The Use of The Bible in Byzantine Litur

The Use of the Bible in Byzantine Liturgical Texts and Services
The Use of the Bible in Byzantine Liturgical Texts and

Services
Stefanos Alexopoulos
The Oxford Handbook of the Bible in Orthodox Christianity
Edited by Eugen J. Pentiuc
Print Publication Date: Aug 2022 Subject: Religion, Literary and Textual Studies, Christianity
Online Publication Date: May 2022 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190948658.013.31
Abstract and Keywords
This chapter explores the relationship between the Bible and Liturgy in the Orthodox
Church. It argues that the Bible occupies a place of paramount importance in Byzantine
liturgy, and that the Bible is everywhere, permeating all aspects of the life of the church,
especially its liturgical life. It demonstrates this by looking at how the Bible is presented
and interpreted through the use the lectionary, the psalter, the liturgical year, liturgical
prayers, the liturgical hermeneutic of Scripture, iconography, and the ritual place of the
Gospel book. It concludes that at the heart of the Scriptures is the proclamation of salva
tion in Christ; at the heart of liturgy is the celebration of the salvation in Christ.
Keywords: liturgy, lectionary, prayer, liturgical year, iconography
Introduction
THE Orthodox tradition, and rightly so, is characterized as a liturgical tradition. Liturgy is
the heart, the language, and the life of the Orthodox Church, so much so that to the ran
dom observer there is often a false sense of the absence of Scripture from the liturgical
gatherings and a contrast between being liturgical and biblical is implied. A closer and
more attentive look, however, will reveal its biblical character.1 Scripture abounds in the
Byzantine liturgical tradition; not only are scriptural readings present in almost every rit
ual occasion but also every office, service, prayer, and hymn is immersed in and imbued
with direct Scriptural quotations and indirect Scriptural allusions.2 In fact, Scripture and
liturgy are not seen as two antithetical aspects of Christian worship. Rather, they are to
be understood as being intricately and intimately interrelated and connected. Liturgy is
the natural home for Scripture, both for its proclamation and interpretation. Simultane
ously, this liturgical framework of scriptural proclamation functions as a particular
hermeneutical context and lens that should not be ignored. The worshiper is (p. 244) ex
posed to the Scriptures in the liturgical context, and his/her understanding of the Scrip
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tures is formed through the accompanying ritual context, including hymnography and
iconography.
The Bible and Liturgy in Recent Conferences
In recent years, there is growing attention among scholars of both biblical and Byzantine
studies who have come to explore and present the place of Scripture within the Byzantine
liturgical tradition. Non-Orthodox scholars have come to acknowledge the strong bind be
tween Scripture and liturgy and their particular relationship in the Byzantine tradition.
For example, Klaas Spronk, a Dutch biblical scholar from the Reformed tradition, notes:
Among Eastern orthodox scholars the liturgical context of the Bible is more or less
taken for granted. For Western scholars the liturgical context is usually strictly
separated from the exegesis of the biblical text. Textual criticism endeavors to get
as close as possible to the original text. Historical criticism endeavors to find out
how and when this text came into existence. Literary methods analyze how the
text is structured. Scholars are accustomed to the idea that text as part of liturgy
is something completely different. This no longer belongs to the field of scholarly
analysis, but to the communities of faith in which the Bible is read as sacred text
and applied in sermons. This is a realm that can be described and analyzed by
church historians, or by people studying the history of interpretation of biblical
texts. There may be reasons, however, to question this almost arrogant opposition
to the liturgical approach to the biblical texts. The strict literary and historical ap
proach probably says more about the scholars using it than about the texts they
are studying. One should at least take seriously that the traditional manner in
which the biblical texts function in the Byzantine liturgy certainly stands closer to
the way these texts were used in their original context.3
The last twenty years have seen a number of important conferences dedicated to the
place, function, and interpretation of the Scriptures in the Byzantine tradition and its re
lationship to liturgy. Two back-to back conferences held at Saint-Serge in Paris in 2001
and 2002 and titled “La liturgie, interprète de l’écriture,” covered the readings for Sun
days and feasts (2001), liturgical compositions, prayers and chants (2002).4 In 2003 the
Special (p. 245) Synodical Committee on Liturgical Renewal of the Holy Synod of the
Church of Greece held a conference with the title: Ἱερουργεῖν τὸ Εὐαγγέλιον: Ἡ Ἁγία
Γραφὴ στὴν Ὀρθόδοξη Λατρεία.5 In 2009 a conference was organized in the Netherlands6
to test the “codico-liturgical” method in the cataloging of biblical manuscripts articulated
by Stefan Royé. This method does not isolate the biblical text but looks at biblical manu
scripts as a whole and places great importance on the liturgical context and framework in
which the biblical text appears.7 The conference “Liturgical Reception of the Bible: Di
mensions and Perspectives for Inter-disciplinary Research,” held in 2015 at the Universi
ty of Regensburg,8 brought together liturgical and biblical scholars of all Christian tradi
tions to discuss aspects of the interrelationship between Scripture and liturgy.
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Beginning in 1998 the Eastern European Liaison Committee of the Society for the Study
of the New Testament (Studiorum Novi Testamenti Societas, hence SNTS) has been orga
nizing conferences bringing together Orthodox and Western (Roman Catholic and Protes
tant) scholars, thus building a bridge between different hermeneutical traditions. Since
1998, eight such conferences have taken place.9 More recently, Byzantinists are display
ing a growing interest in the place of Scripture in Byzantium, exemplified in the two sym
posia organized by Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, DC, in 2006 “The Old Testament in
Byzantium”10 and in 2013 “The New Testament in Byzantium.”11 The Twenty-Third Inter
national Congress of Byzantine Studies held in Belgrade in 2016 included two thematic
sessions titled “Bible in Byzantium: Exegesis and Literary Inspiration” and “Byzantines
and the Bible.”12 Most recently, Claudia Rapp and Andreas Külzer edited (p. 246) a volume
titled The Bible in Byzantium: Appropriation, Adaptation, Interpretation,13 comprising pa
pers delivered at the International Society of Biblical Literature held in Vienna in 2014,
which had four sessions related to Byzantium.
The Lectionary System
The Scriptures are proclaimed in the Byzantine tradition in almost every liturgical office
celebrated, from the Divine Liturgy to a humble house blessing. The Scriptural lessons
read in all these occasions are to be found primarily in the lectionaries. The lectionary
system used in the Byzantine tradition dates to the seventh century, is annual, and is com
posed of three lectionary books or Eklogadia, the “Gospel” (lections from the four
Gospels),14 the “Apostolos” (Acts and Epistles, also known as “Praxapostolos”),15 and
what is called by scholars the “Prophetologion” (lections from the Old Testament).16 This
latter lectionary is not in current use; rather, the Old Testament lections have been incor
porated in the liturgical books of the Byzantine tradition, and more specifically in the
Menaion, the Triodion, and the Pentecostarion.17 The lectionaries are organized accord
ing to two parallel annual liturgical cycles.
The first cycle, also known as Synaxarion, begins on Easter, which is the starting
(p. 247)
point of the lections for the movable feasts. In fact, both the Gospel and Apostle lec
tionary books open with the Easter readings. It divides the year, centered around Easter,
in four liturgical periods: (1) the period of John, from Easter to Pentecost, when lections
from the Gospel of John and Acts are read; (2) the period of Matthew, from the Monday
after Pentecost to mid-September, when lections from the Gospel of Matthew, Romans, 1
Corinthians, and 2 Corinthians are read (with lections from Mark read on weekdays after
the twelfth week); (3,) the period of Luke, from mid-September to Great Lent when lec
tions from the Gospel of Luke, 1 Thessalonians, Colossians, and Hebrews are read (with
lections from Mark read on weekdays after the thirteenth week); (4) the period of Mark,
for the Saturdays and Sundays of Lent. During Holy Week lections from all four Gospels
are chosen. During Great and Holy Week, lections from Hebrews, Galatians, and Romans
are read. The second cycle, called Menologion, begins on September 1 (New Year’s Day in
the Byzantine calendar) and defines the lections of feasts that have fixed dates. Those lec
tions are chosen based on their relevance to the feast celebrated.
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A third cycle coordinates the list of the eleven morning/resurrection Gospel readings,
numbered first to eleventh, that are read during Orthros/Matins on Sundays:
1. Mt 28:16–20
2. Mark 16:1–8
3. Mark 16:9–20
4. Lk 24:1–12
5. Lk 24:12–35
6. Lk 24:36–53
7. Jn 20:1–10
8. Jn 20:11–18
9. Jn 20:19–31
10. Jn 21:1–14
11. Jn 21:14–25
This cycle is initiated every Easter. The Gospel readings of this cycle are read in se
quence, and each defines hymnic elements of the Sunday hymnography, as each of these
eleven Gospel readings is paired with an exaposteilarion and an eothinon doxastikon.
Both are dependent content-wise on their paired morning/resurrection Gospel. When the
morning/resurrection Gospel is read, its paired exaposteilarion and eothinon doxastikon
are sung. The content of the hymns both reflect and relate to the Gospel reading.
Through these hymns, the themes of these Gospel readings relating to the resurrection of
Christ are repeated through the hymnody emphasizing the significance of the resurrec
tion to the worshipper:18 (p. 248)
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First Eothinon First Eothinon First Eothinon

Gospel Exaposteilarion Doxastikon
Mt 28:16–20
At that time, the On the mountain in The Disciples has

eleven disciples went Galilee let us join tened to the moun
to Galilee, to the the Disciples, so tain for the Lord’s
mountain to which that by faith we see ascension from the
Jesus had directed and hear Christ say earth; and there the
them. And when they that He was given Lord appeared to
saw Him they wor authority both in them. They wor
shiped Him; but heaven and on shipped Him, and
some doubted. And earth, and His were instructed
Jesus came and said teaching on how to about the universal
to them, “All authori baptize nations all, authority He was giv
ty in heaven and on in the name of the en; and they were
earth has been given Father and of the sent out to the whole
to Me. Go therefore Son and the Holy world to preach the
and make disciples of Spirit, and how He resurrection from
all nations, baptizing always is with His the dead and the
them in the name of Mystics, to the end restoration to heav
the Father and the of the age, as He en. And He, who nev
Son and the Holy promised. er lies, promised to
Spirit, teaching them be with them forev
to observe all that I er; He is Christ our
have commanded God and the Savior
you; and lo, I am of our souls
with you always, to
the close of the age.
Amen.”
It is in the context of the liturgical life of the Church that the worshiper becomes ac
quainted with the New Testament, both through the readings and their hymnographical
commentary. This reality is highlighted by the fact that personal access to the Scriptures
was quite limited compared to modern times. Today, everyone has or can have access to
the whole Bible, either in print or in electronic form or in audio, allowing for immediate
access, personal study, and reflection. However, it was dramatically different in Byzantine
times. Given the relatively high rates of illiteracy at Byzantine times (compared to
today),19 combined with the inaccessibility of the complete text of the Bible,20 the liturgi
cal context emerges as the primary venue for the dissemination of the Scriptures, both
for their proclamation, through the scriptural readings, and their interpretation, through
homilies, hymns, and icons.
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Derek Krueger and Robert Nelson put it well when they wrote, “Whether literate or not,
most Byzantines absorbed their New Testament through hearing the ritualized reading or
intoning of the text in the course of the liturgy, particularly in the lections, or readings,
appointed for the day. Thus, the lectionary was the primary source of the New
Testament’s (p. 249) stories and teachings…. The lectionary mapped the story of the New
Testament on the liturgical year.”21
The Psalter
The Book of Psalms or the Psalter22 is the backbone of the Liturgy of the Hours,23 the
structural grid on which hymnology developed (together with the biblical odes),24 and at
the center of Orthodox devotion and piety.25 The Liturgy of the Hours is the primary con
text in which the psalms are used in public worship. The Psalms are part of the nonvari
able elements of each office. For example, Orthros/Matins is the home of psalms 19, 20
(royal office), 3, 37, 62, 87, 102, 142 (hexapsalmos), 117 (verses for “God is the Lord” re
sponse), 118 or 134–135 (polyeleos), 50, 148–150 (lauds).26 The final six to ten verses (al
ways even, number depending on the liturgical celebration) of psalm 150 receive hymns
as responses. Originally the response would be a verse of the psalm (similarly with psalm
140 at vespers),27 but soon the response expanded to poetical compositions relevant to
the liturgical cycle or feast. Added to these are the variable psalms constituting the
“Kathisma” of the day, part of the continuous reading of the Psalter, so that the whole
Psalter is read once every week during the year, twice every week during Great Lent.28
Liturgical Psalters include as an appendix the nine biblical odes or canticles. These are:
1. The Song of Moses (Exodus 15:1–19)

2. The Song of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:1–43)
3. The Prayer of Hannah (1 Kings 2:1–10)
(p. 250) 4. The Prayer of Habbakkuk (Habbakkuk 3:1–19)
5. The Prayer of Isaiah (Isaiah 26:9–20)
6. The Prayer of Jonah (Jonah 2:3–10)
7. The Prayer of the Three Holy Children (Daniel 3: 26–56)
8. The Prayer of the Three Holy Children (Daniel 3: 57–88)
9. The Song of the Theotokos (Luke 1:46–55) and the Prayer of Zacharias (Luke 1:68–
79)29
These are significant, for they form the backbone of the hymnological genre of the canon.
The hymns of each of the eight odes of the canon (the second ode is usually omitted as
very penitential) were originally responses to the verses of each ode, and the model hymn
for the responses of each ode needs to be textually dependent on the biblical ode it be
longs to. For example, the eirmos (model hymn) of the first ode of the canon for the feast
of the universal exaltation of the Cross has clear references to Exodus 15:1–19: “Inscrib
ing the invincible weapon of the Cross upon the waters, Moses marked a straight line be
fore him with his staff and divided the Red Sea, opening a path for Israel who went over
dry-shod. Then he marked a second line across the waters and united them in one, over
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whelming the chariots of Pharaoh. Therefore let us sing to Christ our God, for He is glori
fied.”30 Similarly, the eirmos of the first ode of the iambic canon for the feast of the
Epiphany (Baptism) of the Lord reads: “Israel passed through the storm-tossed deep of
the sea, that God had turned into dry land. But the dark waters completely covered the
chief captains of Egypt in a watery grave through the mighty strength of the right hand of
the Master.”31 In both of these sample cases, it is obvious that the poet freely uses materi
al from Exodus 15:1–19 and retells the story in a hymnographical commentary of the
feast celebrated.
The Biblical Character of the Liturgical Year
The annual cycle of feasts commemorating events of salvation history and comprising Do
minical feasts, Marian feasts, and feasts of saints, is scripturally oriented. Not only are
the most significant events of salvation history annually celebrated (Dominical feasts) but
also humanity’s participation in salvation history (Marian feasts), and the effects of salva
tion history, salvation itself as a reality (feasts of Saints), are all celebrated. In other
words, the annual liturgical year is the ritual celebration of salvation as proclaimed
through Scripture and lived out in the life of the Church that demonstrates that salvation
in Christ is real (the feasts of saints). Hence the liturgical year becomes the occasion for
the proclamation of the Good News of salvation in Christ, each time focusing on a particu
lar aspect of the Divine Economy. The liturgical year then also becomes the hermeneutic
context of Scripture: Scripture is not just proclaimed in the liturgical event, it is also in
terpreted, understood, and applied. The earliest clear evidence32 of such an approach
comes from the (p. 251) famous Spanish nun Egeria, who describes Holy Friday liturgy at
the Holy Sepulcher in fourth-century Jerusalem:
A chair is placed for the bishop before the Cross, and from the sixth to the ninth
hour nothing else is done except the reading of passages from Scripture. First,
whichever Psalms speak of the Passion are read. Next, there are readings from the
apostles, either from the Epistles of the apostles or the Acts, wherever they speak
of the Passion of the Lord. Next, the texts of the Passion from the Gospels are
read. Then there are readings from the prophets, where they said that the Lord
would suffer; and then they read from the Gospels, where He foretells the Passion.
And so, from the sixth to the ninth hour, passages from Scripture are continually
read and hymns are sung, to show the people that whatever the prophets had said
would come to pass concerning the Passion of the Lord can be shown, both
through the Gospels and the writings of the apostles, to have taken place. And so,
during those three hours, all the people are taught that nothing had happened
which was not first prophesized, and that nothing was prophesized which was not
completely fulfilled. Prayers are continually interspersed, and the prayers them
selves are proper to the day.33
In this repetitive passage at least two principles emerge: first, that the operating
hermeneutic principle of the Scriptures, and particularly of the Old Testament, is Christo
logical; the Old Testament is to be read and understood through the lenses of the fulfill
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ment of the Old Testament in Christ. Egeria notes above that this is done to show the peo
ple that whatever the prophets had said would come to pass concerning the Passion of
the Lord can be shown, both through the Gospels and the writings of the apostles, to have
taken place; second, that liturgy functions not only as the locus for the communal wor
ship of God but also as the primary context for the faith formation of the believers. Again,
Egeria understands these liturgical gatherings of the liturgical year not just as time-
spaces for worship but also as teaching opportunities: “all the people are taught that
nothing had happened which was not first prophesized, and that nothing was prophesized
which was not completely fulfilled.”
The liturgical principle operative here then is that each liturgical celebration is defined
by and structured around the appointed Scriptural readings of that particular liturgical
commemoration,34 in this case the Passion of the Lord. The operation of this principle can
be observed in every Dominical feast of the Byzantine liturgical tradition. The themes and
the ecclesial interpretation of the selected Old Testament and New Testament readings
(often overlapping in content and sometimes repetitive) are highlighted through the inter
spersed hymnology that draws its contents from the Scriptures read.35
(p. 252) The Biblical Character of Liturgical Prayers
The liturgical prayers of the Byzantine tradition are laden with abundant scriptural cita
tions and allusions. Most liturgical prayers follow the structure bipartite structure of ana
mensis (protasis/remembrance)—epiclesis (apodosis/petition), concluding the prayer with
a doxology. Cesare Giraudo has shown that this bipartite structure is itself biblical, as can
be seen in five different type of prayers in the Old Testament:36
Anamensis (protasis/remem Epiclesis (apodosis/peti

brance) tion)
Jos 24:2–13 Jos 24:14
Deut 26:5–9 Deut 26:10
Deut. 32:1–18 Deut 32:19, 21–23, 25
Psalm 43 (44):1–22 Psalm 43 (44):23, 26
Nehemiah 9:6–31 Nehemiah 9:32, 35–37
This structure of prayer is simple but very powerful. The biblical precedent is invoked in
the anamnesis, as the epiclesis is always based on the assurance that God will act now as
He has acted in the past. This reminder of those instances from the Scriptures assures
the praying believer(s) that God will act accordingly in their cases too. For example, the
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third matrimonial prayer of the Byzantine Crowning (Marriage)37 service follows this ex
act structure:
Struc Prayer Text Scriptur

tural El al Con
ements nections
Anamne Holy God, Who fashioned man from the Gen 2:7
sis dust, and from his rib fashioned woman, Gen 2:22
and joined her to him as a helpmate for Gen 2:18
him, for it was seemly unto Your Majesty
for man not to be alone upon the earth,
Epiclesis do You Yourself, O Sovereign Lord, Ps 143:7,

stretch forth Your hand from Your holy Ps 32:14,
dwelling place, and join together this II Par
Your servant (Name) and Your servant 6:30, 30:7
(Name), for by You is a wife joined to her Prov
husband. Join them together in oneness 19:14
of mind; crown them with wedlock into Gen 2:24
one flesh; grant to them the fruit of the Gen 30:2
womb, and the gain of well-favored chil Ps 131:11
dren,
Doxology for Yours is the dominion, and Yours is Mt 6:13

the Kingdom, and the Power, and the Glo (p. 253)
ry: of the Father, and of the Son, and of

the Holy Spirit, both now and ever, and to
the ages of ages.38
The same fundamental structure lies behind the two Eucharistic prayers of the Byzantine
tradition, the anaphora attributed to St. Basil the Great (BAS) and the anaphora attrib
uted to St. John Chrysostom (CHR). The anamnesis section of both BAS and CHR abound
with scriptural citations and allusions, as one can easily observe by glancing at annotated
texts of the two anaphorae,39 which then lead to the epiclesis section. I would like to
briefly focus on a portion of the anamnesis of BAS. Crucial to the anamnesis of BAS is the
incarnation and the implications of the incarnation, salvation. At the heart of the anamne
sis, and as a turning point, is the following text40 which is laden with Scripture:
Page 9 of 22

And when the fullness of time had come, Gal 4:4,

You spoke to us through Your Son Himself, through Eph 1:10
whom You created the ages. Heb 1:2
He, being the splendor of Your glory and the image of Heb 1:3
Your being, upholding all things by the word of His Phil 2:6
power, Bar 3:38
thought it not robbery to be equal with You, God Phil 2:7
and Father. But, being God before all ages, Phil 3:21
He appeared on earth and lived with humankind.
Becoming incarnate from a holy Virgin,
He emptied Himself, taking the form of a servant,
conforming to the body of our lowliness, that He might
change us in the likeness of the image of His glory.
This text is representative of the use of scripture in the euchology. It is almost exclusively
constructed from scriptural texts (exceptions in italics in the table), and its purpose is to
connect the account of the Creation and the activity of God in the Old Testament in the
preceding section of the anaphora (equally full of scriptural texts) with the effects of the
incarnation in the following section (also full of scriptural texts), in what I would argue is
a theological articulation of what “that He might change us in the likeness of the image of
His (p. 254) glory” actually means; and this is achieved through a series of scriptural quo
tations in the section that follows (Col 1:10, John 17:3, Titus 2:14, 1 Peter 2:9, Eph 5:26,
Rom 15:16, Rom 7:6, Rom 7:14, Eph 4:10, Acts 2:24, 1 Cor 15:4, Acts 2:24, Acts 3:15, 1
Cor 15:20, Col 1:18, Heb 1:3, Rom 2:6). The Eucharist then is a celebration of salvation in
Christ, as the text linking the anamnesis with the institution narrative reminds us: “As
memorials of His saving passion, He has left us these gifts which we have set forth before
You according to His commands.” And it is within this context that sin is mentioned,
something already defeated in Christ: “to condemn sin in His flesh, so that those who
died in Adam may be brought to life in Him, Your Christ” (Rom 8:3 and 1 Cor 15:22). In
other words, our participation in the Eucharist celebrates salvation in Christ, the con
quest and forgiveness of sin, and our participation in the Kingdom of God. The celebra
tion of and participation in the Eucharist then is an affirmation of the reality of salvation
rooted in the Divine Economy and the kenosis of the Word of God, celebrated by the Eu
charistic community in the highest expression of public worship as the unity and commu
nion of one another in the Holy Spirit, participating in the reality of salvation already
present in the communion of the saints: “He acquired us for Himself, as His chosen peo
ple, a royal priesthood, a holy nation”41 (Tit 2:14, 1 Peter 2).42
The Liturgical Hermeneutics of Scripture
A very important clue as to how the Byzantines understood the hermeneutics of Scripture
may be found in the prayer of the Gospel. This prayer, hailing from the liturgical tradition
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of Jerusalem, is recited by the celebrant at every Divine Liturgy before the reading of the
Gospel:
Shine in our hearts, O Master Who loves mankind, the pure light of Your divine
knowledge, and open the eyes of our mind that we may comprehend the proclama
tions of Your Gospels. Instill in us also reverence for Your blessed commandments
so that, having trampled down all carnal desires, we may lead a spiritual life, both
thinking and doing all those things that are pleasing to You. For You, Christ our
God, are the illumination of our souls and bodies, and to You we offer up glory, to
gether with Your Father, Who is without beginning, and Your all-holy, good, and
life-creating Spirit, now and forever and to the ages of ages. Amen.”43
Based on the above prayer, I would argue that in the Byzantine liturgical context,
(p. 255)
the proclamation and reception of Scripture involves the following four movements: Inspi
ration—Comprehension—Transformation—Action. Obviously the scriptural text is re
ceived and viewed from the standpoint of faith, so its interpretation depends on God’s in
spiration—the prayer asks that the Lord “shine in our hearts” and “open the eyes of our
mind.” Then that leads to our comprehending the message effecting a transformation of
self, demonstrated in action: “having trampled down all carnal desires, we may lead a
spiritual life, both thinking and doing all those things that are pleasing to You.” And the
liturgical action is directly related to this movement of Inspiration—Comprehension—
Transformation—Action. The celebration of liturgy, and the Divine Liturgy in particular,
not only embodies this movement, but allows for the community’s initiation, participation,
and growth into the salvific message of the Gospel proclaimed, taught, interpreted, and
applied.44
As we have already seen in the case of the morning Gospels and their dependent hymnog
raphy, the hymns of the Church function also as a theological commentary on the feast
celebrated and the readings proclaimed. Hymns with Scripture (lections and Psalms) be
come intertwined in celebration of the message of the Gospel. The Royal Hours of Holy
Friday, Christmas Eve, and Epiphany Eve are a great example. They are a theological-
liturgical reflection on the themes of the approaching Dominical feast that is defined by
the selection of Psalms, readings from the Old and the New Testament, and hymns, each
focusing on the particular events of Salvation History celebrated in each case: the Cruci
fixion and Resurrection, the Nativity, and the Baptism of Christ. The hymns have a special
role, as not only do they offer a theological-liturgical reflection on the upcoming feast but
also they call the faithful to react to the salvific events celebrated in two ways: first, to
worship God as thanksgiving for God’s love for humankind, as expressed through Christ’s
birth, baptism, crucifixion, and resurrection (in each case), and second, to extend a call to
personal transformation/transfiguration, reflecting the impact of these salvific events on
one’s life.45 Even the minor hours in the Byzantine liturgy of the hours become an oppor
tunity to reflect on key moments in salvation history, such as Pentecost, the betrayal, and
the Crucifixion, allowing for a miniaturized daily celebration of the liturgical year, a daily
celebration of salvation history.46
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Liturgical Space, Icons, and Scripture
The proclamation of Scripture in the Byzantine traditions is tightly intertwined with the
liturgical space it is proclaimed within (i.e., the church building and its decoration) and
its liturgical framework (i.e., the liturgical celebration and its rituals). A typical church of
the Byzantine tradition will have on its walls certain cycles of images. The dominical in
cludes (p. 256) narrative images depicting scenes from the life of Christ, from the Annun
ciation to the Ascension and Pentecost, a pictorial presentation of salvation history. The
liturgical cycle includes images related to the liturgy celebrated within the walls of the
church, such as the image of Christ “Pantocrator” image in the dome, the Virgin Mary
with Christ in the altar apse, and the communion of the apostles in the apse. The sanc
toral cycle includes a narrative cycle with images from the life of the Virgin Mary, and im
ages of saints, sometimes also narrative cycles of their life. Finally, the narthex often
times includes narrative images and figures from the Old Testament. These images are to
be understood as a pictorial presentation of the Divine Economy.47
These images affect the worshiper in two ways: a practical and a theological/spiritual
way. On the practical level, this pictorial presentation of the Divine Economy is an indis
pensable educational tool, as it impresses on the mind of the beholders the events of the
life of Christ; one “reads” the Scriptures by seeing these images, even more important at
a time when those who could read were the minority.48 This pictorial presentation of the
Divine Economy is essentially the Scriptures in images. On the theological/spiritual level,
standing in a church building adorned with images, the worshiper finds himself/herself at
the center, surrounded by the saints and scenes from Christ’s life, and gazing on the im
age of Christ Pantocrator in the dome. The purpose of the space, the iconography, and the
ritual is for the faithful to be transformed. The sanctoral cycle of image incorporates the
faithful in the communion of saints; the narrative images of the life of Christ cultivates
and feeds his/her faith, and through the liturgical action and participation the worshiper
becomes a partaker of that Christ, is transformed and embraced by him, becoming a
bearer of Christ.49
The Gospel book itself is adorned with images, one cover with an image of the crucifixion,
the other with the image of the resurrection, identifying these two events of salvation his
tory as key to the Christian faith, and in a way summarizing the contents of the Gospel
book. It is treated with great honor; it is placed on the Holy Table, it is processed with
every honor, it is venerated, for it is the visual connection with the proclamation of the
good news and points to and reveals the mystery of Christ. Alexander Rentel explains the
role of the Gospel book in Byzantine liturgy:
That the gospel readings themselves reveal the presence of Jesus Christ, the Son
of God the Father, in the liturgical assembly can be seen in an ancient ritual de
scribed in a liturgical (p. 257) document from around the turn of the first millenni
um, the so-called Typikon of the Great Church. The Typikon of the Great Church, a
book of rubrics that described the liturgical celebration in the patriarchal cathe
dral in Constantinople, speaks of an enthronement of the Gospel book on the syn
Page 12 of 22

thronon, which was the patriarchal throne set up in the apse of the cathedral. One
the eve of the feast of the Nativity of Christ, this Typikon prescribes that “a Gospel
book [be] placed on the synthronon and another on the altar table.” This enthrone
ment took place during the singing of the Trisagion, at that point of the Divine
Liturgy when the patriarch and concelebrating clergy ascended the synthronon
and took their seats there to listen to the daily scripture readings. The Typikon
further directs that the patriarch must sit to the left of the Gospel, in a place nor
mally reserved for a clergyman of lower rank than the patriarch. In this ritual act
the solemn enthronement of the Gospel book not only proclaims the presence of
Christ but also his presidency through his word within the liturgical assembly. Al
though this ritual is no longer in use today, the Gospel book rests on the altar ta
ble, is elaborately decorated, and is regularly venerated and kissed by the faithful
both as an object of pious devotion and a testimony to God’s continued presence in
that community of believers.50
Conclusion
The Bible is at the center of the life of the Orthodox Church and it occupies a place of
paramount importance in the worship of the church. It would not be a hyperbole to say
that the Bible is everywhere, permeates all aspects of the life of the church, especially its
liturgical life. The Scriptures have their origins in the life of the church, particularly in
the liturgical gatherings of the very early Christians, are proclaimed in the liturgical
synaxis, and are interpreted in the context of the living tradition of the Orthodox church,
expressed in its liturgical texts and rituals, lived in its liturgical celebrations. At the heart
of the Scriptures, is the proclamation of salvation in Christ; at the heart of liturgy, is the
celebration of that salvation in Christ.
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Alexopoulos, Stefanos. “When a Column Speaks: The Liturgy of the Christian Parthenon,”
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Alexopoulos, Stefanos. “Anamnesis, Epiclesis, and Mimesis in the Minor Hours of the
Byzantine Rite,” Worship 94 (2020), 228–245.
Alexopoulos, Stefanos. “The Gospel Narrative in Byzantine Liturgy,” in History

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and Theology in the Gospel Narratives, eds. T. Nicklas, K. W. Niebuhr, M. Seleznev (Tübin
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Braga, C., and Pistoia, A. (eds.). La liturgie, interprète de l’écriture II: Dans les composi
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(Rome: Edizioni Liturgiche, 2003).
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(Alhambra: Sebastian Press, 2014).
Dolezal, Mary-Lyon. “The Middle Byzantine Lectionary: Textual and Pictorial Expressions
of Liturgical Ritual” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1991).
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menta Musicae Byzantinae: Lectionaria 1 (Hauniae: Munksgaard, 1939–1981).
Engberg, Sysse. “The Greek Old Testament Lectionary as a Liturgical Book,” Cahiers de
l’Institut du Moyen Âge Grec et Latin 54 (1987), 39–48.
Engberg, Sysse. “The Prophetologion and the Triple-Lection Theory: The Genesis of a
Liturgical Book,” Bollettino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata 3 (2006), 67–91.
Engberg, Sysse. “The Needle in the Haystack: Searching for Evidence of the Eucharistic
Old Testament Lection in the Constantinopolitan Rite,” Bollettino della Badia Greca di
Grottaferrata 13 (2016), 47–60.
Frøyshov, Stig Symeon. “Byzantine Rite,” The Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnology. Can
terbury Press, accessed http://www.hymnology.co.uk/b/byzantine-rite.
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ton, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2010).
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and the Church in Byzantium, ed. Linda Safran (University Park: Pennsylvania State Uni
versity Press, 1998), 121–151.
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tufjZOOf3go2PKoKOFbRUvIpWNRl3OZ7_UOXFgyzRaf-ro.
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Old Testament in Byzantium, eds. Paul Magdalino and Robert Nelson (Washington, DC:
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2010), 55–77.
Ouspensky, Leonid. Theology of the Icon. 2 vols. (Crestwood: St. Vladimir’s Press, 1992).
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zione riveduta con traduzione in lingua italiana. Bibliotheca “Ephemerides Liturgicae”
“Subsidia” 80 (Rome: Edizioni Liturgiche, 2000).
Parpulov, Georgi. “Psalters and Personal Piety in Byzantium,” in The Old Testament in
Byzantium, eds. Paul Magdalino and Robert Nelson (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks
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sity Press, 2006), 254–306.
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tion: Towards a Codico-Liturgical Approach to the Biblical and Patristic Manuscripts
(Tilburg, 2007).
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at the PThU in Kampen, the Netherlands on 6th–7th November 2009. CBM–Subsidia 1
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(1956), 177–202.
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“Subsidia” 119 (Rome: Edizioni Liturgiche, 2002).
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acter of Orthodox Worship), in Ἱερουργεῖν τὸ Εὐαγγέλιον: Ἡ Ἁγία Γραφὴ στὴν Ὀρθόδοξη
Λατρεία (Athens: Apostoliki Diakonia, 2004), 35–66.
Notes:
(1) Much has been written on this topic; see, for example, Petros Vasileiades, “Ὁ βιβλικὸς
χαρακτήρας τῆς Ὀρθόδοξης Λατρείας” (The Biblical Character of Orthodox Worship), in
Ἱερουργεῖν τὸ Εὐαγγέλιον: Ἡ Ἁγία Γραφὴ στὴν Ὀρθόδοξη Λατρεία (Athens: Apostoliki Di
akonia, 2004), 35–66. For abundant bibliographical references, see the notes. Also avail
Page 16 of 22

able online at http://users.auth.gr/pv/

04%20Biblical%20Character%20of%20Orthodox%20Worship.pdf (December 3, 2020).
(2) Demetrios Constantelos, “The Holy Scriptures in Greek Orthodox Worship,” Greek Or
thodox Theological Review 12 (1966), 7–83, here 9. This article is a summary of the
author’s master’s thesis submitted to Princeton in 1959, and reflects the efforts of Ortho
dox theologians of that era to defend the Scriptural nature and character of the Orthodox
Church and its liturgical life.
(3) Klaas Spronk, “The Study of the Historical-Liturgical Context of the Bible: A Bridge be
tween ‘East’ and ‘West’?,” in A Catalogue of Byzantine Manuscripts in Their Liturgical
Context: Challenges and Perspectives Collected Papers Resulting from the Expert Meet
ing of the Catalogue of Byzantine Manuscripts Programme Held at the PThU in Kampen,
the Netherlands on 6th–7th November 2009. CBM—Subsidia 1, eds. Klaas Spronk, Ger
ard Rouwhorst, Stefan Royé (Turnhout: Brepols, 2013),15–22, here 18–19.
(4) A. M. Triacca and A. Pistoia (eds.), La liturgie, interprète de l’écriture I: Les Lectures
bibliques pour les dimanches et fêtes, Bibliotheca “Ephemerides Liturgicae” “Subsidia”
119 (Rome: Edizioni Liturgiche, 2002), and C. Braga and A. Pistoia (eds.), La liturgie, in
terprète de l’écriture II: Dans les compositions liutrgiques, prières et chants, Bibliotheca
“Ephemerides Liturgicae” “Subsidia” 126 (Rome: Edizioni Liturgiche, 2003).
(5) Ἱερουργεῖν τὸ Εὐαγγέλιον. Ἡ Ἁγία Γραφὴ στὴν Ὀρθόδοξη Έκκλησία. Πρακτικὰ Ε’

Πανελληνίου Λειτουργικοῦ Συμποσίου [Ministering the Gospel: Holy Scriptures in the Or
thodox Church. Acta of the Fifth Panhellenic Liturgical Conference], Ποιμαντικὴ
Βιβλιοθήκη 10 (Athens: Church of Greece, 2004).
(6) Klaas Spronk, Gerard Rouwhorst, Stefan Royé (eds.), A Catalogue of Byzantine Manu
scripts in Their Liturgical Context: Challenges and Perspectives Collected Papers Result
ing from the Expert Meeting of the Catalogue of Byzantine Manuscripts Programme Held
at the PThU in Kampen, the Netherlands on 6th–7th November 2009. CBM - Subsidia 1
(Turnhout: Brepols, 2013).
(7) Stefan Royé, The Inner Cohesion between the Bible and the Fathers in Byzantine Tra
dition: Towards a Codico-Liturgical Approach to the Biblical and Patristic Manuscripts
(Tilburg: Orthodox Logos Publishing, 2007). For a summary, see Stefan Royé, “An Assess
ment of Byzantine Codex and Catalogue Research: Towards the Construction of a New
Series of Catalogues of Byzantine Manuscripts,” Sacris Erudiri 47 (2008), 5–144.
(8) The acta are to be published soon.
(9) See http://snts.international/eelc-east-west-symposia-and-publications/ (last visited

September 26, 2020) for the list of conferences, their themes, and publication informa
tion of the acta. It is in the context of the Seventh East-West Symposium of New Testa
ment Scholars that the author delivered a paper titled “The Gospel Narrative in Byzan
tine Liturgy,” in T. Nicklas, K. W. Niebuhr, M. Seleznev, eds., History and Theology in the
Page 17 of 22

Gospel Narratives (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2020), 235–246. The present contribution
expands on themes first presented there.
(10) Paul Magdalino and Robert Nelson (eds.), The Old Testament in Byzantium
(11) Derek Krueger and Robert Nelson (eds.), The New Testament in Byzantium
(12) A total of twenty-two papers were delivered in these sessions; for the abstracts, see
Dejan Dželebdžić and Stanoje Bojanin (eds.), Proceeding of the 23rd International Con
gress of Byzantine Studies, Belgrade, 22–27 August 2016: Thematic Sessions of Free
Communications (Belgrade: Serbian National Committee of AIEB, 2016), 252–261, 336–
345.
(13) Claudia Rapp and Andreas Külzer (eds), The Bible in Byzantium: Appropriation, Adap
tation, Interpretation (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2019).
(14) Mary-Lyon Dolezal, “The Middle Byzantine Lectionary: Textual and Pictorial Expres
sions of Liturgical Ritual” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1991); Christopher Jordan,
“The Textual Tradition of the Gospel of John in Greek Gospel Lectionaries from the Mid
dle Byzantine Period” (PhD diss., University of Birmingham, 2010). John Lowden, The Ja
haris Gospel Lectionary: The Story of a Byzantine Book (New York: The Metropolitan Mu
seum of Art, 2009).
(15) Samuel Gibson, The Apostolos: The Acts and Epistles in Byzantine Liturgical Manu
scripts, Texts and Studies 18 (Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2018).
(16) For the Prophetologion, see Sysse Engberg, Carsten Høeg, Günther Zuntz (eds.),
Prophetologium I–II, Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae: Lectionaria 1 (Hauniae: Munks
gaard, 1939–1981); Sysse Engberg, “The Greek Old Testament Lectionary as a Liturgical
Book,” Cahiers de l’Institut du Moyen Âge Grec et Latin 54 (1987), 39–48; James Miller,
“The Prophetologion: The Old Testament of Byzantine Christianity?” in Paul Magdalino
and Robert Nelson, eds., The Old Testament in Byzantium(Washington, DC: Dumbarton
Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2010), 55–77. For the debate whether there were
ever Old Testament readings in the Byzantine Divine Liturgy, see (in chronological order)
Sysse Engberg, “The Prophetologion and the Triple-Lection Theory: The Genesis of a
Liturgical Book,” Bollettino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata 3 (2006), 67–91; Robert
Taft, “Were There Once Old Testament Readings in the Byzantine Divine Liturgy? Apro
pos of an Article by Sysse Gudrun Engberg,” Bollettino della Badia Greca di Grottaferrata
8 (2011), 271–311; Sysse Engberg, “The Needle in the Haystack: Searching for Evidence
of the Eucharistic Old Testament Lection in the Constantinopolitan Rite,” Bollettino della
Badia Greca di Grottaferrata 13 (2016), 47–60.
(17) The Menaion, one for each month (September to August), contains the proper ele
ments for fixed feasts of the liturgical year. The Triodion contains the proper elements of
the services of the pre-Lenten period, Great Lent, and Holy Week. The Pentecostarion
Page 18 of 22

contains the services of the period between Easter and All-Saints Sunday; see Stefanos
Alexopoulos and Dionysios Bilalis Anatolikiotes, “Towards a History of Printed Liturgical
Books in the Modern Greek State: An Initial Survey,” Ecclesia Orans 34 (2017), 421–460.
(18) Texts are from the Ages Digital Stand, https://dcs.goarch.org/goa/dcs/dcs.html (last
visited September 30, 2020).
(19) See, for example, Robert Browing, “Literacy in the Byzantine World,” Byzantine and
Modern Greek Studies 4 (1978), 39–54. Catherine Holmes and Judith Waring (eds.), Liter
acy, Education and Manuscript Transmission in Bzyantium and Beyond (Leiden/Boston/
Köln: Brill, 2002). Margaret Mullett, Letters, Literacy and Literature in Byzantium
(Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2007).
(20) See, for example, Nigel Wilson, “Books and Readers in Byzantium,” in Byzantine
Books and Bookmen: A Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks
Center for Byzantine Studies, 1975), 1–15; Cyril Mango, “The Availability of Books in the
Byzantine Empire, A.D. 750–850,” in ibid, 29–45; Nigel Wilson, “Libraries in Byzantium
and the West,” in St Catherine’s Monastery at Mount Sinai: Its Manuscripts and Their
Conservation; Papers Given in Memory of Professor Ihor Ševčenko (London: Saint Cather
ine Foundation, 2011), 17–19.
(21) Derek Krueger and Robert Nelson, “New Testaments of Byzantium: Seen, Heard,
Written, Excerpted, Interpreted,” in Derek Krueger and Robert Nelson, eds., The New
Testament in Byzantium (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collec
tion, 2016), 1–20, here 10.
(22) For the history of the Psalter in the Byzantine tradition, see Georgi Parpulov, Toward a
History of Byzantine Psalters, ca. 850–1350 AD (Plovdiv: NP, 2014).
(23) Robert Taft, The Liturgy of the Hours in East and West, 2nd rev. ed. (Collegeville, MN:
The Liturgical Press, 1993).
(24) Oliver Strunk, “The Byzantine Office at Hagia Sophia,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 9–10
(1956), 177–202; Stig Symeon Frøyshov, “Byzantine Rite,” The Canterbury Dictionary of
Hymnology (Canterbury Press, accessed November 5, 2020, http://www.hymnology.co.uk/
b/byzantine-rite); “Rite of Jerusalem,” The Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnology
(Canterbury Press, accessed November 5, 2020, http://www.hymnology.co.uk/r/rite-of-
jerusalem); “Greek Hymnody,” The Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnology (Canterbury
Press, accessed November 5, 2020, http://www.hymnology.co.uk/g/greek-hymnody); “Rite
of Constantinople,” The Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnology (Canterbury Press, accessed
November 5, 2020, http://www.hymnology.co.uk/r/rite-of-constantinople)
(25) Georgi Parpulov, “Psalters and Personal Piety in Byzantium,” in Paul Magdalino and
Robert Nelson, eds., The Old Testament in Byzantium (Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks
Research Library and Collection, 2010), 77–105.
(26) For an outline of Orthros/Matins, see Taft, The Liturgy of the Hours, 279–282.
Page 19 of 22

(27) Strunk, “The Byzantine Office at Hagia Sophia”; Stefanos Alexopoulos, “When a Col
umn Speaks: The Liturgy of the Christian Parthenon,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 69 (2015),
159–178.
(28) See Mother Mary and Kallistos Ware, The Festal Menaion (South Canaan, PA: St.
Tikhon’s Press, 1990), 530–534.
(29) Mary and Ware, The Festal Menaion, 548.
(32) First presented in Alexopoulos, “The Gospel Narrative in Byzantine Liturgy,” 237–238.
What follows draws from this publication.
(33) George Gigras, Egeria: Diary of a Pilgrimage, Ancient Christian Writers 38 (New York:
Newman Press, 1970) 112 (chapter 37).
(34) Alexopoulos, “The Gospel Narrative in Byzantine Liturgy,” 237. For a discussion on
this same passage of Egeria, see Eugen Pentiuc, The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox
Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 208–209.
(35) See, for example, the Royal Hours of Holy Friday, Epiphany Eve, and Christmas Eve.
For the texts in English of the Royal Hours of Holy Friday, see Mother Mary and Kallistos
Ware, The Lenten Triodion (London: Faber & Faber, 1984), 600–610. For the texts in Eng
lish of the Royal Hours of Epiphany Eve and Christmas Eve, see Mother Mary and Kallis
tos Ware, The Festal Menaion (South Canaan, PA: St. Tikhon’s Seminary Press, 1990),
221–249 and 314–336 respectively. For more on the use of the Old Testament in Byzantine
liturgy and hymnography, see Pentiuc, The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition,
199–262.
(36) Cesare Giraudo, La struttura letteraria della Preghiera Eucaristica: Saggi sulla genesi
letteraria di una forma: Toda veterotestamentaria, Beraka giudaic, anafora cristiana,
Analecta Biblica 92 (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1981).
(37) Constantelos, “The Holy Scriptures in Greek Orthodox Worship,” 67; Panagiotes
Trempelas, Μικρὸν Εὐχολόγιον, vol. 1 (Athens: NP, 1950); Stefano Parenti and Elena
Velkovska (eds.), L’eucologio Barberini gr. 336: Seconda edizione riveduta con traduzione
in lingua italiana. Bibliotheca “Ephemerides Liturgicae” “Subsidia” 80 (Rome: Edizioni
Liturgiche, 2000), 186.
(38) https://www.goarch.org/-/the-service-of-the-crowning-the-service-of-marriage (last vis

ited September 26, 2020); Mark Searle and Kenneth Stevenson, Documents of Marriage
Liturgy (Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1992), 69.
Page 20 of 22

(39) See, for example, Panagiotes Trempelas, Αἱ τρεῖς Λειτουργίαι κατὰ τοὺς έν Ἀθῆναις
Κώδικας (Athens: NP, 1935), 21–194; Constantelos, “The Holy Scriptures in Greek Ortho
dox Worship,” 15–38; Parenti and Velkovska, L’eucologio Barberini gr. 336, 57–82. Adapt
ed from Stefanos Alexopoulos, “Prayer at the Eucharist: Shifts in the Use of Scripture,” a
paper delivered at the conference International Conference “Liturgical Reception of the
Bible: Dimensions and Perspectives for Interdisciplinary Research,” University of Regens
burg, September 25, 2015.
(40) Trempelas, Λειτουργίαι (as in n. 18), 180; Parenti and Velkovska, L’Eucologio (as in n.
18), 66. English translation from https://www.goarch.org/chapel/texts (March 29, 2016).
(41) Trempelas, Λειτουργίαι (as in n. 18), 181. English translation from http://
www.goarch.org/chapel/liturgical_texts (March 29, 2016).
(42) This paragraph is borrowed from Alexopoulos, “Prayer at the Eucharist: Shifts in the
Use of Scripture.”
(43) Ἔλλαμψον ἐν ταῖς καρδίαις ἡμῶν, φιλάνθρωπε Δέσποτα, τὸ τῆς σῆς θεογνωσίας
ἀκήρατον φῶς, καὶ τοὺς τῆς διανοίας ἡμῶν ὀφθαλμοὺς διάνοιξον εἰς τὴν τῶν
εὐαγγελικῶν σου κηρυγμάτων κατανόησιν. Ἔνθες ἡμῖν καὶ τὸν τῶν μακαρίων σου
ἐντολῶν φόβον, ἵνα τὰς σαρκικὰς ἐπιθυμίας πάσας καταπατήσαντες πνευματικὴν
πολιτείαν μετέλθωμεν, πάντα τὰ πρὸς εὐαρέστησιν τὴν σὴν καὶ φρονοῦντες καὶ
πράττοντες. Σὺ γὰρ εἶ ὁ φωτισμὸς τῶν ψυχῶν καὶ τῶν σωμάτων ἡμῶν, Χριστὲ ὁ Θεός,
καὶ σοὶ τὴν δόξαν ἀναπέμπομεν σὺν τῷ ἀνάρχῳ σου Πατρὶ καὶ τῷ παναγίῳ καὶ ἀγαθῷ
καὶ ζωοποιῷ σου Πνεύματι, νῦν καὶ ἀεὶ καὶ εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων. Ἀμήν. Pana
giotes Trempelas, Αἱ τρεῖς Λειτουργίαι κατὰ τοὺς έν Ἀθῆναις Κώδικας (Athens: NP,
1935), 53–54. English translation from https://www.goarch.org/chapel/texts (March 31,
2017).
(44) Adapted from Alexopoulos, “The Gospel Narrative in Byzantine Liturgy,” 239.
(45) Stefanos Alexopoulos, “Οἱ Ἀκολουθίες τῶν Μεγάλων Ὡρῶν” (The Offices of the Royal
Hours), Ἐκκλησία 92 (2015), 686–701.
(46) Stefanos Alexopoulos, “Anamnesis, Epiclesis, and Mimesis in the Minor Hours of the
Byzantine Rite,” Worship 94 (2020), 228–245.
(47) Henry Maguire, “The Cycle of Images in the Church,” in Linda Safran, ed., Heaven on
Earth: Art and the Church in Byzantium (University Park: Pennsylvania State University
Press, 1998), 121–151. Thomas Mathews, “The Sequel to Nicaea II in Byzantine Church
Decoration,” The Perkins School of Theology Journal 41.3 (1988), 11–21; Alfredo Tradigo,
Icons and Saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church (Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Muse
um, 2004); Evan Freeman, “The Lives of Christ and the Virgin in Byzantine Art” (https://
smarthistory.org/christ-virgin-byzantine-art/?fbclid=IwAR2ljJzX-XcN-
tufjZOOf3go2PKoKOFbRUvIpWNRl3OZ7_UOXFgyzRaf-ro; last visited December 5, 2020).
See also George Galavaris, The Icon in the Life of the Church (Leiden: Brill, 1981); Leonid
Ouspensky, Theology of the Icon, 2 vols. (Crestwood: St. Vladimir’s Press, 1992);
Page 21 of 22

Christoph Schönborn, God’s Human Face: The Christ-Icon (San Francisco: Ignatius Press,
1994); Maximos Constas, The Art of Seeing: Paradox and Perception in Orthodox Iconog
raphy (Alhambra: Sebastian Press, 2014).
(48) Mathews, “The Sequel to Nicaea II,” 16.
(49) Mathews, “The Sequel to Nicaea II,” 19.
(50) Alexander Rentel, “Byzantine and Slavic Orthodoxy,” in Geoffrey Wainwright and
Karen Westerfield Tucker, eds., The Oxford History of Christian Worship (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2006), 254–306, here 277.
Stefanos Alexopoulos
Stefanos Alexopoulos is Associate Professor of Liturgical Studies, The Catholic Uni

versity of America. He researches the history and evolution of Byzantine liturgical
structures and offices in the manuscript tradition, and how the official liturgy inter
sects with private piety.
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The Use of the Bible in Byzantine Liturgical Texts and Services

The Use of the Bible in Byzantine Liturgical Texts and

Abstract and Keywords

Keywords: liturgy, lectionary, prayer, liturgical year, iconography

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The Bible and Liturgy in Recent Conferences

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The Lectionary System

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First Eothinon First Eothinon First Eothinon

At that time, the On the mountain in The Disciples has­

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1. The Song of Moses (Exodus 15:1–19)

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The Biblical Character of the Liturgical Year

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(p. 252) The Biblical Character of Liturgical Prayers

Anamensis (protasis/remem­ Epiclesis (apodosis/peti­

Jos 24:2–13 Jos 24:14

Deut 26:5–9 Deut 26:10

Deut. 32:1–18 Deut 32:19, 21–23, 25

Psalm 43 (44):1–22 Psalm 43 (44):23, 26

Nehemiah 9:6–31 Nehemiah 9:32, 35–37

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Struc­ Prayer Text Scriptur­

Epiclesis do You Yourself, O Sovereign Lord, Ps 143:7,

Doxology for Yours is the dominion, and Yours is Mt 6:13

ry: of the Father, and of the Son, and of

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And when the fullness of time had come, Gal 4:4,

The Liturgical Hermeneutics of Scripture

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Liturgical Space, Icons, and Scripture

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Alexopoulos, Stefanos. “The Gospel Narrative in Byzantine Liturgy,” in History

Subscriber: OUP-Reference Gratis Access; date: 20 May 2022

Alexopoulos, Stefanos, and Bilalis Anatolikiotes, Dionysios. “Towards a History of Printed

Frøyshov, Stig Symeon. “Rite of Jerusalem,” The Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnology.

Frøyshov, Stig Symeon. “Rite of Constantinople,” The Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnolo­

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Mathews, Thomas. “The Sequel to Nicaea II in Byzantine Church Decoration,” The

Parpulov, Georgi. Toward a History of Byzantine Psalters, ca. 850–1350 AD (Plovdiv,

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Triacca, A. M., and Pistoia, A. (eds.). La liturgie, interprète de l’écriture I: Les

Lectures bibliques pour les dimanches et fêtes. Bibliotheca “Ephemerides Liturgicae”

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able online at http://users.auth.gr/pv/

(5) Ἱερουργεῖν τὸ Εὐαγγέλιον. Ἡ Ἁγία Γραφὴ στὴν Ὀρθόδοξη Έκκλησία. Πρακτικὰ Ε’

(8) The acta are to be published soon.

(9) See http://snts.international/eelc-east-west-symposia-and-publications/ (last visited

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(29) Mary and Ware, The Festal Menaion, 548.

(30) Mary and Ware, The Festal Menaion, 144.

(31) Mary and Ware, The Festal Menaion, 367.

At that time, the On the mountain in The Disciples has

Anamensis (protasis/remem Epiclesis (apodosis/peti

Struc Prayer Text Scriptur

Frøyshov, Stig Symeon. “Rite of Constantinople,” The Canterbury Dictionary of Hymnolo

(38) https://www.goarch.org/-/the-service-of-the-crowning-the-service-of-marriage (last vis

Stefanos Alexopoulos is Associate Professor of Liturgical Studies, The Catholic Uni