energies

Review
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: A Review
Kamil Wróbel 1, * , Justyna Wróbel 2, *, Wojciech Tokarz 1 , Jakub Lach 1 , Katarzyna Podsadni 3
and Andrzej Czerwiński 4

1 Industrial Chemistry Institute, Łukasiewicz Research Network, Rydygiera 8, 01-793 Warsaw, Poland
2 Institute for Engineering of Polymer Materials and Dyes, Łukasiewicz Research Network,
Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie 55, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
3 Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Warsaw, 61 Żwirki i Wigury Str., 02-091 Warsaw, Poland
4 Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 1, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
* Correspondence: kamil.wrobel@ichp.pl (K.W.); justyna.wrobel@impib.lukasiewicz.gov.pl (J.W.)

Abstract: Motor vehicles are the backbone of global transport. In recent years, due to the rising costs
of fossil fuels and increasing concerns about their negative impact on the natural environment, the
development of low-emission power supply systems for vehicles has been observed. In order to
create a stable and safe global transport system, an important issue seems to be the diversification of
propulsion systems for vehicles, which can be achieved through the simultaneous development of
conventional internal combustion vehicles, electric vehicles (both battery and fuel cell powered) as
well as combustion hydrogen-powered vehicles. This publication presents an overview of commercial
vehicles (available on the market) powered by internal combustion hydrogen engines. The work
focuses on presenting the development of technology from the point of view of introducing ready-
made hydrogen-powered vehicles to the market or technical solutions enabling the use of hydrogen
mixtures in internal combustion engines. The study covers the history of the technology, dedicated
hydrogen and bi-fuel vehicles, and vehicles with an engine powered by a mixture of conventional
fuels and hydrogen. It presents basic technology parameters and solutions introduced by leading
Citation: Wróbel, K.; Wróbel, J.;
vehicle manufacturers in the vehicle market.
Tokarz, W.; Lach, J.; Podsadni, K.;
Czerwiński, A. Hydrogen Internal Keywords: hydrogen internal combustion engine; commercialized hydrogen vehicle; hydrogen
Combustion Engine Vehicles: A
Review. Energies 2022, 15, 8937.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238937
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Andrzej
Teodorczyk Currently, the transport sector is heavily dependent on fossil fuels, leading to major
contributions to emissions of carbon dioxide and pollutants. In the face of increasing
Received: 10 October 2022 environmental pollution and at the same time the rising demand for energy, the so-called
Accepted: 22 November 2022
“hydrogen economy” is one of the most promising pathways for the development of
Published: 25 November 2022
sustainable energy [1–4].
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Hydrogen internal combustion engines are an important technology in the accelerated
with regard to jurisdictional claims in path to decarbonization. The beginnings of the technology date back to the 19th century,
published maps and institutional affil- and intensive development took place in the early years of the 21st century. Since about
iations. 2010, a decline in interest in this technology has been observed, mainly due to the entry into
the market of electric vehicles (powered by batteries), widely recognized as “zero-emission”
solutions. However, taking into account the production process of batteries requiring the
use of rare and sometimes toxic raw materials and problems with recycling, the use of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
electric vehicles on a large scale places a heavy burden on the natural environment, and
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
their zero emission status is highly questionable. Battery technology is perfect for passenger
This article is an open access article
cars and selected utility vehicles. Meanwhile, the transport sector includes vehicles with a
distributed under the terms and
diverse set of work cycles and uses. Some of these vehicles and devices are currently not
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
prioritized for applications in electric battery technology, which indicates that hydrogen
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
technology could be a promising zero-emission solution for many utility vehicle operators.
4.0/).

Energies 2022, 15, 8937. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15238937 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 8937 2 of 13

A hydrogen-based energy system is regarded as a viable option for delivering energy

service in an efficient, clean and safe manner while meeting sustainability goals [1–23].
Hydrogen can be produced from carbon-free resources or from fossil fuels combined with
carbon separation and sequestration. The basic methods of obtaining hydrogen are: steam
reforming of methane, partial oxidation of hydrocarbons, gasification of biomass, coal
and wastes, thermal cracking, and electrolysis [1,3,5]. Most of those methods, except
electrolysis and thermal cracking, produce carbon dioxide as a greenhouse gas, increasing
he footprint of obtained hydrogen. Hydrogen is produced mostly for industrial purposes
such as petrochemical hydrodesulfurization and hydrogenation, ammonia production and
metal refining. Due to well-established production methods and the wide availability of
substrates, hydrogen appeared as a possible carrier of energy and has been recognized
as a fuel with some highly desirable properties for application as a fuel in vehicles, such
as high gravimetric energy density. This approach needs to make hydrogen production
more eco-friendly. Contemporary development utilizing renewable sources such as solar
energy, wind power and geothermal energy may produce more energy than is required.
The excess of energy can be stored in batteries, transferred to the common electricity grid
or used for hydrogen production. Hydrogen becomes a carrier of energy, which can be
stored as a compressed gas, liquid or as a metal hydride. Then, it can be utilized on-site
or stored for later use or transferred to different locations. These make hydrogen easily
obtainable without having access to fossil fuels and industrial-scale equipment [2,3,6,7].
The increased availability of hydrogen is an opportunity to develop new solutions,
which undoubtedly include vehicles powered by hydrogen. There are two types of hydro-
gen vehicles: hydrogen combustion vehicles with a hydrogen-fueled internal combustion
engine (ICE) and hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles with an electric motor powered by a hydrogen
fuel cell (FC). Both hydrogen combustion engines and fuel cells use hydrogen fuel; however,
hydrogen engines can run with hydrogen of lower purity. This is especially useful in the
transportation industry, where the transition to high-quality green hydrogen will take time.
Hydrogen engines are built on the well-known technology of internal combustion engines,
which is of great benefit to vehicle manufacturers in the design and production of vehicles.
This review is an attempt to deal with the subject of hydrogen-powered vehicles, with an
emphasis on commercial vehicles. This publication is not a typical scientific monograph on
vehicles with hydrogen internal combustion engines; it is a popular scientific approach to
this problem. The study includes an overview of commercial vehicles powered by hydrogen
internal combustion engines and solutions for the use of fuel blends with hydrogen.

2. Hydrogen Internal Combustion Vehicles Compared to Other, Similar Vehicles

In recent years, fuel cell vehicles have become more popular; nevertheless, hydrogen
internal combust engine vehicles present much of the same promise as hydrogen fuel cell
vehicles, i.e., high efficiency of the propulsion system and low air pollution emissions [3,8].
Both types of hydrogen vehicles (ICE and FC) have many advantages compared to typical
gasoline vehicles (Table 1), which give them great opportunities for development.

Table 1. Comparison of the basic parameters of conventional gasoline vehicles, hydrogen combustion
vehicles and vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells [8–22].

Hydrogen Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Gasoline Vehicles
Combustion Vehicles Vehicles
internal combustion internal combustion
Engine type electric motor
engine engine
Efficiency of the
~30–35% ~40–50% ~45–55%
propulsion system
approx. 9 L (or
approx. 1.4 kg of approx. 1.0 kg of
Fuel consumption * 12.8 kg) of
hydrogen/100 km hydrogen/100 km
gasoline/100 km
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 3 of 13

Table 1. Cont.

Hydrogen Hydrogen Fuel Cell

Gasoline Vehicles
Combustion Vehicles Vehicles
currently low currently high currently very high
Cost of fuel **
(~0.1) (~0.9) (1.0)
minimal/very low CO2
high CO2 , CO, and CO emissions, the
Air pollution unburned same or up to 20% minimal/zero CO2
emissions hydrocarbons, and higher NOx emissions and NOx emissions
NOx emissions compared to
gasoline vehicles
developed, and in developed, and in
developed (widely
diffusion stage diffusion stage
State of technology used all over
(experimental vehicle (experimental vehicle
the world)
series) series)
* For vehicles with an engine power of 110–150 horsepower. ** In parentheses—approximate ratio of fuel prices
per unit of mass, data for 2022.

Table 1 shows a comparison of the basic parameters of conventional gasoline vehicles,

hydrogen combustion vehicles and vehicles powered by hydrogen fuel cells.
Hydrogen in internal combustion engines has many advantages in terms of combus-
tion properties. However, there is still a need for further research work that would improve
several properties of hydrogen combustion vehicles, such as engine efficiency, power out-
put, brake thermal efficiency, brake power, brake specific fuel consumption, range and
reduction of NOx emissions. Hydrogen combustion vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
have similar emission profiles—the main product of hydrogen fuel is water. However, in
the case of hydrogen combustion engines, there is a trace of CO2 emissions (from ambient
air and lubrication oil). In addition, due to the higher combustion temperature, hydrogen
combustion vehicles show the same or up to 20% higher NOx emissions compared to
gasoline vehicles. At the same time, it should be noted that NOx emissions can be reduced
by the use of an exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) system due to the dilution effect, which
reduces the oxygen concentration in the intake charge or by the use of a selective catalytic
reduction (SCR) system by catalytically reducing nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gas using
ammonia as a reducing agent [18,23]. In the case of fuel cell vehicles, the emission of
pollutants is lowest as compared to other vehicles. The purity of the hydrogen fuel is also
an important issue. Fuel cell vehicles require high-purity hydrogen fuel (poisoning e.g.,
by sulfur compounds can affect the performance of the fuel cell). The basic hydrogen fuel
impurity limits for FC vehicles are, respectively: 300 µmol/mol for non-hydrogen gases,
0.2 µmol/mol for carbon monoxide, and 0.004 µmol/mol for sulfur compounds. In the
case of hydrogen combustion vehicles, it is possible to use hydrogen of lower purity, and
the limits are as follows: 20,000 µmol/mol for non-hydrogen gases, 1 µmol/mol for carbon
monoxide, and 2 µmol/mol for sulfur compounds [24]. Moreover, fuel cell vehicles require
additional space to install the battery, which increases the production costs and weight
of the vehicles. Oxidation processes in fuel cells also require certain amounts of catalysts
that contain platinum metals. These metals increase the total cost of fuel cell production;
moreover, current demand exceeds availability. In 2020, world production of platinum was
about 160 tons, while the amount of platinum necessary to produce a fuel cell vehicle is
in the range of 20–40 g. Assuming that the entire amount of mined platinum would be
used for vehicle production, this would enable the production of about 5.5 million fuel cell
vehicles, which is equivalent to only 0.5% of all vehicles in the world [12,16,25]. Developing
both FC and ICE will be justified and may be carried out simultaneously. Total replacement
of fossil fuel-based transportation might be easier to achieve only with fuel (hydrogen or
hydrogen mixtures) ICE applications than producing whole new vehicles containing FCs.
Hydrogen combustion engines and hydrogen fuel cell shave different levels of maturity.
They are not in competition with each other, as both are driving the development of a
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 4 of 13

common hydrogen production, transport, distribution and storage infrastructure. They are
complementary technologies that share a role in reducing vehicle emissions.

3. The History of Hydrogen Combustion Vehicles

The use of hydrogen in cars is not a new approach. The history of hydrogen as a fuel
for internal combustion engines is more than 200 years old [26]. In general, the interest
in hydrogen as a fuel can be divided into several historical periods. The first mention of
the hydrogen-powered engine dates back to the early 19th century. In 1807, François Isaac
de Rivaz from Switzerland invented and designed the first hydrogen–oxygen combustion
engine. Rivaz used an experimental combustion engine to drive a prototype vehicle over
short distances, making it the first vehicle with an internal combustion engine [27]. The
Rivaz engine had no timing mechanism, so the fuel injection and ignition were controlled
manually, while a Volta cell was used to generate an electric spark [28]. The idea of igniting
the fuel mixture by means of an electric spark was thus identical to that of modern combus-
tion engines [8]. In 1820, Rev. W. Cecil presented to the Cambridge Philosophical Society a
paper titled “On the Application of Hydrogen Gas to Produce Moving Power in Machin-
ery” [29]. Cecil’s gas engine was a vacuum engine, and it ran satisfactorily [30,31]. Since
the beginning of the 19th century, many designs of various types of internal combustion
engines and their components have been developed. The decisive year was 1860, when
Belgian inventor Etienne Lenoir built the first useful small horizontal gas engine [32]. It was
a single-cylinder, two-stroke engine powered by hydrogen gas generated by the electrolysis
of water [33]. The engine was water-cooled and achieved an output of 0.7 kW at 80 rpm [34].
Later, Lenoir adapted the engine to use various other gases, such as coal gas. In 1863, a
vehicle powered by Lenoir’s engine completed a test drive over the 9 km between Paris
and Joinville with an average speed of 3 km/h [35]. The engine was a big economic success,
and more than 400 units were sold, while the whole thing was a huge step forward for
automotive technology [34]. Despite initial success in the development of hydrogen-based
engines, in later years they were not widely implemented, as they lost the competition with
engines based on fossil fuels. Hydrogen combustion engines of that time were less efficient
than hydrocarbon engines, and the storage of hydrogen in vehicles was a major problem.
On the other hand, hydrocarbon fuels were a by-product of the oil companies that produced
kerosene for lamps and heating in large quantities at the end of the 19th century. The fact
that crude oil was already produced by a large industry using proven extraction and refin-
ing methods made it much cheaper than hydrogen as an automotive fuel. Despite this, the
research on hydrogen vehicles was continued. As a result of World War I and II, significant
progress was made in the technology for hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Increased fuel demand
and the risk of cutting fossil fuel supplies have prompted national governments to invest
in research into the use of hydrogen in transport. Another hydrogen car was invented
in 1933 [36]. The Norwegian hydropower plant Norsk converted a small truck to run on
hydrogen gas. The truck transported an ammonia reformer, which extracted hydrogen and
then burned it in an internal combustion engine [37]. One of the first and most significant
engineers to deal with a hydrogen-powered internal combustion engine was Rudolf Erren.
In the 1920s, he began researching the modification of the Otto and diesel engines produced
at that time. Rudolf Erren studied hydrogen as a fuel and conducted extensive experiments
on hydrogen-powered engines [38]. He converted a number of gasoline and diesel engines
to direct hydrogen injection. Modified Erren engines were used, among others, in trucks,
buses and submarines [39]. Erren began his work in Germany; unfortunately the records
of his research were completely destroyed by the Allied bombings of Berlin [31]. Later, he
continued his work in England. The paper Erren and Campbell presented at the Institute of
Fuel in London provided extremely optimistic data on brake thermal efficiency of as high
as 60% in a hydrogen–oxygen engine incorporating steam recirculation. According to the
director of the “Deutsche Erren Studiengeselleschaft”, in Erren’s engines, there were no
problems with ignition, but the patented system required special fuel injection and control
mechanisms to inject hydrogen [31]. Many other researchers have also worked on hydrogen
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 5 of 13

engines. Interestingly, the first installations of hydrogen-powered internal combustion en-

gine in Russia were used in 1941 during the siege of Leningrad (currently Petersburg). For
urgent needs, the Russian Boris Shelishch converted 200 GAZ-AA trucks to using hydrogen,
which burned cleaner and worked longer than those powered by gasoline [40]. Another
return to interest in hydrogen engines took place in the 1970s, mainly due to environmental
degradation due to fossil fuel exhaust emissions [41]. In 1966, Roger Billings converted
the Ford A to hydrogen with a combustion engine, which was the flagship for hydrogen
combustion engines [42]. In the years 1971–1978, test vehicles with hydrogen combustion
engines were developed in Japan at the Musashi Institute of Technology and in Germany
at Mercedes-Benz and DFVLR (German Aerospace Center, ger. Deutsche Forschungsanstalt
für Luft- und Raumfahrt) [9]. In 1974, the Musashi Institute of Technology introduced the
first Japanese hydrogen vehicle with a 4-stroke hydrogen engine and a high-pressure stor-
age tank. In 1975–1977, Musashi Institute introduced hydrogen vehicles with a 4-stroke
hydrogen engine in combination with a liquid hydrogen storage tank and with a 2-stroke
spark ignition engine with hydrogen direct injection (DI). In 1984, the Musashi-6 with a late
direct cylinder injection system and liquid hydrogen delivery system was presented at the
WHEC-5 conference in Toronto [43]. The DFVLR research has significantly contributed to
the development of liquid hydrogen tank technology for automotive applications. In 1979,
BMW (ger. Bayerische Motoren Werke) introduced its first hydrogen vehicle in collaboration
with DFVLR [9]. Between the 1970s and 1990s, BMW and Mazda began to develop several
commercial hydrogen-powered combustion vehicles. The 20th century contributed to the
development of hydrogen engine technology and demonstrated the possibility of using
hydrogen in existing engine designs without major modifications to the original parts [41].
In the 21st century, we are seeing increasing interest in this type of vehicle, with many new
models being developed.

4. Dedicated Hydrogen and Bi-Fuel Vehicles

Vehicles with hydrogen internal combust engines generate power through the com-
bustion of hydrogen using fuel and injection systems based on the well-known technology
of gasoline engines. For this reason, hydrogen-powered vehicles represent a relatively
straightforward and promising path to move away from fossil fuels in the automotive
industry. It should be noted that in addition to eliminating the problem of carbon dioxide
emissions, the use of hydrogen as a fuel in an internal combustion engine brings with it
a number of other advantages. Hydrogen has a high octane number (above 130) and a
very high auto-ignition temperature; therefore, it has a high resistance to knocking com-
bustion [12,14]. For the same reasons, the performance of a hydrogen-fueled engine is
less sensitive to changes in the shape of the combustion chamber, level of turbulence and
the intake charge swirling effect. The thermodynamic properties of hydrogen favor high
compression temperatures that contribute to improvements in engine efficiency. On the
other hand, due to the high hydrogen flame speed, shorter quenching distance of flame
and higher thermal conductivity compared to hydrocarbons, the heat losses are higher
than in gasoline operation, thus negatively affecting the efficiencies of hydrogen com-
bustion engines. The undoubted advantage of hydrogen fuel is the fact that, due to the
gaseous state of the fuel, it offers excellent cold starting ability and engine operation [14,15].
Moreover, when considering the economic considerations of fuel production, it should be
remembered that unlike most fuel cells, the spark ignition engine is quite tolerant to fuel of
lower purity [15,17,44].
However, the use of hydrogen as a fuel in an internal combustion engine requires a
number of significant modifications. The most important are the issues related to ignition,
fuel injection and compression. The first one concerns the ignition of the fuel mixture,
namely the spark plugs. In a hydrogen internal combustion engine, it is necessary to
use cold rated spark plugs so that spark plug electrode temperature avoids exceeding
the auto-ignition limit and causing backfires. At the same time, it is not advisable to
use spark plugs with platinum electrodes, since platinum is a catalyst for the oxidation
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 6 of 13

of hydrogen [10,18,45,46]. It is also necessary to use grounding or a properly designed

ignition system to avoid uncontrolled ignition due to residual ignition energy [9]. Another
important issue is the fuel injection system. In the case of combustion engines powered
by hydrogen, the optimal and most efficient solution in the field of fuel injection is direct
injection (DI). DI can eliminate the tendency of an engine to backfire in the intake manifold
and minimizes pre-ignition because fuel residence time in the cylinder can be shorter (a
reduction in the risk of backfire and pre-ignition can also be achieved by optimizing the
intake design). A hydrogen engine using DI has a power output of 20% more than a
gasoline engine because the stoichiometric heat of combustion per kilogram of air is higher
for hydrogen. In practice, we distinguish two basic sub-technologies. The first one is low-
pressure direct injection (LPDI), where fuel injection occurs when the intake valve is closed
and the pressure in the cylinder is low. The second one is high-pressure direct injection
(HPDI), where fuel injection occurs at the end of the compression stroke [6,14,15,46–48].
The compression ratio is an equally important issue. As in other combustion engines, this
parameter is optimized for highest efficiency. In the case of hydrogen-fueled combustion en-
gines, the compression ratio may have higher values than for gasoline engines (depending
on the application and engine design, it ranges from 7.5:1 to 14.5:1) [10,15,45,46,49].
Hydrogen combustion engines are an interesting solution in the field of combustion
vehicles, but it was only in the first decade of the 21st century that many commercial vehicles
came on the market. It should be noted that the current review covers both dedicated
hydrogen vehicles (vehicles specifically designed and built for hydrogen operation by an
original equipment manufacturer engine powered only by hydrogen) and bi-fuel vehicles,
where the engine is equipped with two separate fuel systems allowing the vehicle to operate
on gasoline as well as hydrogen. Due to the hydrogen on-board storage system, hydrogen
vehicles can also be grouped as compressed hydrogen and cryogenic liquid hydrogen
vehicles. The leading manufacturers of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles
include brands such as: Ford, BMW, Mazda, Chevrolet and Toyota. Table 2 summarizes the
most important technical parameters of the hydrogen-powered vehicles produced in the
21st century.

Table 2. Basic parameters of hydrogen combustion vehicles produced in the 21st century [9,15,46,50–54].

Hydrogen
Model Year Engine Type (Fuel) Range (km) Units Made
Tank
ICE 2.0 l
Compressed
straight-four
Ford P2000 2001 Hydrogen (87 dm3 , 100
engine Zetec
250 bar, 1.5 kg)
(port injection)
ICE 6.0 l V12
(12-cylinder
BMW Bi-fuel Cryogenic 200 (hydrogen)
2003 engine with about 100
Hydrogen 7 (hydrogen/gasoline) (8 kg) + 480 (gasoline)
high-pressured
DI)
Twin-rotary
Mazda RX-8 Bi-fuel Compressed 100 (hydrogen)
2003 Wankel rotary over 30
Hydrogen RE (hydrogen/gasoline) (350 bar, 2.4 kg) + 500 (gasoline)
engine 1.3 l
Compressed
Ford Shuttle ICE 6.8 l V10
2004 Hydrogen (350 bar, 240–320
Bus Triton
29.6 kg) *
Compressed
ETEC Chevrolet (3 × 150 dm3 ,
2004 ICE 6.0 l V8 Hydrogen 230–260 about 20
Silverado 350 bar,
10.5 kg) *
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 7 of 13

Table 2. Cont.

Hydrogen
Model Year Engine Type (Fuel) Range (km) Units Made
Tank
ICE 1.4 l
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 straight-four 7 of 13
engine
Toyota Compressed
2005 (electronic Hydrogen 100–130 over 30
Quantum Prius (1.6 kg)
multi-point
ICE 1.4 l straight-four en-
hydrogen
Toyota Quantum Compressed (1.6
2005 gine (electronic multi-
injection) Hydrogen 100–130 over 30
Prius kg)
pointICE
hydrogen
1.4l injection)
Compressed
Volkswagen straight-four Bi-fuel
Bi-fuel (hy- ~400 1
Volkswagen Polo- 2011 ICEengine
1.4l straight-four en- (2 × 18 dm3(2, × ~400 (hydro-
Compressed
Polo-converted 2011 (port (hydrogen/gasoline)
drogen/gaso- (hydrogen) (experimental)
1 (experimental)
200 bar)
converted gine (port injection)
injection) 18 dm 3, 200 bar) gen)
line)
ToyotaCorolla
Corolla ICEl 1.6
ICE 1.6 l
3-cylinder turbo
Toyota
2021
2021 3-cylinder turbo Hydrogen
Hydrogen Compressed
Compressed
(racing
(racingvehicle)
vehicle) with intercooler
with intercooler
Lexus RC F 2022 ICE 5.0 l V8 Hydrogen designed vehicle
designed
Lexus RC F 2022 *ICE
The5.0 l V8 higher fuel
relatively Hydrogen
consumption is due to the correspondingly larger size and weight
vehicle of the
vehicle.
* The relatively higher fuel consumption is due to the correspondingly larger size and weight of the vehicle.

From the point of view of the scale of production, the BMW Hydrogen 7 (Figure 1a)
From the point of view of the scale of production, the BMW Hydrogen 7 (Figure 1a)
is particularly noteworthy. It is the first mass-produced hydrogen-powered vehicle. The
is particularly noteworthy. It is the first mass-produced hydrogen-powered vehicle. The
BMW 7 twelve-cylinder engine is equipped with two separate fuel systems, allowing the
BMW 7 twelve-cylinder engine is equipped with two separate fuel systems, allowing the
vehicle to run on both gasoline and hydrogen. Based on the BMW Hydrogen 7 (bi-fuel), a
vehicle to run on both gasoline and hydrogen. Based on the BMW Hydrogen 7 (bi-fuel),
BMW Hydrogen 7 Mono-Fuel demonstration vehicle was developed, which runs on hy-
a BMW Hydrogen 7 Mono-Fuel demonstration vehicle was developed, which runs on
drogen only [9,15,52,55]. Another similarly known vehicle is the five-seater Ford P200 se-
hydrogen only [9,15,52,55]. Another similarly known vehicle is the five-seater Ford P200
dan, presented in 2001 with a two-liter engine equipped with highly optimized hydrogen
sedan, presented in 2001 with a two-liter engine equipped with highly optimized hydrogen
port injection, powered by 250 bar compressed hydrogen from two carbon-fiber rein-
port injection, powered by 250 bar compressed hydrogen from two carbon-fiber reinforced
forced aluminum tanks [10,15,46]. Three years later, Ford fully engineered a demonstra-
aluminum tanks [10,15,46]. Three years later, Ford fully engineered a demonstration fleet
tion fleet of 30 E-450 shuttle buses [9,56].
of 30 E-450 shuttle buses [9,56].

1. BMW Hydrogen 7 [57] (a) and Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE [9]

Figure 1.
Figure [9] (b).
(b).

Another interesting solution is Mazda’s RX-8 Hydrogen RE (Figure 1b), with a hy-
Another interesting solution is Mazda’s RX-8 Hydrogen RE (Figure 1b), with a hy-
drogen Wankel rotary engine supplied with hydrogen gas by an electronically controlled
drogen Wankel rotary engine supplied with hydrogen gas by an electronically controlled
DI system. In this case, the use of a Wankel rotary engine (Figure 2) is particularly advan-
DI system. In this case, the use of a Wankel rotary engine (Figure 2) is particularly advan-
tageous because it uses separate chambers for induction and combustion, which reduces
tageous because it uses separate chambers for induction and combustion, which reduces
the problem of backfiring often faced when using hydrogen in piston engines [15,58,59].
the problem of backfiring often faced when using hydrogen in piston engines [15,58,59].
In recent years, the interest in the practical application of hydrogen combustion engines
In recent years, the interest in the practical application of hydrogen combustion engines
has been demonstrated by Toyota Motor Corporation (TMC). In 2021, TMC presented
has been demonstrated by Toyota Motor Corporation (TMC). In 2021, TMC presented a
a racing vehicle based on Toyota’s Corolla Hatchback with a 1.6-L internal combustion
racing vehicle based on Toyota’s Corolla Hatchback with a 1.6-L internal combustion en-
engine powered by compressed hydrogen. The vehicle took part in the Super Taikyu Series
gine powered by compressed hydrogen. The vehicle took part in the Super Taikyu Series
race [53,60]. In turn, in 2022 the companies Yamaha Group and Toyota Motor Corporation
race [53,60]. In turn, in 2022 the companies Yamaha Group and Toyota Motor Corporation
reported that they were working on a prototype 5-L hydrogen engine based on a Lexus
RC engine with an assumed output of 450 horsepower [54,60].
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 8 of 13

Energies 2022, 15, 8937 reported that they were working on a prototype 5-L hydrogen engine based on a Lexus RC
8 of 13
engine with an assumed output of 450 horsepower [54,60].

Figure 2. Cross-sectional diagrams of the hydrogen Wankel rotary engine [58].

Figure 2. Cross-sectional diagrams of the hydrogen Wankel rotary engine [58].

5.5.Hydrogen
Hydrogenin
inCombination
Combinationwith
withOther
OtherFuels
Fuels(Dual-Fuel
(Dual-FuelApplications)
Applications)
Anotherdevelopment
Another developmentdirection
directionin inorder
orderto toreduce
reducepollutant
pollutant emissions
emissions involves
involves com-
com-
bustion
bustion engine
engine technologies using alternative
alternativefuelsfuelsand andfuelfuelblends.
blends.Fuel Fuel blends
blends based
based on
on ethanol,
ethanol, methanol
methanol or water
or water for for gasoline
gasoline engines
engines [61,62]
[61,62] or blends
or blends based based on ethanol
on ethanol or
or glyc-
glycerol-based
erol-based ethers ethers for diesel
for diesel engines
engines [63,64]
[63,64] are anareimportant
an important issueissue
in this inarea.
this area. This
This direc-
direction of development also makes it possible to use hydrogen
tion of development also makes it possible to use hydrogen as a fuel additive for conven- as a fuel additive for
conventional
tional internalinternal combustion
combustion engines.engines.
Hydrogen Hydrogen
enrichment enrichment of coal
of coal fuels has fuels
been has been
proposed
proposed
mainly asmainly as a transition
a transition solution solution
towards towards a full-fledged
a full-fledged hydrogen hydrogen
economy. economy.
On the On one
the
hand,onethehand, the presence
presence of hydrogen
of hydrogen may have may have a beneficial
a beneficial effect in effect in increasing
increasing overall
overall combus-
combustion
tion stabilitystability
[65]; on[65];
the on thehand,
other other the
hand, usethe
of use of hydrogen-enriched
hydrogen-enriched fuels mayfuelscontribute
may con-
tribute to alleviating the severe safety issues related to the use
to alleviating the severe safety issues related to the use of pure hydrogen [66,67]. The of pure hydrogen [66,67].
idea
The idea of mixing hydrogen as a a fuel additive for standard internal
of mixing hydrogen as a a fuel additive for standard internal combustion engines is based combustion engines
isonbased on theproperties
the unique unique properties
of hydrogen,of hydrogen, i.e., lowenergy,
i.e., low ignition ignitionwideenergy, wide inflamma-
inflammability limit
bility limit and
and superb superb combustion
combustion rate. Hydrogen,rate. Hydrogen,
like any gas, like any
fills thegas, fills the
volume of thevolume of the
combustion
combustion
chamber much chamber
fastermuch
than an faster than anliquid
atomized atomized liquidpropagation
fuel (high fuel (high propagation
speed). Thespeed).
hydro-
The hydrogen–air mixture is formed more easily and
gen–air mixture is formed more easily and can be ignited using low energy can be ignited using low(ca.
energy
0.02 (ca.
mJ)
0.02
andmJ) and
takes takes
place atplace at a combustion
a combustion rate several
rate several times greater
times greater than the than the combustion
combustion of hydro-of
hydrocarbons. Thanks to this, by introducing the addition of hydrogen,
carbons. Thanks to this, by introducing the addition of hydrogen, it is possible to improve it is possible to
improve the combustion
the combustion parameters parameters of a hydrocarbon
of a hydrocarbon fuel. In fuel. In effect,
effect, it is observed
it is observed that that the
the fuel
fuel mixture burns efficiently with less unburnt residues, and higher
mixture burns efficiently with less unburnt residues, and higher combustion temperature combustion tempera-
ture is achieved,
is achieved, which which improves
improves energy
energy conversion
conversion efficiency
efficiency [68,69].
[68,69]. Hydrogen
Hydrogen blending
blending was
was examined with all common engines and fuels [15]: gasoline [68,69], diesel [26,70–73],
examined with all common engines and fuels [15]: gasoline [68,69], diesel [26,70–73], liq-
liquid petroleum gas (LPG) [74,75], natural gas (liquefied natural gas/compressed natural
uid petroleum gas (LPG) [74,75], natural gas (liquefied natural gas/compressed natural
gas, LNG/CNG) [76–78], and alcohols [79]. In general adding hydrogen to the combus-
gas, LNG/CNG) [76–78], and alcohols [79]. In general adding hydrogen to the combustion
tion chamber can be realized by port fuel injection or DI. High-temperature hydrogen
chamber can be realized by port fuel injection or DI. High-temperature hydrogen auto-
auto-ignition (535 ◦ C) is required in the case of a compression ignition engine using spark
ignition (535 °C) is required in the case of a compression ignition engine using spark plugs
plugs to start the burn process or requires the procedure of preignition (pilot ignition), i.e.,
to start the burn process or requires the procedure of preignition (pilot ignition), i.e., back-
backfire of small amount of compressed diesel fuel [70]. In the case of gasoline engines,
fire of small amount of compressed diesel fuel [70]. In the case of gasoline engines, studies
studies indicate [80] that hydrogen blending has a positive influence on exhaust emissions
indicate [80] that hydrogen blending has a positive influence on exhaust emissions and
and efficiency [81]. Decreased concentration levels are observed in the case of unburned
efficiency [81]. Decreased concentration levels are observed in the case of unburned hy-
hydrocarbons, CO, and CO2 . It is especially important in harsh working conditions of
drocarbons,
the engine, such CO,asand CO2.idling
during It is especially
or cold starts,important in harsh working
when temperature conditions
and manifold of the
absolute
engine, such as during idling or cold starts, when temperature
pressure in the combustion chamber are lower than in nominal conditions and influence and manifold absolute
pressure in the combustion chamber are lower than in nominal conditions and influence
incomplete fuel burning [82]. In some cases, the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) is ac-
celerated and rises with the temperature of fuel combustion in the air, which takes place,
for example, in lean burn conditions [83,84]. Therefore, special emphasis should be placed
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 9 of 13

incomplete fuel burning [82]. In some cases, the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx ) is
accelerated and rises with the temperature of fuel combustion in the air, which takes place,
for example, in lean burn conditions [83,84]. Therefore, special emphasis should be placed
on the control of hydrogen combustion conditions, especially if there are factors increasing
the temperature. Reduction of NOx emissions can be achieved by blending hydrogen with
fuel, together with an increase in the air-to-fuel ratio (λ). Ji et al. [85] investigated increasing
lean burn conditions up to λ > 1.4, connected with adding hydrogen to a volume fraction
of 6%, which can keep NOx emissions at the same level as achieved in stochiometric burn-
ing conditions and simultaneously reduce the remaining exhaust emissions. Hydrogen
addition to the fuel does not disturb the performance of pollutant emission reduction
systems such as EGR, diesel particulate filter (DPF) or SCR installed in modern cars, so the
final emissions of a dual-fuel engine can meet the present challenging emission standards.
Boreetti et al., in their publications [72,73], refer to many interesting studies regarding the
workings of a diesel–hydrogen dual-fuel engine, e.g., adoption of a water injector to control
the temperature of gases within the cylinder and the turbine at higher loads.
For now, standard cars powered by hydrogen combustion engines or bi-fuel engines
are still a solution for the future. Currently, the addition of hydrogen is used in engines with
the help of amateur solutions using generators of oxy-hydrogen gas, commonly known
as Brown’s gas or HHO. This solution has been known for many decades, and thanks
to its simplicity and relatively low cost, it arouses considerable interest among amateurs
of alternative fuels [86–88]. The oxy-hydrogen gas is a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen
with a volume composition of 1:2 produced by alkaline electrolysis. The simplest car
installation consists of a small electrolyser, usually made of stainless steel electrodes, and is
powered by a car alternator. The system as a whole is located in the engine compartment.
Research on these types of solutions shows that the positive effect of HHO addition to
the combustion process may translate into a potential increase in engine performance of
up to several percent [89–92]. This improvement is measured by thermal efficiency and
a reduction in fuel consumption. Additionally, one can expect a reduction in pollutant
emissions of CO, CO2 and unburned hydrocarbon. According to reports, the emission of
NOx is ambiguous [86]. The increase in NOx emissions is often explained as the result
of an increase in the temperature of the fuel combustion. On the other hand, adding
oxy-hydrogen gas into the engine can reduce the amount of fuel in the intake and create a
lean burning condition in which the flame temperature is lower [89].

6. Conclusions and Perspectives

Utilizing renewable sources of energy for hydrogen production may become widespread
and commonplace, allowing realistic zero-emission goals to be met. It will make hydro-
gen the fuel of the future. Hydrogen infrastructure and the distribution and storage of
hydrogen, which are a key problem for hydrogen-powered vehicles, are becoming more
cost-effective and practical, thanks to the introduction of legislation.
Those facts give hope for accelerating the development of vehicles powered by hy-
drogen internal combustion engines as a simple and low-cost solution. The progress in
the technology for hydrogen combustion-powered vehicles was presented, examples of
which were vehicle prototypes with a description of their basic technological parameters.
The interest in this subject among leading manufacturers in the automotive field is visible,
especially in the area of modernization of power systems in passenger cars. In addition,
because hydrogen engine drivelines are mechanically very similar to traditional drivelines,
these engines are also a great option for operators who drive in difficult conditions or who
want predictable maintenance and service costs. Among the most promising prospects for
the development of hydrogen engines are applications that do not require a dense refueling
network, such as construction sites or farms. Vehicles on construction sites or in agriculture
operate in aggressive duty cycles in harsh environmental conditions for months or years.
The possibilities for local hydrogen storage, regional distribution centers, or local hydrogen
production, e.g., the installation of electrolysers for the production of hydrogen, would
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 10 of 13

solve the problem with hydrogen refueling in this case. Hydrogen engines in vehicles as
well as construction equipment would contribute to reducing CO2 emissions in urban areas.
In summary, hydrogen combustion vehicles offer many advantages. They are char-
acterized by high tolerance to the quality of the hydrogen used, able to work in harsh
environmental conditions, reliable and comfortable from the user’s point of view, and to a
large extent, they are a developed and proven technology, at the same time ensuring the
independence of the automotive industry, due to lack of the need to use precious metals and
rare earth metals. A disadvantage of hydrogen engines, however, is the release of nitrogen
oxides and, as a result, they require exhaust gas treatment to reduce NOx emissions. The
opportunity to accelerate the development of the market for vehicles with a hydrogen
combustion engine and to develop, in a short time, specific solutions for the transport
sector, including vehicles with a diverse set of work cycles and applications, still depends
on progress in the development of the broadly understood hydrogen infrastructure, as well
as the introduction of appropriate legal regulations in this regard.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.W. and J.W.; investigation, K.W., J.W. and W.T.; writing—
original draft preparation, K.W., J.W. and W.T.; writing—review and editing, K.W., J.L., K.P. and A.C.;
visualization, K.W.; supervision, K.W. and A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Łukasiewicz Research Network—Industrial Chemistry
Institute and the Łukasiewicz Research Network—Institute for Engineering of Polymer Materials
and Dyes. The APC was funded by the University of Warsaw.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Ogden, J.M. Prospects for Building A Hydrogen Energy Infrastructure. Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. 1999, 24, 227–279. [CrossRef]
2. Bockris, J.O. A Hydrogen Economy. In Comprehensive Treatise of Electrochemistry; Plenum Press: New York, NY, USA, 1981;
pp. 505–526.
3. Surygała, J. Wodór Jako Paliwo; Wydawnictwa Naukowo-Techniczne PWN: Warszawa, Poland, 2008.
4. Du, H.; Chen, Z.; Peng, B.; Southworth, F.; Ma, S.; Wang, Y. What drives CO2 emissions from the transport sector? A linkage
analysis. Energy 2019, 175, 195–204. [CrossRef]
5. Barreto, L.; Makihira, A.; Riahi, K. The hydrogen economy in the 21st century: A sustainable development scenario. Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy 2003, 28, 267–284. [CrossRef]
6. Faizal, M.; Chuah, L.S.; Lee, C.; Hameed, A.; Lee, J.; Shankar, M. Review of hydrogen fuel for internal combustion engines. J.
Mech. Eng. Res. Dev. 2019, 42, 35–46.
7. Czaplicka-Kolarz, K. Scenariusze Rozwoju Technologicznego Kompleksu Paliwowo-Energetycznego dla Bezpieczeństwa Energetycznego
Kraju, Cz˛eść 1—Stadium Gospodarki Paliwami I Energia˛ dla Celów Opracowania Forsightingu Energetycznego dla Polski 2005–2030;
Central Mining Institute: Katowice, Poland, 2007.
8. Gillingham, K. Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: A Prudent Intermediate Step or a Step in the Wrong Direc-tion? Stanford
University: Stanford, CA, USA, 2007; pp. 1–28.
9. Simi, A. Hydrogen Direct Injection Inreciprocating Engines Using Commercial Injectors. Ph.D. Thesis, Universita Di Pisa, Pisa,
Italy, 2011.
10. Fayaz, H.; Saidur, R.; Razali, N.; Anuar, F.S.; Saleman, A.R.; Islam, M.R. An overview of hydrogen as a vehicle fuel. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 2012, 16, 5511–5528. [CrossRef]
11. Qin, N.; Raissi, A.; Brooker, P. Analysis of Fuel Cell Vehicle Developments; U.S. Department of Transportation’s University Trans-
portation Centers Program: Cocoa, FL, USA, 2014.
12. Blagojević, I.; Mitić, S. Hydrogen as a vehicle fuel. In Proceedings of the International Congress Motor Vehicles & Motors 2018,
Kragujevac, Serbia, 4–5 October 2018.
13. Toroń, K. Hydrogen-powered vehicles in urban transport systems—Current state and development. Transp. Res. Proc. 2020,
45, 835–841. [CrossRef]
14. St˛epień, Z. A Comprehensive Overview of Hydrogen-Fueled Internal Combustion Engines: Achievements and Future Challenges.
Energies 2021, 14, 6504. [CrossRef]
15. Verhelst, S.; Wallner, T. Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2009, 35, 490–527. [CrossRef]
16. Groger, O.; Gasteiger, H.A.; Suchsland, J.P. Review—Electromobility: Batteries or Fuel Cells? J. Electrochem. Soc. 2015, 162, A2605–A2622.
[CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 11 of 13

17. Hydrogen Wrokshop for Fleet Operations. Module4, Hydrogen Powertrains and Vehicles; The National Hydrogen Association:
North Washington, CO, USA, 2005.
18. Walter, L. Hydrogen Use In Internal Combustion Engines. In Hydrogen Fuel Cell Engines and Related Technologies; College of the
Desert: Palm Desert, CA, USA, 2001; pp. 3-9–3-14.
19. Gurbuz, H. The effect of H2 purity on the combustion, performance, emissions and energy costs in an SI engine. Therm. Sci. 2020,
24, 37–49. [CrossRef]
20. Baronas, J.; Achtelik, G. Joint Agency Staff Report on Assembly Bill 8: 2019 Annual Assessment of Time and Cost Needed to Attain 100
Hydrogen Refueling Stations in California; California Energy Commission: Sacramento, CA, USA, 2019.
21. Luo, Z.; Hu, Y.; Xu, H.; Gao, D.; Li, W. Cost-Economic Analysis of Hydrogen for China’s Fuel Cell Transportation Field. Energies
2022, 13, 6522. [CrossRef]
22. Clean Cities Alternative Fuel Price Report; U.S. Department of Energy: Washington, DC, USA, 2022.
23. Heffel, J.W. NOx emission and performance data for a hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine at 1500 rpm using exhaust
gas recirculation. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2003, 28, 901–908. [CrossRef]
24. ISO 14687:2019; Standard. Hydrogen Fuel Quality—Product Specification. International Organization for Standardization:
Geneva, Switzerland, 2019.
25. Graside, M. Global Platinum Mining Industry—Statistics & Facts; Statista Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2021.
26. Kerkal, G.; Pawale, K.; Dhumal, A. Diesel Engine with Hydrogen in Dual Fuel Mode: A Review. Int. J. Eng. Technol. Manag. Appl.
Sci. 2017, 5, 1306–1311.
27. Ratiu, S. The history of the internal combustion engine. Ann. Fac. Eng. Hunedoara 2003, 1, 145–148.
28. Henri, M. Les voitures automobiles d’Isaac de Rivaz. Ann. Valais. Bull. Trimest. Société D’histoire Valais. Romand 1969, 15, 407–433.
29. Jervis-Smith, F.J. Cecil’s Gas Engine. Nature 1904, 70, 553. [CrossRef]
30. Cecil, W. On the application of hydrogen gas to produce a moving power in machinery, with a description of an engine which is
moved by the pressure of atmosphere upon a vacuum caused by explosions of hydrogen gas. Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Trans. Camb. Philos. Soc. 1822, 1, 217.
31. Das, L.M. Hydrogen engines: A view of the past and a look into the future. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 1990, 15, 425–443. [CrossRef]
32. Richard, M. Jean-Joseph Etienne Lenoir—(1822–1900)—Inventeur du moteur à explosion (1860). Rev. Société D’entraide Memb.
Légion D’honneur 1990, 107, 16–18.
33. Fairbanks, J.W. Engine Maturity, Efficiency, and Potential Improvements. In Proceedings of the Diesel Engine Emission Reduction
Conference, Coronado, CA, USA, 30 August 2004.
34. Eichlseder, H.; Klell, M. Wasserstoff in der Fahrzeugtechnik; GWV Facherlage GmbH: Wiesbaden, Germany, 2008.
35. The Motor Museum in Miniature. Available online: https://www.themotormuseuminminiature.co.uk/inv-jeanjoseph-etienne-
lenoir.php (accessed on 7 November 2022).
36. Soloveichik, G. Ammonia for Energy Storage and Delivery. In Proceedings of the NH3 Fuel Conference 2016, Los Angeles, CA,
USA, 19 September 2016.
37. Hydrogen Fuel Cars 1807–1986. Available online: https://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/index.php/1807-1986/ (accessed on
10 October 2022).
38. Braun, H. John Lorenzen & Rudolf Erren Hydrogen Pioneers; Phoenix Project Foundation: Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2020.
39. Bose, D. The Hydrogen Alternative. Int. Lett. Chem. Phys. Astron. 2015, 49, 15–26. [CrossRef]
40. Plotnikov, L.V.; Ulman, N.V. Computational and analytical evaluation of the efficiency of using hydrogen as a fuel in an internal
combustion engine. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2021, 723, 052018. [CrossRef]
41. Das, L.M. Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. In Compendium of Hydrogen Energy; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 2016; Volume 7, pp. 177–213.
42. First Hydrogen Car. Available online: https://www.automostory.com/first-hydrogen-car.htm (accessed on 10 October 2022).
43. Furuhama, S.; Fukuma, T.; Sakai, H. Conversion of tubro-diesel passenger car into hydrogen powered car. In Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Hydrogen Systems, Beijing, China, 7–11 May 1985.
44. Karim, G.A. Hydrogen as an engine fuel some pros and cons. J. KONES 2007, 14, 153–164.
45. Verhelst, S.; Verstraeten, S.; Sierens, R. A comprehensive overview of hydrogen engine design features. J. Automot. Eng. 2007,
221, 911–920. [CrossRef]
46. Stockhausen, W.F.; Natkin, R.J.; Kabat, D.M.; Reams, L.; Tang, X.; Hashemi, S.; Szwabowski, S.J.; Zanardell, V.P. Ford P2000
Hydrogen Engine Design and Vehicle Development Program. In Proceedings of the SAE 2002 World Congress, Detroit, MI, USA,
4–7 March 2002.
47. Yip, H.L.; Srna, A.; Yuen, A.C.Y.; Kook, S.; Taylor, R.A.; Yeoh, G.H.; Medwell, P.R.; Chan, Q.N. A Review of Hydrogen Direct
Injection for Internal Combustion Engines: Towards Carbon-Free Combustion. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4842. [CrossRef]
48. Welch, A.; Mumford, D.; Munshi, S.; Holbery, J.; Boyer, B.; Younkins, M.; Jung, H. Challenges in Developing Hydrogen Direct Injection
Technology for Internal Combustion Engines; Powertrains, Fuels & Lubricants Meeting: Rosemont, IL, USA, 2008.
49. Maher, A.R.; Sadig, A.-B. Effect of compression ratio, equivalence ratio and engine speed on the performance and emission
characteristics of a spark ignition engine using hydrogen as a fuel. Renew. Energy 2004, 29, 2245–2260.
50. Saniz, D.; Dieguez, P.M.; Sopena, C.; Urroz, J.C.; Gandia, L.M. Conversion of a commercial gasoline vehicle to run bi-fuel
(hydrogen-gasoline). Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37, 1781–1789. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 12 of 13

51. Verhelst, S. Recent progress in the use of hydrogen as a fuel for internal combustion engines. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2014,
39, 1071–1085. [CrossRef]
52. Enke, W.; Grauber, M.; Hecht, L.; Staar, B. The Bi-fuel V12 Engine of the New BMW Hydrogen 7. MTZ 2007, 68, 6–9. [CrossRef]
53. Toyota Developing Hydrogen Engine Technologies through Motorsports. Available online: https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/
corporate/35209996.html (accessed on 10 October 2022).
54. Toyota and Yamaha are Developing a Hydrogen-Fueled V8 Engine. Available online: https://www.cnbc.com/2022/02/22
/toyota-commissions-yamaha-motor-to-develop-hydrogen-fueled-engine.html (accessed on 10 October 2022).
55. Kiesgen, G.; Kluting, M.; Bock, C.; Fischer, H. The new 12-cylinder hydrogen engine in the 7 series. The H2 ICE age has begun. In
Proceedings of the 2006 SAE Word Congress, Detroit, MI, USA, 3–6 April 2006.
56. Natkin, R.; Denlinger, A.; Younkins, M.; Weimer, A.; Hashemi, S.; Vaught, A.T. Ford 6.8L Hydrogen IC Engine for the E-450
Shuttle Van. In Proceedings of the Powertrain & Fluid Systems Conference & Exhibition, Rosemont, IL, USA, 29 October–1
November 2007.
57. Furst, S.; Dub, M.; Gruber, M.; Lechner, W.; Muller, C. Safety of Hydrogen-fueled Motor Vehicles with IC Engines. In Proceedings
of the International Conference on Hydrogen Safety, Munich, Germany, 8 September 2005.
58. Wakayama, N.; Morimoto, K.; Kashiwagi, A.; Saito, T. Development of Hydrogen Rotary Engine Vehicle. In Proceedings of the
World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Lyon, France, 13–16 June 2006.
59. Mazda’s Hydrogen RX-8 RE. Available online: https://greencarjournal.com/dont-miss/mazdas-hydrogen-rx-8-re/ (accessed on
10 October 2022).
60. Toyota and Yamaha Test V-8 that Runs on Hydrogen. Available online: https://www.motorauthority.com/news/1135112_toyota-
and-yamaha-tests-v-8-that-runs-on-hydrogen (accessed on 10 October 2022).
61. Verhelst, S.; Turner, J.W.G.; Sileghem, L.; Vancoillie, J. Methanol as a fuel for internal combustion engines. Prog. Energy Combust.
Sci. 2019, 70, 43–88. [CrossRef]
62. Pearson, R.J.; Turner, J.W.G.; Bell, A.; de Goede, S.; Wollard, C.; Davy, M.H. Iso-stoichiometric fuel blends: Characterisation of
physicochemical properties for mixtures of gasoline, ethanol, methanol and water. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng.
2015, 229, 111–139. [CrossRef]
63. Di Blasio, G.; Bonura, G.; Frusteri, F.; Beatrice, C.; Cannilla, C.; Viscardi, M. Experimental Characterization of Diesel Combustion
Using Glycerol Derived Ethers Mixtures. SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. 2013, 6, 940–950. [CrossRef]
64. Di Blasio, G.; Beatrice, C.; Molina, M. Effect of Port Injected Ethanol on Combustion Characteristics in a Dual-Fuel Light Duty
Diesel Engine. In Proceedings of the SAE International, Nottingham, UK, 10 August 2018.
65. Garcia-Agreda, A.; Di Sarli, V.; Di Benedetto, A. Bifurcation analysis of the effect of hydrogen addition on the dynamic behavior
of lean premixed pre-vaporized ethanol combustion. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37, 6922–6932. [CrossRef]
66. Di Sarli, V.; Di Benedetto, A.; Long, E.J.; Hargrave, G.K. Time-Resolved Particle Image Velocimetry of dynamic interactions between
hydrogen-enriched methane/air premixed flames and toroidal vortex structures. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37,16201–16213.
[CrossRef]
67. Salzano, E.; Cammarota, F.; Di Benedetto, A.; Di Sarli, V. Explosion behavior of hydrogenemethane/air mixtures. J. Loss Prev.
Process Ind. 2012, 25, 443–447. [CrossRef]
68. Niu, R.; Yu, X.; Du, Y.; Xie, H.; Wu, H.; Sun, Y. Effect of hydrogen proportion on lean burn performance of a dual fuel SI engine
using hydrogen direct-injection. Fuel 2016, 186, 792–799. [CrossRef]
69. Shi, C.; Ji, C.; Wang, S.; Jinxin, Y.; Li, X.; Ge, Y. Effects of hydrogen direct-injection angle and charge concentration on gasoline-
hydrogen blending lean combustion in a Wankel engine. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 187, 316–327. [CrossRef]
70. Boretti, A. Advantages and Disadvantages of Diesel Single and Dual-Fuel Engines. Front. Mech. Eng. 2019, 5, 64. [CrossRef]
71. Cernat, A.; Pana, C.; Negurescu, N.; Lazaroiu, G.; Nutu, C.; Fuiorescu, D. Hydrogen—An Alternative Fuel for Automotive Diesel
Engines Used in Transportation. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9321. [CrossRef]
72. Boretti, A. Advances in hydrogen compression ignition internal combustion engines. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2011, 36, 12601–12606.
[CrossRef]
73. Boretti, A. Advantages of the direct injection of both diesel and hydrogen in dual fuel H2 ICE. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2011,
36, 9312–9317. [CrossRef]
74. Chitragar, P.R.; Shivaprasad, K.V.; Nayak, V.; Bedar, P.; Kumar, G.N. An experimental study on combustion and emission analysis
of four cylinder 4-stroke gasoline engine using pure hydrogen and LPG at idle condition. Energy Procedia 2016, 90, 525–534.
[CrossRef]
75. Karagoz, Y.; Koten, H. Effect of different levels of hydrogen + LPG addition on emissions and performance of a compression
ignition engine. J. Therm. Eng. 2019, 5, 58–69.
76. Ceper, B.A. Use of Hydrogen-Methane Blends in Internal Combustion Engines. In Book Hydrogen Energy—Challenges and
Perspectives; Minic, D., Ed.; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2012; pp. 175–200.
77. Fan, B.; Pan, J.; Liu, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Pan, Z.; Chen, W.; Otchere, P. Effect of hydrogen injection strategies on mixture formation and
combustion process in a hydrogen direct injection plus natural gas port injection rotary engine. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018,
160, 150–164. [CrossRef]
78. Makaryan, I.A.; Sedov, I.V.; Salgansky, E.A.; Arutyunov, A.V.; Arutyunov, V.S. A Comprehensive Review on the Prospects of
Using Hydrogen–Methane Blends: Challenges and Opportunities. Energies 2022, 15, 2265. [CrossRef]
Energies 2022, 15, 8937 13 of 13

79. Meng, F.; Yu, X.; He, L.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Y. Study on combustion and emission characteristics of a n-butanol engine with hydrogen
direct injection under lean burn conditions. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2018, 43, 7550–7561. [CrossRef]
80. Elsemary, I.M.M.; Attia, A.A.A.; Elnagar, K.H.; Elsaleh, M.S. Spark timing effect on performance of gasoline engine fueled with
mixture of hydrogenegasoline. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017, 42, 30813–30820. [CrossRef]
81. Zaccardi, J.-M.; Pilla, G. Hydrogen as a combustion enhancer for highly efficient ultra-lean spark-ignition engines. SAE Int. J. Adv.
Curr. Pract. Mobility 2020, 2, 401–414.
82. Su, T.; Ji, C.; Wang, S.; Shi, L.; Yang, J.; Cong, X. Improving idle performance of a hydrogen-gasoline rotary engine at stoichiometric
condition. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2017, 42, 11893–11901. [CrossRef]
83. Shivaprasad, K.V.; Raviteja, S.; Parashuram, C.; Kumar, G.N. Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Hydrogen Addition on
Combustion Performance and Emissions Characteristics of a Spark Ignition High Speed Gasoline Engine. Procedia Technol. 2014,
14, 141–148. [CrossRef]
84. Shi, W.; Yu, X.; Zhang, H.; Li, H. Effect of spark timing on combustion and emissions of a hydrogen direct injection stratified
gasoline engine. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2016, 42, 5619–5626. [CrossRef]
85. Ji, C.; Wang, S. Effect of hydrogen addition on combustion and emissions performance of a spark ignition gasoline engine at lean
conditions. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2009, 34, 7823–7834. [CrossRef]
86. Paparao, J.; Murugan, S. Oxy-hydrogen gas as an alternative fuel for heat and power generation applications—A review. Int. J.
Hydrogen Energy 2021, 46, 37705–37735. [CrossRef]
87. Arjun, T.B.; Atul, K.P.; Ajay, P.M.; Albin, W.P.; Bijinraj, P.B.; Arun, R.A. A review on analysis of HHO gas in IC engines. Mater.
Today Proc. 2019, 11, 1117–1129. [CrossRef]
88. Jakliński, P.; Czernigowski, J. An experimental investigation of the impact of added HHO gas on automotive emissions under
idle conditions. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2020, 45, 13119–13128. [CrossRef]
89. El-Kassaby, M.M.; Eldrainy, Y.A.; Khidr, M.E.; Khidr, K.I. Effect of hydroxy (HHO) gas addition on gasoline engine performance
and emissions. Alex. Engin. J. 2016, 55, 243–251.
90. Wang, S.; Ji, C.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, B. Improving the performance of a gasoline engine with the addition of hydrogen–oxygen
mixtures. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2011, 36, 11164–11173. [CrossRef]
91. Wang, S.; Ji, C.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, B.; Liu, X. Performance of a hydroxygen-blended gasoline engine at different hydrogen volume
fractions in the hydroxygen. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37, 13209–13218. [CrossRef]
92. Chinguwa, S.; Jen, T.-C.; Akinlabi, E.T. Conceptualization of the optimal design of a hydroxyl booster dry cell for enhancing
efficiency of internal combustion engines. Procedia CIRP 2020, 91, 819–823. [CrossRef]