Анотації до лекційних занять з навчальної дисципліни

Змістовий модуль 1. «Етимологічний склад англійської мови.

Морфологічна структура слова. Продуктивні засоби словотвору».
Лекція №1. Lexicology as the branch of linguistics.
1.Lexicology as a branch of linguistics: definition and aims.
2. Lexicology and its connection with other branches of linguistics.
3. General linguistic background.
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, the science of language. The term
Lexicology is composed of two Greek morphemes: lexis which means ‘word,
phrase’ and logos which means 'the study of, learning'. Thus, the literal meaning of
the term Lexiсolоgу is ‘the science of the word’. Lexicology is the part of
linguistics which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words
and word-groups.
Lexicology studies various lexical units: morphemes, words, variable word-
groups and phraseological units. We proceed from the assumption that the word is
the basic unit of language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest
on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis. The word is a structural and semantic
entity within the language system.
The system showing a word in all its word-forms is called its paradigm. The
lexical meaning оf а word is the same throughout the paradigm, i.e. all the word-
forms of one and the same word are lexically identical. The grammatical meaning
varies from one form to another (cf. to run, runs, ran, running or student, student’s,
students, students’).
There are two approaches to the paradigm: (a) as a system of forms of one word
it reveals the differences and relationships between them; (b) in abstraction from
concrete words it is treated as a pattern on which every word of one part of speech
models its forms, thus serving to distinguish one part of speech from another.

Лекція № 2-3. The Etymology of English words.

1. Native words.
2. Classification of borrowings according to different aspects:
a) classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect;
b) classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation;
c) classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were
borrowed;
3. Etymological doublets.
4. International words.
Native words, though they constitute only 30% of the English vocabulary,
are the most frequently used words. Native words belong to the original English
word-stock and are known from the earliest Old English manuscript. Native words
are subdivided into two groups: Indo-European and Common Germanic. the
former have cognates in the vocabularies of all or most Indo-European languages,
whereas the latter have cognates only in Germanic languages, but not in the
Slavonic, Romance or other languages of Indo-European family.
More than two thirds of the English vocabulary are borrowings. Mostly they
are words of Romanic origin (Latin, French, Italian, Spanish). Borrowed words are
different from native ones by their phonetic structure, by their morphological
structure and also by their grammatical forms. It is also characteristic of
borrowings to be non-motivated semantically. English history is very rich in
different types of contacts with other countries, that is why it is very rich in
borrowings.
Borrowings can be classified according to different criteria:
a) according to the aspect which is borrowed;
b) according to the degree of assimilation;
c) according to the language from which the word was borrowed.
Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. As a result,
we have two different words with different spellings and meanings but historically
they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological
doublets.
 Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of
simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called
international words. International words play an especially important part in
different terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and
art.

Лекція № 4. Morphological structure of a word.

1. Morphemes. Types of morphemes.
2. Structural types of words.
3. Principles of morphemic analysis.
4. Types of stems.
5. Affixation as the most productive way of word-formation.
A great many words of the English language have a composite nature. They
are made up of smaller units, each possessing sound-form and meaning. These
units are generally known as morphemes. Morphemes are defined as the smallest
indivisible two-facet language units. Unlike a word a morpheme is not an
autonomous unit, they can occur in speech only as a constituent part of the word
and cannot be segmented into smaller units without losing association of a certain
meaning with a given sound form.
If we have a look at the complexity of the morphemic structure of the word
we can see that all English words fall into two large classes: segmentable words
and non-segmentable words. Breaking a segmentable word into the constituent
morphemes is known as the analysis of word-structure on the morphemic level.
We carry out the morphemic analysis to determine the number and types of
morphemes. Morphemes may be classified a) from the semantic point of view, b)
from the structural point of view.
Semantically morphemes fall into two classes: root-morphemes and non-root
or affixational morphemes. The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of a word, it
has its own individual lexical meaning. Besides it may also possess all other types
of meaning except the part-of-speech meaning which root morphemes do not
have. Non-root morphemes are divided into inflectional morphemes or inflections
and affixational morphemes or affixes.Inflections carry only grammatical meaning
and it is Grammar that is concerned with their study. Affixes are classified into
prefixes and suffixes.
According to the derivative structure all words fall into two big classes:
simplexes or simple, non-derived words and complexes or derivatives. Simplexes
are words which derivationally cannot be segmented into constituents. Derivatives
are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that motivate them
structurally and semantically, i.e. the meaning and the structure of the derivative is
understood through the comparison with the meaning and the structure of the
source word.
Derivatives (complexes) are classified according to the type of the
underlying derivative pattern into: derived words and compound words. Derived
words fall into affixational words, which in their turn are classified into suffixal
and prefixal derivatives, and conversions.
Each derivational type of words is unequally represented in different parts of
speech.

Лекція № 5. Productive ways of word-building.

1. Conversion. Semantic relations within a converted pair.
2. Word composition. Compounds and their types.
3.Types of shortenings.
All morphemes are subdivided into 2 large classes: root and affixes. Words
which consist of a root and a affix are called derived words or derivatives and
are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation. Affixes can
also be classified into productive and non-productive. By productive affixes we
mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of
language development. Derived words are extremely numerous in the English
vocabulary. This type is widely represented by a great number of words
 belonging to the original English stock or to earlier borrowings (house, book,
room, work, port, street, etc.).
In Modern English, has been greatly enlarged by the type of word-building
called conversion (e.g. to hand, v; formed from the noun hand; to can, v. from
the noun can; to pail, v. from pail, adj.) Conversion consists in making a new
word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the
morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged.
Another wide-spread word-structure is a compound word consisting of two
or more stems (e.g. dining-room, bluebell, mother-in-law, good-for-nothing).
Words of this structural type are produced by the word-building process called
composition. Compounds are not homogeneous in structure. Traditionally 3
types are distinguished: neutral, morphological, syntactic.
The somewhat odd-looking words like flu, pram, lab, V-day, H-bomb are
called shortenings, constructions or curtailed words and are produced by the
way of word-building called shortening (construction). Shortening are produced
in 2 different ways. 1st is to make a new word from a syllable (rarer, 2) of the
original word. Second may lose its beginning (as phone, fence), its ending (as
vac. from vacation, ad –from advertisement) or both the beginning and ending
(as flu from influenza).
The four types (root words, derived words, compounds, shortenings)
represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion,
derivation, composition the most productive ways of word-building.
In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any
phonetic changes as in bye-bye or with a variation of the root-vowel or
consonant as in ping-pong, chit-chat.

Змістовий модуль 2. «Непродуктивні засобу словотвору. Семасіологія».

Лекція № 6. Non-productive ways of word-formation.
1.Blending.
2. Back-formation.
3. Sentence-condensation.
4. Sound-imitation.
5. Sound and stress interchange.

Sound interchange is the way of wordbuilding when some sounds are

changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was
productive in Old English. The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can
be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws
during the period of the language development. E.g. strike – stroke, to sing – song.
It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation, e.g. hot –heat, blood
– bleed.
In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have
voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants
because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and
in verbs in the intervocalic position, e.g. bath – to bathe, life – to live.
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin:
nouns have the stress on the 1st syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. `accent –
to ac`cent, As a result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such
words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed
position.There are borrowed nouns and verbs with the stress on the first syllable,
e.g. exile, figure, process, preface.
It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different
sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound
imitation:
a) sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to mumble, to
sneeze, to whistle etc.
b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz, to
bark, to moo, to twitter etc.
 c) sounds produced by nature and objects such as: to splash, to rustle, to
clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc.
The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a
bell), chatter (of children) etc.
Blends are words formed from a word- group or two synonyms. In Blends 2
ways of word building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a
blend we clip the end of the 1 st component and the beginning of the 2 nd component.
As a result we have a compound-shortened word.. One of the 1 st blends in English
was the word smog (smoke+ fog)which means smoke mixed with fog Blends
formed from 2 synonyms are: slanguage (slang and language).

Лекція № 7. Semasiology. Types of meaning.

1.Meaning and concept.
2. Approaches to lexical meaning:
a) referential approach to meaning;
b) functional approach to meaning;
3. Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. Types of lexical meaning.
We have already said that Lexicology deals with words, word-forming
morphemes (derivational affixes) and various word-groups or phrases. All these
linguistic units have meaning of some kind, so the aim of lexicology is to
investigate all these language units both in terms of form and meaning.
The branch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of meaning is known as
Semasiology.
You should bear it in mind that meaning is one of the most controversial terms
in the theory of language. At first sight the understanding of this term does not
seem to present any difficulty — it is widely used in teaching, interpreting and
translation. However the scientific definition of meaning as well as the definition
of some other basic linguistic terms, such as word, sentence, etc., has been the
issue of endless discussions.
In present-day linguistics there are two approaches to the problem of word-
meaning: the referential approach, and the functional approach.
1. The referential approach is trying to explain what meaning is by
establishing the interdependence between words and the things or concepts
which they denote.
2. The functional approach studies the functions of a word in speech and is less
concerned with what meaning is than with how it works.
Word-meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various components the
combination and the interrelation of which determine to a great extent the inner
facet of the word. These components are usually described as types of meaning.
The two main types of meaning that are easily observed are the grammatical and
the lexical meanings which we find in words and word-forms.
Grammatical meaning may be defined as the component of meaning recurrent
in identical sets of individual forms of different words, as, e.g., the tense meaning
in the word-forms of verbs (played, sold, learned, etc.) or the case meaning in the
word-forms of various nouns (student’s, child’s, yesterday’s, etc.).
The lexical meaning of the word may be described as the component of
meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of this
word. By lexical meaning we designate the meaning proper to the given linguistic
unit in all its forms and distributions, while by grammatical meaning we designate
the meaning proper to sets of word-forms common to all words of a certain class.
Both the lexical and the grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning as
neither can exist without the other.

Лекція № 8. Changes of word meaning.

1.Semantic changes (generalization, specialization, elevation, degradation).
2.Transference of names resulting from tropes (metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole,
litote)
Word-meaning is liable to change in the course of the historical development
of language.
 Causes of semantic change. The factors causing semantic changes can be
subdivided into extra-linguistic (changes in the life of the speech community) and
linguistic causes (ellipsis, discrimination of synonyms). Sometimes the stylistic
reference of the word changes (foe - enemy)
Nature of semantic change. A necessary condition of any semantic change is
some connection between the old meaning and the new one. There are two kinds of
association involved in various semantic changes: a) similarity of meanings or
metaphor and b) contiguity (смежность, близость, ассоциация идей) of
meanings or metonymy.
Results of semantic change. Results of semantic change can be generally
observed in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word (restriction and
extension of meaning).
There are cases when the changes in the connotational component of
meaning come to the fore. As a rule they are accompanied by a change in the
denotational component.
As a result of the changes of the connotational meaning:
 the word acquires some derogatory emotive charge (deterioration

(ухудшение) of connotational meaning; pejorative development of

meaning);
 improvement of the connotational component of meaning takes place

( amelioration (улучшение) of connotational meaning; ameliorative

development of meaning)

Лекція № 9. Semantic groups of words. Synonymy. Antonymy.

1. Semantic or conceptual fields.
2. Semantic equivalence and synonymy. Types of synonyms.
3. Semantic contrasts and antonymy. Types of antonyms.
4. Semantic similarity of morphemes and word-families.
 Synonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in
their inner aspects. In English there are a lot of synonyms, because there are many
borrowings, e.g. hearty (native) – cordial (borrowing). There are some absolute
synonyms in the language, which have the same meaning and belong to the same
style, e.g. homeland, motherland.
Sometimes one of the absolute synonyms is specialized in its usage and we
get stylistic synonyms, e.g. to begin (native) – to commence (borrowing). Stylistic
synonyms can also appear by means of abbreviation. In most cases the abbreviated
form belongs to the colloquial style and the full form to the neutral style. E.g.
examination - exam.
Among stylistic synonyms we can point out a special group of words which
are called euphemisms.
On the other hand, there are slang synonyms. They are expressive and ironical
words serving to create fresh names for some things that are frequently used. They
sound vulgar, cynical and harsh, aimed at creating ridicule: e.g. head are: attic,
brain pan, hat peg, nut, upper storey.
There are also phraseological synonyms. These are words are identical in their
meanings and styles but different in their combinability with other words in the
sentence, e.g. to be late to the lecture but miss the train; to visit museums but to
attend lectures etc.
In each group of synonyms there is a word with the most general meaning,
which can substitute any word in group. Such words are called synonymic
dominants, e.g. piece is the synonymic dominant in the group slice, lump, morsel.
Antonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, identical in style,
expressing contrary meaning. V.N. Comissarov in his dictionary of antonyms
classified them into 2 groups: absolute or root antonyms (late - early) and
derivational antonyms (to please – to displease, honest - dishonest) etc. Absolute
antonyms have different roots and derivational antonyms have the same roots but
different affixes.
 The differences between derivational and root antonyms is not only in their
structure, but in semantics as well. Derivational antonyms express contradictory
meaning (notion), one of them includes the other, e.g. active – inactive. Absolute
antonyms express contrary notions.

Змістовий модуль 3. «Полісемія. Фразеологія англійської мови.

Стилістичнаa диференціація словника англійської мови».

Лекція № 1. Polysemy and homonymy.

1.Polysemy. Semantic structure of polysemantic words.
2.Classification of homonyms. Homophones, homographs.
3. Causes and sources of homonymy.

The word polysemy means plurality of meanings. It exists only in the

language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called
polysemantic.
Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to the
proximity of notions which they express, e.g. the word blanket has the following
meanings:1) a woolen covering used on beds, 2)a covering for keeping a horse
warm, 3) a covering of any kind (blanket of snow), 4) covering all or most cases.
There are words in the language which are monosemantic, e.g. most terms,
such as: synonym, molecule, bronchitis, some pronouns, such as this, my, both,
numerals.
Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling,
or both in sound and spelling. Homonyms can appear in the language not only as a
result of the split of polysemy, but also as a result of leveling of grammar
inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect,
e.g. care from caru and care from carian. They can also be formed by means of
conversion, e.g. to slim from slim, to water from water. They can be formed with
the help of the same suffix from the same stem, e.g. reader – a person who reads
and a book for reading.
 Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound
forms . He pointed out 3 groups: perfect homonyms, that is words identical in
sound and spelling, e.g. school – косяк рыбы and школа; homographs, that is
words with the same spelling but pronounced differently, e.g. bow [bau] - поклон
and bow [bou]- лук; homophones, that is the words pronounced identically but
spelled differently, e.g. night – ночь and knight – рыцарь.

Лекція № 2-3. Phraseology: word-groups with transferred meaning.

1.Principles of classification of phraseology.
2. Phraseological combinations, unities and fusions.
3. Ways of forming phraseological units.
4. Semantic classification of phraseological units.
5. Structural classification of phraseological units.

Phraseological units or idioms, as they are called represent what can

probably be described as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of
the language’s vocabulary.

Most Russian scholars today accept the semantic criterion of distinguishing

phraseological units from free word-groups as the major one and base their
research work in the field of phraseology on the definition of a phraseological
unit offered by Professor A.V.Koonin, the leading authority on problems of
English phraseology in our country:

“A phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a completely

or partially transferred meaning.” The definition clearly suggests that the degree
of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary (“completely or partially
transferred meaning”).

Second type is represented by phraseological units in which one of the

components preserves its current meaning and the other is used in a transferred
meaning: to fall in love, to stick to one’s word (promise).
 The term ‘idiom’, both in this country and abroad is mostly applied to
phraseological units with completely transferred meanings, that is to the ones in
which the meaning of the whole unit doesn’t correspond to the current meanings
of the components. There are many scholars who regard idioms as the essence of
phraseology and the major focus of interest in phraseology research.

As a rule, no word can be substituted for many meaningful component of a

phraseological unit without destroying its sense. To carry coals to Manchester
makes as little sense as В Тулу со своим самоваром.

Professor A.V. Koonin includes proverbs in his classification of phraseological

units and labels them communicative phraseological units. From his point of
view, one of the main criteria of a phraseological unit is it’s stability. If the
quotient of phraseological stability in a word-group is not below the minimum,
it means that we are dealing with a phraseological unit. The structural type – that
is, whether the unit is a combination of words or a sentence – is irrevelant.

Лекція № 4. Stylistic differentiation of English words.

1. Stylistically neutral words.
2. Literary-bookish words.
3. Colloquialisms and slang.

Informal vocabulary is used in one's immediate circle: family, relatives or

friends. Informal style is relaxed, free-and-easy, and familiar. The choice of words
is determined in each particular case not only by an informal (or formal) situation,
but also by the speaker's educational and cultural background, age group, and his
occupational and regional characteristics. Informal words and word-groups are
traditionally divided into three types: colloquial, slang and dialect words and
word-groups. Among other informal words, colloquialisms are used by
everybody, and their sphere of communication is comparatively wide, at least of
literary colloquial words. These are informal words that are used in everyday
conversational speech both by cultivated and uneducated people of all age groups.
Vast use of informal words is one of the prominent features of 20th century
English and American literature. In modern fiction informal words are not
restricted to conversation in their use, but frequently appear in descriptive passages
as well. Examples of literary colloquial words: pal + chum = friend; girl, when
used colloquially, denotes a woman of any age; bite + snack = meal; hi, hello =
informal greetings, and so long = form of parting; start, go on, finish and be
through are also literary colloquialisms; to have a crush on somebody = of to be in
love. A considerable number of shortenings are found among words of this type. e.
g. pram, exam, fridge, flu, prop, zip, movie. Literary colloquial words are to be
distinguished from familiar colloquial and low colloquial. The borderline between
the literary and familiar colloquial is not always clearly marked. Yet the circle of
speakers using familiar colloquial is more limited: these words are used mostly by
the young and the semi-educated. This vocabulary group closely verges on slang.
Slang is very formal usage in vocabulary that is characteristically more
metaphorical, playful, elliptical and vivid than ordinary language. In English and
some other language speech and writing is characterized by used vulgar, socially
tabooed vocabulary and idiomatic expression. Slang is the jargon of a particular
class/profession etc. or special vocabulary of thieves/vagabonds etc. Slang –
abusive language. Slang is represented in most of the dictionaries as a vocabulary
and special language. Many words formally labeled as slang have now become
units of Standard English. In most of the dictionaries slang is used as convenient
stylistic connotation for a word or phrases that cannot be specified further. Slang
should be used for those forms of language which are mispronounced on distorted
in some way phonetically, morphologically etc. slang is the most extended and
vastly developed group of nonstandard colloquial layer of the vocabulary. Besides
separate words it includes also highly figurative phraseology. Slang words exist on
the periphery of the lexical system of the given language. Functions: to create
speech characteristic of a personage (mainly in dialogues); to turn the passage
from an unemotional to an emotional picture. Dialect words. H. W. Fowler defines
a dialect as "a variety of a language which prevails in a district, with local
peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase". England is a small country,
yet it has many dialects which have their own distinctive features. Dialectal
peculiarities, especially those of vocabulary, are constantly being incorporated into
everyday colloquial speech or slang. Car, trolley, tram began as dialect words.
Formal style is restricted to formal situations. In general, formal words fall
into two main groups: words associated with professional communication and a
less exclusive group of so-called learned words. These words are mainly
associated with the printed page. It is in this vocabulary stratum that poetry and
fiction find their main resources. The term "learned" includes several
heterogeneous subdivisions of words. We find here numerous words that are used
in scientific prose and can be identified by their dry, matter-of-fact flavour (e. g.
comprise, compile, experimental, heterogeneous, homogeneous, conclusive,
divergent, etc.). To this group also belongs so-called "officialese". Poetic words
have a further characteristic a lofty, high-flown, sometimes archaic, colouring.
Obsolete words have already gone out of use but they are still recognized by the
English speakers. Archaic proper are words which are no longer recognizable in
modern English. Historisms are words used to be replaced by modern synonyms.
These words are moribund, already partly or fully out of circulation, rejected by
the living language. Their last refuge is in historical novels (whose authors use
them to create a particular period atmosphere) and, of course, in poetry which is
rather conservative in its choice of words. Thou and thy, aye ("yes") and nay
("no") are certainly archaic and long since rejected by common usage, yet poets
use them even today. The borderline between "obsolete" and "archaic" is vague
and uncertain, and in many cases it is difficult to decide to which of the groups this
or that word belongs. Professional terminology. Thousands of words belong to
special scientific, professional or trade terminological systems and are not used or
even understood by people outside the particular speciality. Every field of modern
activity has its specialised vocabulary. There is a special medical vocabulary, and
similarly special terminologies for psychology, botany, music, linguistics, teaching
methods and many others. Terms. One of the most characteristic features of a term
is its direct relevance to the system used in a particular science. Term is directly
connected with the concept it denotes. Unlike other words it directs the mind to the
essential quality of the thing. Terms are mostly used in special way dealing with
the notion of some brunch of science. When a term appears in a not scientific work
its function changes. In most cases it acquires a stylistic function and becomes a
SD. With the increase of general education many words that were terms have
gradually lost their qualities as terms. In stylistics this process is called
determinisation. But also there are linguists in whose opinion terms are only those
words which have retained their exclusiveness and are not known or recognised
outside their specific sphere. There is yet another point of view, according to
which any terminological system is supposed to include all the words and word-
groups conveying concept peculiar to a particular branch of knowledge, regardless
of their exclusiveness.

Лекція № 5. Vocabulary classification.

1. Morphological and functional grouping.
2. Thematic and ideographic group.
3. Terminological system.
4. Emotionally coloured and emotionally neutral vocabulary.
5. Stylistically marked and stylistically neutral words.
6. Non-semantic grouping.

By their morthemic structure words may be simple (hand, dog), derivative

(handful, doggie), compound (handbook, dog-cheap), compound derivative
(lefthanded, dog-legged). Words are also classified into word-families: dog,
doggish, doglike, doggy, to dog, dog-cart. the number of word-families is equal to
that of root-morphemes. Words may be grouped by their common affix:
troublesome, lonesome, tiresome, handsome. Groups with productive affixes
constitute open sets, since new words are constantly created.
 By their function words are grouped into notional, functional and
semifunctional. Notional words can be used alone. They name objects of reality,
qualities, actions or processes. Functional words are used only in combination with
notional words or in reference to them: auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions,
relative adverbs. They express relations between words. Semi- functional words
point to or stand for objects of reality: here, then, this, one, he, how.
By their meaning, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships words are
divided into parts of speech and lexico-grammatical groups. Among nouns we find
personal names, animal names, collective, abstract, proper names. The members of
each group have a common lexico-grammatical meaning and paradigm, the same
substituting elements and a set of suffixes.
A thematic group is a subdivision of a lexico-grammatical group: kinship
terms, names for parts of the human body, colour terms. The basis of grouping is
both linguistic and extra-linguistic: the words are associated because their referents
are connected. The words may be connected by the logical relationship or
inclusion: sheep – ram, ewe, lamb. The generic term (hyperonym) is the
superordinate of specific terms (hyponyms).
An ideographic grouping includes thematically related words of different
parts of speech: light n, bright a, shine v. Grammatical meaning is disregarded.
words are classed according to the systems of logical notions.
Terminilogical systems are sharply defined. Terms are words or word-
groups that name notions of a special field of Knowledge, industry or culture. They
have many peculiarities:
1. Terms are monosemantic words. Polysemy is only tolerated if the term has
different meanings in different fields of science: The meaning of word in
linguistics and mathematics.
2. A term has only a denotational free meaning and no figurative, contextual or
emotional meanings. But if regularly used in colloquial speech it becomes a non-
term.
3. Each term is strictly defined and has a constant meaning until a new discovery
changes the referent or the notion.
4. There is one-to-one correspondence between the concept and the term naming it.
Synonymous terms cause a great deal of confusion: linguistic terms –
phraseological unit, idiom, set expression.
5. Terms are created by specialists and never appear as a result of spontaneous
language development.
Language is used not only to make statements but also to convey or express
emotions. In this case lexical meaning acquires additional colouring (connotation).
There exist three types of emotional words: emotional proper, intensifyiing and
evaluatory.
Emotional words have some functional peculiarities.
1. They can be used in the emotional syntactic pattern a + (A) +N + of + a + N. - a
mere button of a nose.
2. They can be used without any formal or logical connection with the context:
There was a rumour in the office about some diamonds. – Diamonds, my eye,
they’ll never find any diamonds. Here my eye has no denotational meaning and the
syntactic function.
3. They can contradict the meaning of the words they formally modify.: awfully
glad, damn good.
4. They can lend emotional colouring to the whole sentence and occupy an
optional position in it.
The basic stylistic division of the vocabulary is stylistically neutral and stylistically
marked words. The former can be used in any situation and make up the greater
part of every utterance. The latter are found only in specific contexts.

Змістовий модуль 4. «Регіональні особливості англійської мови.

Лексикографія».

Лекція № 6-7. Dialects of the English language.

1. Regional national varieties of the English language.
2. Local dialects on the British Isles.
a) North-Western dialect;
b) South-Eastern dialect;
c) East-Midland English;
d) West-Midland English;
e) Cockney;
f) Irish and Scottish dialect;
H.W.Fowler defines a dialect as “a variety of language which prevails in a
district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrase”.
England is a small country, yet it has many dialects which have their own
distinctive features (e.g. Lancashire, Dorsetshire, Norfolk dialects). So dialects
are regional forms of English. Standard English is defined by the Random House
Dictionary as the English language as it’s written and spoken by literate people in
both formal and informal usage and that is universally current while incorporating
regional differences.

In the British Isles there exist many speech varieties confined to particular areas.
These local dialects traceable to Old English dialects may be classified into six
distinct divisions: 1) Lowland (Scottish or Scotch, North of the river Tweed),1 2)
Northern (between the rivers Tweed and Humber), 3) Western, 4) Midland and 5)
Eastern (between the river Humber and the Thames), 6) Southern (South of the
Thames). Their sphere of application is confined to the oral speech of the rural
population in a locality and only the Scottish dialect can be said to have a literature
of its own with Robert Burns as its greatest representative.
Offsprings of the English national literary language, the British local dialects
are marked off from the former and from each other by some phonetic,
grammatical and lexical peculiarities. In this book we are naturally concerned only
with the latter. Careful consideration of the national and the dialect vocabularies
discloses
that the most marked difference between them lies in the limited character of the
dialect vocabularies. The literary language contains many words not to be found in
dialects, among them technical and scientific terms. Local lexical peculiarities, as
yet the least studied, are most noticeable in specifically dialectal words pertaining
to local customs, social life and natural conditions: laird — ‘landed proprietor in
Scotland’, burgh — ‘Scottish chartered” town’, kirk — ‘church’, loch — ‘Scottish
lake or landlocked arm of the sea’, etc. There are many names of objects and
processes connected with farming, such as the names of agricultural processes,n
tools, domestic animals and the like, e.g. galloway — ‘horse of small strong breed
from Galloway, Scotland’, kyloe — ‘one of small breed of long-horned Scotch
cattle’, shelty — ‘Shetland pony’. There is also a considerable number of
emotionally coloured dialectal words, e.g. Scot, bonny — ‘beautiful, healthy-
looking’, braw — ‘fine, excellent’, daffy — ‘crazy, silly’, cuddy — ‘fool, ass’,
loon — ‘clumsy, stupid person’.
In addition, words may have different meanings in the national language and
in the local dialects, e.g. in the Scottish dialect the word to call is used in the
meaning of ‘to drive’, to set — ‘to suit’, short — ‘rude’, silly — ‘weak’, etc.
Dialectal lexical differences also embrace word-building patterns. For
instance, some Irish words contain the diminutive suffixes -an, -een, -can, as in
bohaun — ‘cabin’ (from Irish both — ‘cabin’); bohereen — ‘narrow road’ (from
Irish bothar — ‘road’); mearacaun — ‘thimble’ (from Irish mear — ‘finger’); etc.
Some of these suffixes may even be added to English bases, as in girleen, dogeen,
squireen (squirrel), etc. Some specifically dialectal derivatives are formed from
standard English stems with the help of standard English affixes, e.g. Scot. flesher
— ‘butcher’, suddenty — ’suddenness’. A great number of words specifically
dialectal appeared as a result of intense borrowing from other languages, others are
words that have disappeared from the national literary language or become archaic,
poetical, such as gang — ‘go’, OE заnзаn; bairn — ‘child’, OE bearn, etc. Thus,
the lexical differences between the English national language and its dialects are
due to the difference in the spheres of application, different tempos of
development, different contacts with other peoples, and deliberate elaboration of
literary norms.
 Лекція № 8. American English.
1.Standard American.
2. Difference in spelling.
3. Difference in pronunciation.
4. Grammatical difference.
5. Difference in vocabulary.

The two main variants of the English language are British and American (BE
and AE). Some American linguists (H. L. Mencken) say that they are two separate
languages and that up to about 1914 BE exerted influence on AE, but after that the
trend reversed. They even hold the view that the American influence on British
English is so powerful that the American standard will be established in Britain.
Other linguists regard the language of the USA as a dialect of English. First of all
the differences between the English language as spoken in Britain, the USA,
Australia and Canada are noticeable in the field of phonetics. But these
distinctions mostly concern the articulatory-acoustic characteristics of some
phonemes, some differences in the use of others and the differences in the rhythm
and intonation of speech. The differences in vocabulary are not very numerous.
Most of them occur in the semantic structure of words and in their usage.
The differences in grammar like AE gotten, proven for BE got, proved are
scarce. For the most part differences in grammar consist in the preference of this
or that grammatical category or form to some others. Thus, the Present Continuous
form in the meaning of Future is used more frequently in BE than in the American,
Canadian and Australian variants; infinitive constructions are used more rarely in
AE than in BE and AuE and passive constructions are, on the contrary, more
frequent in America than in Britain and in Australia.
When we speak about the lexical distinctions between the territorial variants
of the English language it is necessary to point out that from the point of view of
their use in different parts of the English-speaking world all lexical units may be
divided into:
- general English, those common to all the variants and
- locally-marked, those specific to present-day usage in one of the variants
and not found in the others (i.e. Briticisms, Americanisms, Australianisms,
Canadianisms, etc.). When speaking about the territorial differences of the English
language philologists and lexicographers usually note the fact that different
variants of English use different words for the same objects.
The pairs like tin-opener — can-opener are semantically equivalent.
In pairs like government — administration, leader — editorial only one lexical
semantic variant of one of the members is locally-marked. (administration is an
Americanism, leader is a Briticism)
In some cases a notion may have two synonymous designations used both in
Britain and in America, but one of them is more frequent in Britain, the other — in
the USA. Thus in the pairs post — mail, timetable — shedule, the first word is
more frequent in Britain, the second — in America. So the difference here lies only
in word-frequency.
Most locally-marked lexical units belong to partial Briticisms,
Americanisms, etc., that is they are typical of this or that variant of English only in
one or some of their meanings. For example, in the word pavement, the meaning
’street or road covered with stone, asphalt, concrete, etc’ is an Americanism, the
meaning ‘paved path for pedestrians at the side of the road’ is a Briticism (the
corresponding American expression is sidewalk),
There are also some full Briticisms, Americanisms, etc., i.e. lexical units
specific to the British, American, etc. variant in all their meanings. For example,
the words fortnight, pillar-box are full Briticisms, campus, mailboy are full
Americanisms.

Лекція № 9. Methods and procedures of lexicological analysis.

1. Stages of scientific research.
2. Contrastive analysis.
3. Statistical methods of analysis.
4. Immediate constituent analysis.
5. Distributional analysis.
6. Transformational analysis.
7. Componential analysis.

There exist several methods of the analysis of meaning:

a) Definitional method is the study of dictionary definitions of words. In this
analysis the data from various dictionaries are analysed comparatively, e.g.
b) Transformational analysis implies that the dictionary definitions are subjected
to transformational operations, e.g. the word dull (adj) is defined as
-‘uninteresting’ → we transform it into ‘deficient in interest or excitement’
- ‘stupid’→ ‘deficient in intellect’
- ‘not active’ → ‘deficient in activity’, etc.
In this way the semantic components of the analysed words are singled out. In the
analysed examples we have singled out just denotative components, there are no
connotative components in them.
c) Componential analysis – is the distinguishing of semantic components of the
analysed word – denotation and connotation (if any). In the process of this analysis
the meaning of a word is defined as a set of elements of meaning which are not
part of the vocabulary of the language itself, but rather theoretical elements. These
theoretical elements are necessary to describe the semantic relations between the
lexical elements of a given language.
d) The semantic structure of a word is also studied through the word’s linear
relationships with other words, i.e. through its combinability, collocability or in
other words – distribution. Using this method words are replaced by conventional
word-class symbols: N – noun, V – verb, A – adjective, prepositions and
conjunctions are not coded.
Thus, this distributional analysis or the analysis of combinability, collocability
studies semantics of a word through its occurrence with other words.
e) Close to the previous method is contextual analysis. It states that difference in
meaning of linguistic units is always indicated by a difference in environment. It
studies interaction of a polysemantic word with syntactic and lexical environment.
Context is divided into lexical, syntactical and mixed.