1 bit) or low (a 0 bit) values, hence, they do
not amplify the noise.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Hence, we can transmit digital signals

over long distances, and by using
regenerators, we are able to recover the
original signal, without the effects of
noise.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Another advantage of digital data

transmission is that, we can add
additional data bits for the purpose of
error correction and detection. This
minimises errors in the received signal.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Analogue to digital conversion (ADC):
Analogue to digital conversion (ADC) is

the conversion of an analogue signal to
its digital equivalent at the transmitter.
Hence, we can transmit the digitised
version of an analogue signal by first
doing the ADC.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Two processes that need to be

done during ADC are:
a. sampling, and
b. quantisation.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
a. Sampling:
Sampling involves obtaining values of
the analogue signal at regular time
intervals.
The values are known as the samples.
The regular time intervals are known as
the sampling period, %& .
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
a. Sampling (contd):
The sampling frequency, & , is the
number of samples obtained each
second.
Mathematically,
&

%&
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Sampling produces a discrete version
of the analogue signal; the signal
now has values only at specific times.
This is seen in the image on the next
slide.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Source:
https://cnx.org/resou
rces/89686185b0871b
5b4a5172891051a3d5
7917b326/analog_sa
mpling.jpg
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
b. Quantisation:
Quantisation is the process in which
the values of the samples is
converted into binary numbers (the
quantised value) based on mapping
values.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
b. Quantisation (contd):
To find the mapping values, we first

find the number of quantisation
states given , the number of bits

by using the equation
.
We then assign each state to its
binary representation.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
b.
Quantisation (contd):
For example, if we have 3 bits (

3
3,
we will ( 8 number of quantisation
states.
The table in the next slide gives all the
possible states and its binary
equivalent.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Quantisation state
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Binary representation
000
001
010
011
100
101
110
111
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
We then find the analogue

quantisation size, .
To do this, we get the largest
voltage value of the analogue signal,
,- and also the lowest voltage
value of the analogue signal, *+ .
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
We
then
use the formula

./0 1 .2
.

The value of Q gives us the size of
the range of decimal numbers that
represent each state.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
To do this, we start by assigning

*+ to the lowest quantisation
state, and then incrementing by
to obtain the next state and the
subsequent states.
The next slide shows an example.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
0.0 and 3,- 10.0

Let us say 3*+ 0.0V
V. We also have 3.
We will obtain ( 8
and 7
. 1.

1.25.
8
The table on the next slide shows the
decimal value ranges for each quantised
state.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Quantisation State
Binary Number
000
Decimal value range

(V)
0.00 1.25
001
1.25 2.50
010
2.50 3.75
011
3.75 5.00
100
5.00 6.25
101
6.25 7.50
110
7.50 8.75
111
8.75 10.0
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
ADC involves:
a. sampling the analogue signal, then
b. quantising the value of the sample
by finding in which range does the
value of the sample lie in, and
c. encoding
into
a
binary
representation .
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Digital to analogue conversion (DAC) (contd):
DAC is done at the receiver to recover the

original analogue signal from the received
digital signal at the receiver.
We use a table, similar to the one on page
73, to obtain each received binary number
to the lowest value of the corresponding
decimal range.
The conversion table is the same for
transmitter and receiver.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Digital to analogue conversion (DAC) (contd):
For example, using the previous example,

if we receive a sequence 010111001, we
get:
1. 1.25 V for 0 < ; = ;> ,
2. 8.75 V for ;> < ; = 2 : ;> , and
3. 2.50
V
for
2 : ;> < ; = 3 : ;>
respectively.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Digital to analogue conversion (DAC)
(contd):
Note that each value is held for the

entire sampling period; i.e up till the
next sampled value.
The analogue signal is then
reconstructed from these values.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Efficiency factors:
When we reconstruct the digital signal at

the receiver to recover the analogue
signal, two factors that effect the
reproduction of the signal are:
I. the sampling rate (sampling frequency),
and
II. the number of bits used for quantisation
(the number of quantisation states)
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I. Sampling rate:
A higher sampling rate increases the

number of samples obtained.
If we use an higher sampling rate, the
number of samples obtained would be
larger, hence the reproduced analogue
signal (at receiver) will be more similar to
the
input
analogue
signal
(at
transmitter).
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
I. Number of quantisation bits:
When we use too few bits for

quantisation, we produce a higher
quantisation error the reproduced
analogue signal.
By increasing the number of quantisation
bits, we reduce the decimal range and
produce a smoother output (less
grainy).
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Efficiency factors (contd):
We will look at an example of ADC

and DAC of a signal with a low
sampling rate and insufficient number
of quantisation bits in the next few
slides.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Fig. 3.8 (a) , page 31, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Fig. 3.8 (b)
and (c) , page
31, A Level
Science
Applications
Booklet:
Physics,
University of
Cambridge
International
Examinations,
Cambridge,
England,
2006.
D I G I TA L D ATA
TRANSMISSION
Fig. 3.8 (d) , page 31, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of
HOMEWORK
Digital Data Transmission
1. Question 12, Paper 41, Winter 2009 (except part
(c)).
2. Question 12, Paper 43, Winter 2010 (except part b
(ii)).
G A I N C A LC U L AT I O N
Gain calculations:
The gain of a signal, G, in decibels (dB),
@ABCAB
is given by ?
, where:
@2CAB
I. DEFGHFG output power,

II. D*+HFG input power,
III. DEFGHFG and D*+HFG must have the same
units
Gain calculations (contd):
The gain of a signal can also be quoted in
units of Bels (B).
The gain of a signal, G, in bels (B), is given by
@ABCAB
?
, where:
@2CAB
I. DEFGHFG output power,

II. D*+HFG input power,
III. DEFGHFG and D*+HFG must have the same units
The gain of a signal is often quoted in
logarithmic values as the values may be
too large (e.g. 106) or too small (10-9).
If the value of the gain is negative, it
means the signal has been attenuated.
If the value of the gain is positive, it
means the signal has been amplified.
Example:
Example , page 37, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

Examples:
Questions 13 and 14, page 319, Chapter 20: Communications Systems; Cambridge
International AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.
Example:
Question 16, page 319, Chapter 20: Communications Systems; Cambridge

Since signals travel along distances, it is often
convenient for us to specify the attenuation
per unit length.
Mathematically, attenuation per unit length
@ABCAB

: ? : JKL
.
I
@2CAB
The usual units of attenuation per unit

length: dB km-1 or dB m-1.
Example:
Example , page 37, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

The signal to noise ratio (SNR) of a received
@&2/
signal is SNR JKL
@ 2&P
.
The minimum SNR value helps us calculate

the lowest value of Psignal that signal can
have to in order to be distinguished from
any background noise.
If the signal power goes lower than this
minimum value, the receiver would not be
able to distinguish the signal from any
background noise.
We need to use repeaters (for analogue
signals) or regenerators (for digital signals) to
help us restore the power of the attenuated
signal.
Example:
Question 15, page 319, Chapter 20: Communications Systems; Cambridge

HOMEWORK
Gain / Attenuation Calculation:
2. Question 12, Paper 42, Sumer 2010.
C O M M U N I C AT I O N
CHANNELS
A communication channel refers to the
medium, or the path, or the actual
frequency range used to transmit
information from the sender to the
receiver.
We will look at the six different types of
communication channels.
CHANNELS
We will discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of these communication
channels in terms of:

the available bandwidth,

noise,
crosslinking,
security,
signal attenuation, and
use of repeaters or regenerators.
CHANNELS
The six different communication channels:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Wire - pairs,
Coaxial cables,
Radio,
Microwave links,
Optical fibres, and
Satellite links.
CHANNELS
I. Wire - pairs:
This channel consists of a pair of
insulated copper wires that connect the
transmitter to the receiver.
CHANNELS
I. Wire - pairs (contd):
In modern communication systems, wire
- pairs are used for short distance, low
frequency communication systems.
This communication channel is not
suitable
for
high
frequency
communication since signals undergo
high levels of attenuation.
CHANNELS
In wire - pairs, attenuation occurs to due to
the:
a. energy loss due to the resistance, and
b. radiation emitted since these wires act as
aerials.
To overcome, the effects of attenuation,

repeated amplification must be provided to
restore the power levels of the signal.
CHANNELS
Wire - pairs easily pick up external
interference, degrading the original
signal and thus increasing the amount of
noise in the signal.
The bandwidth of wire pairs is only
about 500 kHz, thus they cannot carry a
lot of information.
CHANNELS
Cross linking (or cross talk) occurs when
one wire pair picks up anothers signal. Cross
linking occurs when two or more wire pairs
are lined up next to each other. Cross linking
reduces the security of this communication
channel.
CHANNELS
II. Coaxial cables:
Coaxial cables are made up of a copper
wire, covered by a polythene insulator. A
copper braid covers the polythene
insulator, which in turn is covered by a
plastic covering.
This is shown in the diagram on the next
slide.
CHANNELS
II.
Coaxial cables (contd):
Fig. 3.10 , page 32, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics,

University of Cambridge International Examinations, Cambridge,
England, 2006.
CHANNELS
II. Coaxial cables (contd):
When using coaxial cables, the signal is
transmitted using the inner conductor, while
the outer conductor acts as the return wire.
The outer conductor also shields the inner
conductor from external interference.
The bandwidth of coaxial cables are about 50
MHz. Hence, these cables can carry more
information compared to wire pairs.
CHANNELS
II. Coaxial cables (contd):
Coaxial cables are more expensive than wire
pairs but cause less attenuation to the
signal. Since attenuation is lower, repeater
amplifiers (or regenerators) can be placed
further apart.
This cables are also less prone to external
interference, making it more secure than
wire pairs.
CHANNELS
III.
Radio waves:
Radio waves are EM waves that have a

frequency range between 30 kHz to 3
GHz.
Radio waves are produced due to the
oscillations of electrons in aerials
/antennae. This oscillations produce
energy that is radiated and propagate at
the speed of light.
CHANNELS
III. Radio waves (contd):
Radio waves can be classified, based

on frequency, as either:
I. surface waves,
II. sky waves, or
III. space waves
CHANNELS
III.
Radio waves (contd):
I. Surface waves:
travel close to Earths surface,
have frequency below 3 MHz,
have a range of up to 1000 km since they
have long wavelengths and will diffract
around buildings or other structures.
CHANNELS
I. Surface waves (contd):

are used in the LW (long wave) and
MW (medium wave) radio in the LF
(low frequency) band.
CHANNELS
III.
II. Sky waves:

have frequencies between 3 MHz to 30
MHz,
due to their shorter wavelengths (relative
to surface waves), tend to travel in
straight lines (little diffraction).
CHANNELS
II. Sky waves (contd):

can travel long distances worldwide
via multiple reflections by the Earths
surface and the ionosphere (a layer of
the Earths atmosphere).
CHANNELS
III.
II. Sky waves (contd):

problem: the density of the ionosphere is
not constant, hence the reflection by the
ionosphere is not reliable.
used by SW (short wave) radio in the HF
(high frequency) band.
CHANNELS
III. Space waves:
are radio waves that have frequencies

greater than 30 MHz.
transmission is line of sight, i.e.
there must a clear line between
transmitter and receiver.
CHANNELS
III. Space waves (contd):
are used for TV broadcast (in the ultra

high frequency (UHF) band) and for
FM radio broadcast (in the very high
frequency (VHF) band).
CHANNELS
III. Space waves (contd):
The VHF and UHF bands are also used

for short range communication, e.g. in
walkie talkies, mobile phones since
they have short wavelengths, hence
the length of aerial is short.
CHANNELS
III.
The bandwidth of the radio link increases

as the frequency of the carrier wave
increases.
The table on the next slide summarises
the part of the EM spectrum used for
radio communication.
CHANNELS
Fig. 3.12, page 33, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of
CHANNELS
IV. Microwaves:
Microwaves are radio waves in the Super
High Frequency (SHF) band.
The SHF lies between 3 GHz to 30 GHz.
The wavelength of microwaves are about
a few centimetres.
CHANNELS
IV. Microwaves (contd):
Microwaves are used in Bluetooth, Wi
Fi communication links.
Microwaves are commonly used for point
to point communication.
The diagram on the next slide shows the
parabolic microwave transmitter and
receiver.
CHANNELS
Fig. 3.13 , page 34, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics,

University of Cambridge International Examinations, Cambridge,
England, 2006.
CHANNELS
The transmitting element is placed at the
focal point of the parabolic mirror. The
radiated are reflected off the surface and
are parallel.
A parabolic reflector (at the receiver)
focuses the parallel beam to a receiving
element.
CHANNELS
The reflectors are not antennae.

They function to:
to focus as much power as possible into the
parallel beams (at the transmitter), and
collecting as much power as possible and
directing this power to the receiving
element.
CHANNELS
The reflectors are not antennae.

They function to:
to focus as much power as possible into the
parallel beams (at the transmitter), and
collecting as much power as possible and
directing this power to the receiving
element.
CHANNELS
Parabolic dishes are most useful for short
wavelengths where the spreading of the
waves due to diffraction is limited.
The bandwidth of the microwave links
are in the order of GHz. Hence,
microwave links have a large capacity of
information.
CHANNELS
For terrestrial use, microwave links are
limited to line of sight.
To overcome this issue, we use repeaters.
We may also use a satellite to retransmit
when the transmitter and receiver do
not have a line of sight.
CHANNELS
The beams that travel between the
transmitter and receiver are very narrow
and do not spread out. This means that it
is difficult to tap into the information
carried by the microwave beams.
CHANNELS
V. Satellite links:
In a satellite communication, a transmission
tower sends a carrier wave of frequency FH
to the satellite.
The satellite, upon receiving the signal,
amplifies the signal, and changes the carrier
frequency to a lower frequency, "EQ+ , and
transmits this to the receiving tower.
CHANNELS
V. Satellite links:
A satellite link is shown below.
CHANNELS
V. Satellite links (contd):
The upward link is known as the uplink,
while the downward link is known as the
downlink.
The uplink will have a higher frequency than
the downlink since the transmitting tower
will have more access to power (on Earth) as
compared to the satellite (in space).
CHANNELS
The uplink and downlink both have
different frequencies to prevent the
original signal send from Earth from over
- swamping the signal retransmitted by
the satellite.
Typical frequency bands used: 6/4 GHz,
14/11 GHz, 30/20 GHz.
CHANNELS
Satellite links are preferred to sky waves
because:
a. the constantly changing concentration of the
ionosphere, making reflection of the sky waves not
always possible,
b. the downlink signal has more power than a signal
reflected by the ionosphere, and
c. It uses higher frequencies, making the bandwidth
higher.
CHANNELS
V.
Satellite links (contd):
The satellites used can have two

types of orbits:
1. polar orbits, or
2. geostationary orbits.
We will look at both types of orbits

in a little bit of detail.
CHANNELS
1. Polar orbits:
Satellites in polar orbits travel from

pole to pole in an orbital period of
about 90 minutes.
These satellites can cover the entire
surface of the Earth in 24 hours since
the Earth also rotates below the
satellite as the satellite orbits.
CHANNELS
V.
1. Polar orbits:
The diagram below shows a satellite in polar orbit.
Fig. 3.15 , page 35, A
Level Science
Applications Booklet:
Physics, University of
Cambridge
International
Examinations,
Cambridge, England,
2006.
CHANNELS
1. Polar orbits (contd):
Satellites in these orbits have an

altitude of about 1000 km.
Due to their low altitude, they can
detect objects of smaller detail. They
are suitable for monitoring the Earths
surface, weather forecasting and
espionage.
CHANNELS
1. Polar orbits (contd):
Due to their low altitudes also, there

is a smaller delay time between
transmission and reception of
signals.
CHANNELS
V.
1.

Polar orbits (contd):
Satellite dishes on the Earth need to

moved to communicate constantly with
these satellites since polar orbit satellites
are not always at the same position
relative to the Earth.
To maintain constant coverage, a network
of linked satellites must be used.
CHANNELS
2. Geostationary orbits:
Geostationary satellites are satellites

that have an orbital period of 24 hours
and have an altitude of 35800 km.
Geostationary satellites have equatorial
orbits; i.e. they are directly above the
Earths equator.
CHANNELS
V.
2.
Geostationary orbits:
The diagram below shows a geostationary satellite in its
orbit.
CHANNELS
If a satellite has the same direction of

rotation as the Earths, then to an
observer on the Earth, that satellite will
remain stationary.
Hence, geostationary satellites appear
stationary above a fixed position on the
Earths equator.
CHANNELS
These satellites are useful for TV

broadcast, e.g. MEASAT satellite.
A network of linked geostationary
satellites can be used for trans
oceanic telephone calls.
CHANNELS
Among the disadvantages

geostationary orbits:
of
high altitude means longer delay time,

polar regions cannot be reached.
CHANNELS
VI. Optical fibres:
Optical fibres are very thin glass or

plastic fibres that carry infra red
waves or light waves.
For long distances, glass and infra red
combination is used since this
combination as the attenuation and
scattering of the waves is minimised.
CHANNELS
VI. Optical fibres (contd):
The waves in optical fibres propagate over
long distances via total internal reflection
inside the fibre. This is shown in the figure
below.
Figure 20.19, page 323, Chapter
20: Communications Systems;
Cambridge International AS and
A Level Physics Coursebook,
Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK,2014.
CHANNELS
During communication, a laser or

LED is caused by an electric signal to
emit infra red or light pulses of
frequency of the order 1014 Hz.
Due to this high frequency, the
bandwidth can be very high.
CHANNELS
A fibre optic cable is made up of

hundreds of fibres. In total, all the
fibres can carry about ten million
phone conversations at a time.
CHANNELS
Optical fibres are better than satellites

for long distance communication since
the time delay will be less.
This is because the distance travelled
by the signal to and from the satellite is
considerably much greater than when
using optical fibres.
CHANNELS
Two disadvantages of using optical

fibres:
electrical signals must be first
converted into infra rad or light pulses,
and
it is quite difficult to connect optical
fibre cables together.
CHANNELS
VI.
Optical fibres (contd):
The advantages of optical fibres over copper

cables is listed below:
Table from page 323,
Chapter 20:
Communications
Systems; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.
HOMEWORK
Communication Channels:
2. Question 9, Paper 4 (except part (b)), Winter 2008.
HOMEWORK
Communication Channels (contd):
9. Question12, Paper 41, Winter 2012.

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What are the two main types of modulation discussed?

What are the two main types of modulation discussed?

What are three reasons for using modulation?

What are three reasons for using modulation?

CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL

Fig. 3.2 , page 26,

Amplitude modulation (contd):

Amplitude modulation (contd):

By using mathematical analysis, we can

The graph on the next slide shows

Amplitude modulation (contd):

The term  frequency

Amplitude modulation (contd):

The spectrum shows that the highest

Why is the frequency spectrum

Fig. 3.2 , page 26,

Frequency modulation (contd):

Frequency modulation (contd):

A few observations (contd):

II. Digital signals:

Decimal digits can have any value

Binary digits can only have values of 0 or

To convert a decimal number into its

The resulting binary number is read up from

Conversion of a binary number to its

A binary number can be converted

Conversion of a binary number to its

The weight is equal to  , where

Definition: Attenuation is the

Attenuation is caused by:

Attenuation can be overcome by:

Noise (or electrical noise) is the

Noise is caused by the thermal

Sources of noise (contd):

Hence, we can transmit digital signals

Another advantage of digital data

Analogue to digital conversion (ADC) is

Two processes that need to be

To find the mapping values, we first

For example, if we have 3 bits (

We then find the analogue

use the formula

To do this, we start by assigning

0.0 and 3,- 10.0

Decimal value range

DAC is done at the receiver to recover the

For example, using the previous example,

Note that each value is held for the

When we reconstruct the digital signal at

A higher sampling rate increases the

When we use too few bits for

We will look at an example of ADC

I. DEFGHFG output power,

I. DEFGHFG output power,

Example , page 37, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

Question 16, page 319, Chapter 20: Communications Systems; Cambridge

The usual units of attenuation per unit

Example , page 37, A Level Science Applications Booklet: Physics, University of

signal is SNR  JKL

The term frequency

The weight is equal to , where

For example, if we have 3 bits (

0.0 and 3,- 10.0

signal is SNR JKL