VECTOR SPACES

ELECTRONIC VERSION OF LECTURE

HoChiMinh City University of Technology

Faculty of Applied Science, Department of Applied Mathematics

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OUTLINE

1 VECTOR SPACE AXIOMS

2 LINEAR INDEPENDENCE AND DEPENDENCE

3 SPANNING SET AND BASIS

4 COORDINATES RELATIVE TO A BASIS

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 Vector Space Axioms Real Vector Spaces

REAL VECTOR SPACES

Let V 6= ∅ on which 2 operations are defined:

1
+ : V ×V → V
(x, y) 7−→ x + y
2
• : R×V → V
(λ, x) 7−→ λ.x

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 Vector Space Axioms Real Vector Spaces

VECTOR SPACE AXIOMS

If the following 8 axioms are satisfied by: ∀x, y, z ∈ V, ∀λ, µ ∈ R

1 x +y = y +x
2 x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
3 ∃0 ∈ V : x + 0 = x
4 ∃(−x) ∈ V : x + (−x) = 0
5 (λ + µ)x = λx + µx
6 λ(x + y) = λx + λy
7 λ(µx) = (λ.µ)x
8 1.x = x
then V is called real vector space.

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS

DEFINITION 2.1
If w is a vector in a vector space V, then w is said to be
a linear combination of the vectors v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v n ∈ V, if
w can be expressed in the form
n
λi v i = λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 + . . . + λn v n ,
X
w=
i =1

where λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are scalars. These scalars are called

the coefficients of the linear combination.

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

SHOW THAT w IS A LINEAR COMBINATION OF

v 1, v 2, . . . , v n
In order for w to be a linear combination of
v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v n , there must be scalars
λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn such that
w = λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 + . . . + λn v n
If this system is consistent then w is a
linear combination of v 1, v 2, . . . , v n .
If this system is inconsistent then w is
NOT a linear combination of v 1, v 2, . . . , v n .
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

EXAMPLE 2.1
Show that w = (1, 4, −3) is a linear
combination of
v 1 = (2, 1, 1), v 2 = (−1, 1, −1), v 3 = (1, 1, −2).

In order for w to be a linear combination of

v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , there must be scalars λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such
that
λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 + λ3 v 3 = w
⇔ (2λ1 , λ1 , λ1 ) + (−λ2 , λ2 , −λ2 ) + (λ3 , λ3 , −2λ3 ) =
(1, 4, −3)
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

 2λ1 − λ2 + λ3 = 1

⇔ λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = 4
 λ − λ − 2λ = −3

 1 2
 3    
2 −1 1 λ1 1  λ1 = 1

⇔  1 1 1   λ2  =  4  ⇔ λ2 = 2
    
λ3  λ =1

1 −1 −2 −3 3
Therefore, w = (1, 4, −3) is a linear
combination of
v 1 = (2, 1, 1), v 2 = (−1, 1, −1), v 3 = (1, 1, −2) and

w = v 1 + 2v 2 + v 3 .
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

EXAMPLE 2.2
Determine whether w = (4, 3, 5) is a linear
combination of
v 1 = (1, 2, 5), v 2 = (1, 3, 7), v 3 = (−2, 3, 4) or not?
In order for w to be a linear combination of
v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , there must be scalars λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such
that
λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 + λ3 v 3 = w

⇔ (λ1 , 2λ1 , 5λ1 ) + (λ2 , 3λ2 , 7λ2 )

+ (−2λ3 , 3λ3 , 4λ3 ) = (4, 3, 5) (1)
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

 ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4 r →r −2r
¯ 2 2 1
¯  r 3 →r 3 −5r 1
2 3 3 ¯ 3  −−−−−−→

¯
5 7 4 ¯5
 ¯   ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯ 1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯
 r 3 →r 3 −2r 2 
0 1 7 ¯ −5  −−−−−−→  0 1 7 ¯ −5 
 ¯ ¯ 
¯ ¯
0 2 14 ¯ −15 0 0 0 ¯ −5
This system is inconsistent, so no such
scalars λ1, λ2, λ3 exist. Consequently,
w = (4, 3, 5) is NOT a linear combination of
v 1 = (1, 2, 5), v 2 = (1, 3, 7), v 3 = (−2, 3, 4)
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

EXAMPLE 2.3
Determine whether w = (4, 3, 10) is a linear
combination of
v 1 = (1, 2, 5), v 2 = (1, 3, 7), v 3 = (−2, 3, 4) or not?
In order for w to be a linear combination of
v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , there must be scalars λ1 , λ2 , λ3 such
that
λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 + λ3 v 3 = w

⇔ (λ1 , 2λ1 , 5λ1 ) + (λ2 , 3λ2 , 7λ2 )

+ (−2λ3 , 3λ3 , 4λ3 ) = (4, 3, 10) (2)
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

 ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯ r 2 →r 2 −2r 1
 r 3 →r 3 −5r 1
2 3 3 ¯ 3  −−−−−−→
 ¯
¯
5 7 4 ¯ 10
 ¯   ¯ 
1 1 −2 ¯ 4
¯ r 3 →r 3 −2r 2 1 0 −9 ¯ 9
¯
 r 1 →r 1 −r 2 
0 1 7 ¯ −5  −−−−−−→  0 1 7 ¯ −5 
 ¯ ¯ 
¯ ¯
0 2 14 ¯ −10 0 0 0 ¯ 0

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear combination of vectors

This system has infinitely many solutions

(λ1 , λ2 , λ3 ) = (9 + 9t , −5 − 7t , t ), t ∈ R.

Therefore, w = (4, 3, 10) is a linear

combination of
v 1 = (1, 2, 5), v 2 = (1, 3, 7), v 3 = (−2, 3, 4)

and
w = (9 + 9t )v 1 + (−5 − 7t )v 2 + t v 3 , t ∈ R.

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Linear Independence and Dependence

∃λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm ∈ R :
λ21 + λ22 + . . . + λ2m 6= 0
n o
v 1, v 2, . . . , v m
is a linear m
such that
λi v i = λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 +
P
dependent set i =1
. . . + λm v m = 0
m n o
λi v i = λ1 v 1 +
P
v 1, v 2, . . . , v m
i =1
λ2 v 2 +. . .+λm v m = 0 is a linear
⇒ λ1 = λ2 = . . . = independent
λm = 0 set
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Geometric Interpretation

A GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LINEAR

INDEPENDENCE

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Geometric Interpretation

A GEOMETRIC INTERPRETATION OF LINEAR

INDEPENDENCE

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm

The linear independence or linear

dependence of v 1, v 2, . . . , v m is determined by
whether there exist non-trivial solutions of
the system λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 + . . . + λm v m = 0, where
λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λm ∈ R are the unknowns.
If this system has trivial solution
λ1 = λ2 = . . . = λm = 0 then v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v m are
linearly independent.
If this system has non-trivial solutions
then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m are linearly dependent.
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm

WHEN v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v m ∈ Rn

Let A = v 1T v 2T . . . v m
T
¡ ¢
and determine
r (A).
If r (A) = m then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m are linearly
independent.
If r (A) < m then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m are linearly
dependent.

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm

SPECIAL CASE m = n
If d et (A) 6= 0 then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m are linearly
independent.
If d et (A) = 0 then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m are linearly
dependent.

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm

EXAMPLE 2.4
Determine whether
v 1 = (2, 1, 2), v 2 = (3, 2, 1), v 3 = (1, 1, 4) are
linearly dependent or linearly independent?
Let  
2 3 1
A = v 1T v 2T v 3T
¡ ¢
=  1 2 1 .
 
2 1 4

We have d et (A) = 5 6= 0, thus v 1, v 2, v 3 are

linearly independent.
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm

EXAMPLE 2.5
Determine whether
v 1 = (1, 2, 3), v 2 = (4, 5, 6), v 3 = (7, 8, 9) are
linearly independent or linearly dependent?

 
1 4 7
A = v 1T v 2T v 3T
¡ ¢
=  2 5 8 .
 
3 6 9

We have d et (A) = 0, therefore, v 1, v 2, v 3 are

linearly dependent.
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 Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm

EXAMPLE 2.6
Determine whether
v 1 = (1, 1, 2, 3), v 2 = (2, 3, 3, 1), v 3 = (1, 2, 1, −2) are
linearly independent or linearly dependent?

 
1 2 1 r 2 →r 2 −r 1
r 3 →r 3 −2r 1
 1 3 2 
r 4 →r 4 −3r 1
v 1T v 2T v 3T
¡ ¢
A= =  −−−−−−→
 
 2 3 1 
3 1 −2

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 Linear Independence and Dependence Algorithm

   
1 2 1 1 2 1
 0 1 1  r 3 →r 3 +r 2  0 1 1 
 r 4 →r 4 +5r 2 
 −−−−−−→ 
 
0 0 0 0
 
 −1 −1   
0 −5 −5 0 0 0

⇒ r (A) = 2 < 3 = m.

Therefore, v 1, v 2, v 3 are linearly dependent.

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 Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set

SPANNING SET

DEFINITIONn 3.1 o
The set S = v 1, v 2, . . . , v m of the vector space
V spans V if ∀w ∈ V, ∃λi ∈ R, i = 1, 2, . . . , m :
m
λi v i = λ1 v 1 + λ2 v 2 + . . . + λm v m .
X
w=
i =1

We denote it by
n o
V = Span(S) = Span v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v m .

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 Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set

EXAMPLE 3.1 n o
In R2 consider S = (1, 0); (0, 1) . For all
w = (x 1 , x 2 ) ∈ R2 we have

w = (x 1 , x 2 ) = x 1 (1, 0) + x 2 (0, 1)

thus, S is the spanning set of R2.

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 Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set

EXAMPLE 3.2 n o
In R2 consider S = (1, 2); (1, 1) . For all
w = (x 1 , x 2 ) ∈ R2 , we find a, b ∈ R such that

w = (x 1 , x 2 ) = a(1, 2) + b(1, 1) = (a + b, 2a + b)
(
a + b = x1
⇔
2a + b = x 2
This
¯ system
¯ is consistent because
¯1 1 ¯
¯ = −1 6= 0. Therefore, S spans R2 .
¯ ¯
¯2 1
¯
¯
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 Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set

EXAMPLE 3.3
n o
The set S = (1, 1, 1); (1, 0, 2) does not span R3.

S spans R3 if the system

α(1, 1, 1) + β(1, 0, 2) = (x 1 , x 2 , x 3 )
 

 α + β = x1  α + β = x1

α = x2 ⇔ 0α − β = x 2 − x 1
α + 2β = x 3

 
 0α + 0β = x + x − 2x
3 2 1

is consistent for all x 1, x 2, x 3.

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 Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set

This system may have no solution or may

have solutions depending on x 1, x 2, x 3.
Choosing (x 1, x 2, x 3) = (1, 1, 2), this system is
inconsistent. Therefore, (1, 1, 2) is not a
linear combination
  of vectors in S .
1 1
Note. A =  1 0  ⇒ r ank(A) = 2 < 3
 
1 2
S does not span R3

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 Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set

WHEN v 1 , v 2 , . . . , v m ∈ Rn

Let A = v 1T v 2T . . . v m
T
¡ ¢
and determine
r (A).
If r (A) = n then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m span Rn .
If r (A) < n then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m does not span
Rn .

Note. n is the number of coordinates of

vectors v 1, v 2, . . . , v m in Rn .

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 Spanning set and Basis Spanning Set

SPECIAL CASE m = n
If d et (A) 6= 0 then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m span Rn .
If d et (A) = 0 then v 1, v 2, . . . , v m does not
span Rn .

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 Spanning set and Basis Basis for a Vector Space

BASIS FOR A VECTOR SPACE

DEFINITION
n
3.2 o
If S = v 1, v 2, . . . , v n is a set of vectors in vector
space V , then S is called a basis for V if
1
S spans V
2
S is linearly independent
The number of vectors in a basis S for V is
called the dimension of vector space V. We
denote it by d i m(V ).
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 Spanning set and Basis Basis for a Vector Space

EXAMPLE 3.4
n o
The set S = i , j , k ⊂ R3, where
i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1), is the
standard basis for R3.

Indeed, ∀x = (x 1, x 2, x 3) ∈ R3 we have
x = x 1 .i + x 2 . j + x 3 .k ⇒ S spans R3 .
Consider α.i + β. j + γ.k = 0
⇔ (α, β, γ) = (0, 0, 0) ⇔ α = β = γ = 0
⇒ S is linear independent.
Therefore, S is the basis for R3 ⇒ d i m(R3) = 3.
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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis Coordinates of vector

DEFINITION
n
4.1 o
If S = v 1, v 2, . . . , v n is a basis for a vector
space V , then every vector w ∈ V can be
expressed in the form
w = x1 v 1 + x2 v 2 + . . . + xn v n

in exactly one way. The scalars x 1, x 2, . . . , x n

are called the coordinates of w relative to the
h i ¡ ¢T
basis S . We denote w = x 1 x 2 · · · x n .
S

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis Coordinates of vector

EXAMPLE 4.1
Find the coordinate vector of w = (6, 5, 4)
relative to the basis S : v 1 = (1, 1, 0), v 2 = (2, 1, 3),
v 3 = (1, 0, 2).
We must find x 1, x 2, x 3 such that
w = (6, 5, 4) = x 1 (1, 1, 0) + x 2 (2, 1, 3) + x 3 (1, 0, 2)
 
 1
 x + 2x 2 + x 3 = 6  x1 = 3

⇔ x1 + x2 = 5 ⇔ x2 = 2
 
 x = −1
 3x 2 + 2x 3 = 4 3
h i
Therefore, w = (3, 2, −1)T .
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S VECTOR SPACES 34 / 49
 Coordinates Relative to a Basis Coordinates of vector

IN MATRIX FORM

 . ... · · · ...   ...   . 

.. · · · ..
 e1 · · · e i · · · e n  .  [x]B  =  x 
     
... · · · ... · · · ... ... ...

We have
B [x]B = x T ⇒ [x]B = B −1 .x T

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

THE CHANGE-OF-BASIS PROBLEM

If B = {e 1, e 2, . . . , e n } and B 0 = {e 10 , e 20 , . . . , e n0 } are 2
bases for a vector space V.
Suppose that w ∈ V, then
n h i
x k e k or w = (x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n )T and
P
w=
k=1 B
n h i
w = x i0 e i0 or w 0 = (x 10 , x 20 , . . . , x n0 )T
P
i =1 B
h i
How are the coordinate vectors w and
h i B
w 0 related?
B
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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

Suppose that there is a relation between B

and B 0:
n
X
e i0 = s ki e k = s 1i e 1 +s 2i e 2 +. . .+s ni e n , i = 1, 2, . . . n.
k=1

0
 e 1 = s 11 e 1 + s 21 e 2 + . . . + s n1 e n

⇔ ... ... ........................
 e0 = s e + s e + . . . + s e

n 1n 1 2n 2 nn n

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

DEFINITION 4.2
 
s 1ns 11 ... s 1i ...
 s 21
s 2n  ... s 2i ...
The matrix S =   is
 
 ...
...  ... ... ...
s nn s n1 ... s ni ...
called the transition matrix from B 0 to B . We
denote it by S = P B 0→B . And
[w]B = P B 0 →B [w]B 0

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

n
X
w= x i0 e i0
i =1
= x 10 e 10 + x 20 e 20 + . . . + x n0 e n0
= x 10 (s 11 e 1 + s 21 e 2 + . . . + s n1 e n ) + x 20 (s 12 e 1 + s 22 e 2 +
. . . + s n2 e n ) + . . . + x n0 (s 1n e 1 + s 2n e 2 + . . . + s nn e n )
= (s 11 x 10 + s 12 x 20 + . . . + s 1n x n0 )e 1 + (s 21 x 10 + s 22 x 20 +
. . . + s 2n x n0 )e 2 + . . . + (s n1 x 10 + s n2 x 20 + . . . + s nn x n0 )e n
Xn
= xk e k = x1e 1 + x2e 2 + . . . + xn e n
k=1
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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem



 x 1 = s 11 x 10 + s 12 x 20 + . . . + s 1n x n0
 x = s x0 + s x0 + . . . + s x0

2 21 1 22 2 2n n

 ... ... ...............
x n = s n1 x 10 + s n2 x 20 + . . . + s nn x n0


    0 
x1 s 11 s 12 . . . s 1n x1
 x   s 0 
 2   21 s 22 . . . s 2n   x 2 
 
 ..  = 
 .   . . . . . . . . . . . .   ... 
 

xn s n1 s n2 . . . s nn x n0
h i h i h i h i
−1
⇒ w = P B 0 →B w 0 , w 0 = P B 0 →B w = P B →B 0 [w]B .
B B B B

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

EXAMPLE 4.2
Consider
n the bases o
B = (2, 1, 0), (1, 0, 3), (0, 0, 1) ,
n o
B = (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, −2), (0, 1, 3) for R3 and
0

w = (8, −4, 6).

1
Find the transition matrix S from B 0 to B .
2
Find the coordinate vector of w relative to
2 bases B, B 0.

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

The old basis vectors are

e 1 = (2, 1, 0), e 2 = (1, 0, 3), e 3 = (0, 0, 1) and the
new basis vectors are
e 10 = (1, 0, 1), e 20 = (0, 1, −2), e 30 = (0, 1, 3). We want
to find the coordinate vectors of e 10 , e 20 , e 30
relative to basis B :

0
 e 1 = s 11 e 1 + s 21 e 2 + s 31 e 3

⇔ e 20 = s 12 e 1 + s 22 e 2 + s 32 e 3
 e0 = s e + s e + s e

3 13 1 23 2 33 3

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

e 10 = s 11 e 1 + s 21 e 2 + s 31 e 3
⇔ s 11 (2, 1, 0) + s 21 (1, 0, 3) + s 31 (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, 1)
 2s 11 + s 21
 = 1
⇔ s 11 = 0

 3s 21 + s 31 = 1
⇔ s 11 = 0, s 21 = 1, s31 = −2.     
2 1 0 s 11 1
In matrix form:  1 0 0   s 21  =  0 
    
0 3 1 s 31 1

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

e 20 = s 12 e 1 + s 22 e 2 + s 32 e 3
⇔ s 12 (2, 1, 0) + s 22 (1, 0, 3) + s 32 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 1, −2)
 2s 12 + s 22
 = 0
⇔ s 12 = 1

 3s 22 + s 32 = −2
⇔ s 12 = 1, s 22 = −2,  s 32 = 4.     
2 1 0 s 12 0
In matrix form:  1 0 0   s 22  =  1 
    
0 3 1 s 32 −2

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

e 30 = s 13 e 1 + s 23 e 2 + s 33 e 3
⇔ s 13 (2, 1, 0) + s 23 (1, 0, 3) + s 33 (0, 0, 1) = (0, 1, 3)
 2s 13 + s 23
 = 0
⇔ s 13 = 1

 3s 23 + s 33 = 3
⇔ s 13 = 1, s 23 = −2,  s 33 = 9.     
2 1 0 s 13 0
In matrix form:  1 0 0   s 23  =  1 
    
0 3 1 s 33 3

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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

Therefore, the transition matrix S from B 0 to

B is  
0 1 1
S =  1 −2 −2 
 
−2 4 9
   
2 1 0 1 0 0
Note.  1 0 0  .S =  0 1 1 
   
0 3 1 1 −2 3
 −1  
2 1 0 1 0 0
⇒S = 1 0 0  . 0 1 1 
   
0 3 1 1 −2 3
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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

IN MATRIX FORM
 . ... · · · ...   ... . .
.. · · · ··· .. · · · ..
e 10 · · · e i0 B · · · e n0 B
 £ ¤ £ ¤ £ ¤
 e1 · · · ei · · · en  . 

B
... · · · ... · · · ... ... ···
... · · · ...
 . ... · · · .. . 
.. · · ·
=  e 10 · · · e i0 · · · e n0 
 
... · · · ... · · · ...
We have
B S = B 0 ⇒ S = B −1 .B 0
B [x]B = x T = B 0 [x]B 0 ⇒ [x]B = B −1 .B 0 [x]B 0 = S[x]B 0 .
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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

2. The Coordinate vectors of w relative to 2

bases B, B 0.
The coordinates of w relative to basis B are
λ1 , λ2 , λ3 which satisfies w = λ1 e 1 + λ2 e 2 + λ3 e 3
⇔λ1 (2, 1, 0) + λ2 (1, 0, 3) + λ3 (0, 0, 1) = (8, −4, 6)
 2λ1 + λ2
 = 8
⇔ λ1 = −4
3λ2 + λ3 = 6


⇔λh1= i −4, λ2 = 16, λ3 = −42h i h i
T −1
⇒ w = (−4, 16, −42) ⇒ w 0 = S . w =
B B B
T
(8, −2, −2) .
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 Coordinates Relative to a Basis The Change-of-Basis Problem

THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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