This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles

for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

Designation: E2491 − 23

Standard Guide for

Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Phased-Array
Ultrasonic Testing Instruments and Systems1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E2491; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (´) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope* 1.8 Alternate procedures, such as examples described in this

1.1 This guide covers procedures for evaluating some per- document, or others, may only be used with customer approval.
formance characteristics of phased-array ultrasonic examina- 1.9 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as
tion instruments and systems. standard. No other units of measurement are included in this
1.2 Evaluation of these characteristics is intended to be used standard.
for either comparing instruments and systems or, by periodic 1.10 This standard does not purport to address all of the
repetition, for detecting long-term changes in the characteris- safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the
tics of a given instrument or system. Significant changes may responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-
be indicative of impending failure, and, if beyond certain priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-
limits, will require corrective maintenance. Some electronic mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
instrument characteristics in phased-array units are similar to 1.11 This international standard was developed in accor-

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non-phased-array units and may be measured as described in dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-
Practice E1065 or Guide E1324. ization established in the Decision on Principles for the
Development of International Standards, Guides and Recom-
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1.3 Ultrasonic examination systems using pulsed-wave
mendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical
trains and A-scan presentation (rf or video) may be evaluated.
Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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1.4 This guide establishes no performance limits for exami-
nation systems; if such acceptance criteria 2. Referenced Documents
shall be specified by the using parties. Where acceptance 2.1 ASTM Standards:2
criteria are implied herein, they are for example only and are E317 Practice for Evaluating Performance Characteristics of
subject to more or less restrictive limits imposed by ASTM E2491-23Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Testing Instruments and Systems
customer’s
and end user’s controlling documents.
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without the Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments
1.5 The specific parameters to be evaluated, conditions, E494 Practice for Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Materi-
frequency of test, and report data required shall be determined als by Comparative Pulse-Echo Method
by the user. E1065 Practice for Evaluating Characteristics of Ultrasonic
Search Units
1.6 This guide may be used for the evaluation of a complete
E1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations
examination system, including search unit, instrument,
E1324 Guide for Measuring Some Electronic Characteristics
interconnections, scanner fixtures, connected alarm, and aux-
of Ultrasonic Testing Instruments
iliary devices. This guide is not intended to be used as a
substitute for calibration or standardization of an instrument or 3. Terminology
system to inspect any given material.
3.1 Refer to Terminology E1316 for definitions of terms in
1.7 Required test apparatus includes selected test blocks and this guide.
position encoders in addition to the instrument or system to be
evaluated. 4. Summary of Guide
4.1 Phased-array instruments and systems have similar in-
dividual components as traditional ultrasonic systems. These
1
This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nondestruc-
tive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.06 on Ultrasonic
2
Method. For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
Current edition approved June 1, 2023. Published August 2023. Originally contact ASTM Customer Service at service@astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTM
approved in 2006. Last previous edition approved in 2018 as E2491 – 13 (2018). Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
DOI: 10.1520/E2491-23. the ASTM website.

*A Summary of Changes section appears at the end of this standard

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States

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 E2491 − 23
include pulsers, receivers, probes, and interconnecting cables. 4.8 Procedures for assessment of several parameters in
The most significant difference is that phased-array systems phased-array systems are described in Annex A1 – Annex A7.
form the transmitted ultrasonic pulse by constructive phase 4.8.1 These include; determination of beam profile (Annex
interference from the wavelets formed off the individually A1), beam steering capability (Annex A2), element activity
pulsed elements of the phased-array probes. (Annex A3), focusing capability (Annex A4), software calcu-
4.2 Each phased-array probe consists of a series of individu- lations (Annex A5), compensation for wedge attenuation and
ally wired elements that are activated separately using a delay (Annex A6), and receiver linearity (Annex A7).
programmable time delay pattern. Varying the number of 5. Significance and Use
elements used and the delay time between the pulses to each
5.1 This guide is intended to evaluate performance assess-
element allows control of the beam. Depending on the probe
ment of combinations of phased-array probes and instruments.
design, it is possible to electronically vary the angle (incident
It is not intended to define performance and acceptance criteria,
or skew), the focal distance, the beam dimensions, or a
but rather to provide data from which such criteria may be
combination of the three. In the receiving mode, acoustic
established.
energy is received by the elements and the signals undergo a
summation process utilizing the same type of time delay 5.2 Recommended procedures described in this guide are
process as was used to generate the pulse. intended to provide performance-related measurements that
can be reproduced under the specified test conditions using
4.3 The degree of beam steering available is dependent on simple targets and the phased-array test system itself. It is
several parameters including; number of elements, element intended for phased-array flaw detection instruments operating
pitch, element dimensions, element array shape, resonant in the nominal frequency range of 1 MHz to 20 MHz, but the
frequency of the elements, the material into which the beam is procedures are applicable to measurements on instruments
directed, the minimum delay possible between firing of adja- utilizing significantly higher frequency components.
cent pulsers and receivers, and the pulser voltage characteris-
tics. 5.3 This guide is not intended for service calibration, or
maintenance of circuitry for which the manufacturer’s instruc-
4.4 Pulser and receiver parameters in phased-array systems
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are generally computer controlled and the received signals are
typically displayed on computer monitors via computer data
tions are available.
5.4 Implementation of specific assessments may require

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acquisition systems and may be stored to computer files. more detailed procedural instructions in a format of the using
facility.
4.5 Although most systems use piezo-electric materials for
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the elements, electro-magnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) 5.5 The measurement data obtained may be employed by
devices have also been designed and built using phased-array users of this guide to specify, describe, or provide performance
instrumentation. criteria for procurement and quality assurance, or service
evaluation of the operating characteristics of phased-array
4.6 Most phased array systems can use encoders ASTM E2491-23
for auto- systems.
mated and semi-automated scanning.
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5.6 Not all assessments described in this guide are appli-
4.7 Side Drilled Holes used as targets in this document cable to all systems. All or portions of the guide may be used
should have diameters less than the wavelength of the pulse as determined by the user.
being assessed and long enough to avoid end effects from
causing interfering signals. This will typically be accomplished 6. Keywords
when the hole diameter is between about 1.5 mm and 2.5 mm 6.1 characterization; focal point; phased-array; phased-array
and 20 mm to 25 mm in length. probe; sound beam profile; ultrasound

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 E2491 − 23

ANNEXES

(Mandatory Information)

A1. DETERMINATION OF PHASED-ARRAY BEAM PROFILE

A1.1 Introduction available elements to form the beam the number of remaining
A1.1.1 This annex describes procedures to determine beam elements for the electronic raster may be too small to allow the
profiles of phased-array probes. Either immersion or contact beam to pass over the target. In this case, it will be necessary
probe applications can be addressed using these procedures. to have encoded mechanical motion and assess each focal law
However, it should be cautioned that assessments of contact along the active plane separately.
probes may suffer from variability greater than imposed A1.2.3 Side drilled holes should be arranged at various
tolerances if proper precautions are not taken to ensure depths in a flaw-free sample of the test material in which focal
constant coupling conditions. laws have been programmed for. Using the linear scan feature
of the phased-array system the beam is passed over the targets
A1.2 Test Setup at the various depths of interest. The electronic scan is
A1.2.1 For single focal laws where the beam is fixed (that illustrated schematically in Fig. A1.1.
is, not used in an electronic or sectorial scan mode) and the A1.2.4 Data collection of the entire waveform over the
probe is used in an immersion setup, the ball-target or range of interest shall be made. The display shall represent
hydrophone options described in Practice E1065 may be used. amplitude as a color or grayscale. Time or equivalent distance
For phased array probes used in a dynamic fashion where in the test material shall be presented along one axis and
several focal laws are used to produce sectorial or electronic distance displaced along the other axis. This is a typical B-scan

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scanning it may be possible to make beam-profile assessments as illustrated in Fig. A1.2.
with no or little mechanical motion. Where mechanical motion
A1.2.5 Data display for an electronic scan using a phased-
is used it shall be encoded to relate signal time and amplitude
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array probe mounted on a wedge can be similarly made using
to distance moved. Encoder accuracy shall be verified to be
simple orthogonal representation of time versus displacement
within tolerances appropriate for the measurements made.

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or it can be angle-corrected as illustrated in Fig. A1.3.
Descriptions made for electronic scan and sectorial scan beam
profile assessments will be made for contact probes; however,
A1.2.6 Resolution along the displacement axis will be a
when assessment in water is required the machined targets may function of the scan increment of the electronic scan or, if the
be replaced with rods or balls as appropriate. scan uses an encoded mechanical fixture the resolution, will be
ASTM E2491-23dependent on the encoder step-size used for sampling.
A1.2.2 Linear-Array Probes—Assessment of the beam in
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the active plane should be made by use of an electronic scan A1.2.7 Resolution along the beam axis will be a function of
sequence. For phased array probes using a large portion of the the intervals between the target paths. For highly focused

FIG. A1.1 Electronic Scan of Side Drilled Holes

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 E2491 − 23

FIG. A1.2 B-Scan Display of Electronic Scan Represented in Fig. A1.1 (Depth is in the vertical axis and electronic-scan distance is rep-
resented along the horizontal axis.)

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FIG. A1.3 Angle-Corrected B-Scan of a Phased-Array Beam (in Shear Wave Mode) from a Side Drilled Hole (Off-axis lobe effects can be
seen in the display.)

beams it may be desirable to have small differences between A1.2.10 Fig. A1.5 illustrates an alternative to the stepped
the sound paths to the target paths (for example, 1 mm or intervals shown in Fig. A1.4. A through hole may be arranged
2 mm). perpendicular to the required refracted angle to provide a
A1.2.8 Beam profiling in the passive plane should also be continuous transition of path length to the target.
made, which will require mechanical scanning. A1.2.11 A projected C-scan can be used to size the beam
A1.2.9 Waveform collection of signals using a combination based on either color or grayscale indicating amplitude drop or
of electronic scanning in the active plane and encoded me- a computer display that plots amplitude with respect to
chanical motion in the passive plane provides data that can be displacement. The projected C-scan option is schematically
projection-corrected to provide beam dimensions in the passive represented in Fig. A1.6.
plane. Fig. A1.4 illustrates a method for beam assessment in
the passive plane. This technique uses a corner reflection from
an end-drilled hole at depths established by a series of steps.

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 E2491 − 23

FIG. A1.4 Scanning End-Drilled Holes to Obtain Beam Dimensions in Passive Plane

FIG. A1.5 Representation of an Inclined Hole for Beam Characterization in the Passive Plane

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ASTM E2491-23
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FIG. A1.6 Representation of Projected C-Scan of Corner Effect Scan Seen in Fig. A1.4

A2. DETERMINATION OF PHASED-ARRAY BEAM STEERING LIMITS

A2.1 Introduction A2.1.2 Recommended limits to establish the working range

A2.1.1 This annex describes procedures to determine prac- of angular sweep of a phased-array probe relate to the
tical limits for beam steering capabilities of a phased-array divergence of the beam of each element in the probe array.
probe and as such applies to the active plane(s) only. Either When used in pulse-echo mode the steering limit is considered
immersion or contact probe applications can be addressed to be within the 6 dB divergence envelope of the individual
using these procedures. However, it should be cautioned that elements. It is therefore possible to calculate a theoretical limit
assessments of contact probes may suffer from variability based on nominal frequency and manufacturer provided infor-
greater than imposed tolerances if proper precautions are not mation on the element dimensions.
taken to ensure constant coupling conditions.

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 E2491 − 23
A2.1.3 Several parameters can affect the theoretical calcu- the nominal exit point. Side drilled holes may be arranged in
lations. These are primarily related to the nominal frequency of other planes (angles) of interest.
the probe. Some parameters affecting actual frequency include;
A2.2.3 Assessments are made placing the probe such that
pulse length, damping, use of a delay-line or refracting wedge,
the center of beam ray (as determined by measuring the beam
and variations in manufacturing processes on thickness lapping
exit point) enters the block at the indicated centerline. For
and matching layers. Beam steering capability will also be
analysis of a probe where all the elements in a single plane are
affected by project requirements of the beam. Applications
where focusing is necessary may not achieve the same limits as used without a delay line or refracting wedge, the midpoint of
applications where the beam is not focused as well as steered. the element array shall be aligned with the centerline. For focal
laws using only a portion of the total available elements, the
A2.1.4 Steering capability may be specific to a sound path midpoint of the element aperture shall be aligned with the
distance, aperture, and material. For the purposes of this centerline. When delay lines, refracting wedges, or immersion
procedure, assessment of beam steering capability will be methods are used, corrections will be required to compensate
based on a comparison of signal to noise ratios at varying for movement of the “apparent” exit point along the block
angular displacements. entry surface. When a probe is used in direct contact with a
A2.2 Test Set-Up—Configure the probe focal laws for the verification block as illustrated in Fig. A2.2, the lack of
conditions of the test. This will include immersion or contact, symmetry either side of the centerline prevents both positive
refracting wedge or delay-line, unfocused or a defined focal and negative sweep angles being assessed simultaneously. To
distance, and the test material to be used. assess the sweep limit in the two directions when using this
style of block requires that the probe be assessed in one
A2.2.1 Prepare a series of side drilled holes in the material direction first and then rotated 180° and the opposite sweep
to be used for the application at the distance or distances to be assessed.
used in the application. The side-drilled-hole pattern should be
as illustrated in Fig. A2.1. Holes indicated in Fig. A2.1 are at A2.2.4 Angular steps between A-scan samples will have an
5° intervals at a 25 mm and 50 mm distance from a center effect on the perceived sweep limits. A maximum of 1°
between S-scan samples is recommended for steering assess-
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where the probe is located.
ment. Angular steps are limited by the system timing-delay
A2.2.2 Similar assessments are possible for different appli-
capabilities between pulses and element pitch characteristics.
cations. When a set of focal laws is arranged to provide
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resolution in a plane instead of a sound path distance, the plane
of interest may be used to assess the steering limits of the
Most of the targets illustrated in Fig. A2.1 and Fig. A2.2 are
separated by 5°; however, greater or lesser intervals may be

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used depending on the required resolution.
beam. The block used for assessment would be arranged with
A2.2.5 Assessment of steering limits shall be made using
side drilled holes in the plane of interest. Such a plane-specific
block is illustrated in Fig. A2.2 where a series of holes is made the dB difference between the maximum and minimum signal
in a vertical and horizontal plane at a specified distance from amplitudes between two adjacent side drilled holes. For
ASTM E2491-23
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NOTE 1—Block dimensions 150 mm by 75 mm by 25 mm (typical)

FIG. A2.1 Beam Steering Assessment Block—Constant Sound Path

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 E2491 − 23

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FIG. A2.2 Beam Steering Assessment Block—Single Plane

example, when a phased-array probe is configuredASTM E2491-23

to sweep mid-angle. Conversely, a system may be limited to S-scans not
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+45° from the beam centerline on a block such as illustrated in exceeding the angles assessed to achieve a specified signal
Fig. A2.1, the highest of the SDHs which achieves a 6 dB separation, for example, –20 dB between 2 mm diameter SDHs
amplitude may be considered the maximum steering capability separated by 5°.
of the probe configuration.
A2.3 An alternative assessment may use a single SDH at a
A2.2.6 Acceptable limits of steering may be indicated by
specified depth or sound path distance. Displaying the A-scan
the maximum and minimum angles that can achieve a pre-
specified separation between adjacent holes. Depending on the for the maximum and minimum angles used would assess the
application a 6 dB or 20 dB (or some other value) may be steering capability by observing the S/N ratio at the peaked
specified as the required separation. response. Steering limit would be a pre-defined S/N ratio being
achieved. Caution must be taken when using this method so as
A2.2.7 Steering capabilities may be used as a prerequisite; to not peak on grating lobe signals. This method will also
for example, a phased-array system is required to achieve a
require confirmation that the SDH is positioned at the calcu-
minimum steering capability for 5° resolution of 2 mm diam-
lated refracted angle.
eter side drilled holes of plus and minus 20° from a nominal