Assignment No.

2
Unit No. 5 – 9
Educational Research (837)
Tutor: Respected Mrs. Salma Ayyub
Submitted By:
Name: Muhammad Ibrahim
F/Name: Rasheed
Reg. No: 17BQA00340
Roll Number: BO639202
Semester: Spring 2023
Programme: M.Ed. One Year Science Education
District: Quetta, Balochistan
Q. No. 1 Write a detailed note on analysis of data. (20)
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical
techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data.
According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a way
of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the
phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the
data”..

While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many
times analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously
collected and analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze
for patterns in observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye,
Robinson, 2004). The form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative
approach taken (field study, ethnography content analysis, oral history, biography,
unobtrusive research) and the form of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape,
videotape).

An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate

analysis of research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings,
mislead casual readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the public
perception of research. Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of non-
statistical data as well.

Considerations/issues in data analysis

There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect
to data analysis. These include:

 Having the necessary skills to analyze

 Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis
 Drawing unbiased inference
 Inappropriate subgroup analysis
 Following acceptable norms for disciplines
 Determining statistical significance
 Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements
 Providing honest and accurate analysis
 Manner of presenting data
 Environmental/contextual issues
 Data recording method
 Partitioning ‘text’ when analyzing qualitative data
 Training of staff conducting analyses
  Reliability and Validity
 Extent of analysis
 Having necessary skills to analyze

A tacit assumption of investigators is that they have received training sufficient to

demonstrate a high standard of research practice. Unintentional ‘scientific
misconduct' is likely the result of poor instruction and follow-up. A number of
studies suggest this may be the case more often than believed (Nowak, 1994;
Silverman, Manson, 2003). For example, Sica found that adequate training of
physicians in medical schools in the proper design, implementation and evaluation
of clinical trials is “abysmally small” (Sica, cited in Nowak, 1994). Indeed, a single
course in biostatistics is the most that is usually offered (Christopher Williams, cited
in Nowak, 1994).

A common practice of investigators is to defer the selection of analytic procedure to

a research team ‘statistician’. Ideally, investigators should have substantially more
than a basic understanding of the rationale for selecting one method of analysis
over another. This can allow investigators to better supervise staff who conduct the
data analyses process and make informed decisions

Concurrently selecting data collection methods and appropriate analysis

While methods of analysis may differ by scientific discipline, the optimal stage for
determining appropriate analytic procedures occurs early in the research process
and should not be an afterthought. According to Smeeton and Goda (2003),
“Statistical advice should be obtained at the stage of initial planning of an
investigation so that, for example, the method of sampling and design of
questionnaire are appropriate”.

Drawing unbiased inference

The chief aim of analysis is to distinguish between an event occurring as either

reflecting a true effect versus a false one. Any bias occurring in the collection of the
data, or selection of method of analysis, will increase the likelihood of drawing a
biased inference. Bias can occur when recruitment of study participants falls below
minimum number required to demonstrate statistical power or failure to maintain a
sufficient follow-up period needed to demonstrate an effect (Altman, 2001).

Inappropriate subgroup analysis

When failing to demonstrate statistically different levels between treatment groups,

investigators may resort to breaking down the analysis to smaller and smaller
subgroups in order to find a difference. Although this practice may not inherently be
unethical, these analyses should be proposed before beginning the study even if the
intent is exploratory in nature. If it the study is exploratory in nature, the
investigator should make this explicit so that readers understand that the research is
more of a hunting expedition rather than being primarily theory driven. Although a
researcher may not have a theory-based hypothesis for testing relationships
between previously untested variables, a theory will have to be developed to explain
an unanticipated finding. Indeed, in exploratory science, there are no a priori
hypotheses therefore there are no hypothetical tests. Although theories can often
drive the processes used in the investigation of qualitative studies, many times
patterns of behavior or occurrences derived from analyzed data can result in
developing new theoretical frameworks rather than determined a priori (Savenye,
Robinson, 2004).

It is conceivable that multiple statistical tests could yield a significant finding by

chance alone rather than reflecting a true effect. Integrity is compromised if the
investigator only reports tests with significant findings, and neglects to mention a
large number of tests failing to reach significance. While access to computer-based
statistical packages can facilitate application of increasingly complex analytic
procedures, inappropriate uses of these packages can result in abuses as well.

Following acceptable norms for disciplines

Every field of study has developed its accepted practices for data analysis. Resnik
(2000) states that it is prudent for investigators to follow these accepted norms.
Resnik further states that the norms are ‘…based on two factors:

(1) the nature of the variables used (i.e., quantitative, comparative, or qualitative),

(2) assumptions about the population from which the data are drawn (i.e., random
distribution, independence, sample size, etc.). If one uses unconventional norms, it
is crucial to clearly state this is being done, and to show how this new and possibly
unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as well as how it differs from other
more traditional methods. For example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable (2003)
juxtapose their identification of new and powerful data analytic solutions developed
to count data in the area of HIV contraction risk with a discussion of the limitations
of commonly applied methods.

If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial to clearly state this is being done,
and to show how this new and possibly unaccepted method of analysis is being
used, as well as how it differs from other more traditional methods. For example,
Schroder, Carey, and Vanable (2003) juxtapose their identification of new and
powerful data analytic solutions developed to count data in the area of HIV
contraction risk with a discussion of the limitations of commonly applied methods.

Determining significance

While the conventional practice is to establish a standard of acceptability for

statistical significance, with certain disciplines, it may also be appropriate to discuss
whether attaining statistical significance has a true practical meaning, i.e., ‘clinical
significance’. Jeans (1992) defines ‘clinical significance’ as “the potential for research
findings to make a real and important difference to clients or clinical practice, to
health status or to any other problem identified as a relevant priority for the
discipline”.

Kendall and Grove (1988) define clinical significance in terms of what happens when
“… troubled and disordered clients are now, after treatment, not distinguishable
from a meaningful and representative non-disturbed reference group”. Thompson
and Noferi (2002) suggest that readers of counseling literature should expect
authors to report either practical or clinical significance indices, or both, within their
research reports. Shepard (2003) questions why some authors fail to point out that
the magnitude of observed changes may too small to have any clinical or practical
significance, “sometimes, a supposed change may be described in some detail, but
the investigator fails to disclose that the trend is not statistically significant ”.

Lack of clearly defined and objective outcome measurements

No amount of statistical analysis, regardless of the level of the sophistication, will

correct poorly defined objective outcome measurements. Whether done
unintentionally or by design, this practice increases the likelihood of clouding the
interpretation of findings, thus potentially misleading readers.

Provide honest and accurate analysis

The basis for this issue is the urgency of reducing the likelihood of statistical error.
Common challenges include the exclusion of outliers, filling in missing data, altering
or otherwise changing data, data mining, and developing graphical representations
of the data (Shamoo, Resnik, 2003).

Manner of presenting data

At times investigators may enhance the impression of a significant finding by

determining how to present derived data (as opposed to data in its raw form),
which portion of the data is shown, why, how and to whom (Shamoo, Resnik,
2003). Nowak (1994) notes that even experts do not agree in distinguishing
between analyzing and massaging data. Shamoo (1989) recommends that
investigators maintain a sufficient and accurate paper trail of how data was
manipulated for future review.

Environmental/contextual issues

The integrity of data analysis can be compromised by the environment or context in

which data was collected i.e., face-to face interviews vs. focused group. The
interaction occurring within a dyadic relationship (interviewer-interviewee) differs
from the group dynamic occurring within a focus group because of the number of
participants, and how they react to each other’s responses. Since the data collection
process could be influenced by the environment/context, researchers should take
this into account when conducting data analysis.

Data recording method

Analyses could also be influenced by the method in which data was recorded. For
example, research events could be documented by:

a. recording audio and/or video and transcribing later

b. either a researcher or self-administered survey
c. either closed ended survey or open ended survey
d. preparing ethnographic field notes from a participant/observer
e. requesting that participants themselves take notes, compile and submit them to
researchers.

While each methodology employed has rationale and advantages, issues of

objectivity and subjectivity may be raised when data is analyzed.

Partitioning the text

During content analysis, staff researchers or ‘raters’ may use inconsistent strategies
in analyzing text material. Some ‘raters’ may analyze comments as a whole while
others may prefer to dissect text material by separating words, phrases, clauses,
sentences or groups of sentences. Every effort should be made to reduce or
eliminate inconsistencies between “raters” so that data integrity is not compromised.

Training of Staff conducting analyses

A major challenge to data integrity could occur with the unmonitored supervision of
inductive techniques. Content analysis requires raters to assign topics to text
material (comments). The threat to integrity may arise when raters have received
inconsistent training, or may have received previous training experience(s). Previous
experience may affect how raters perceive the material or even perceive the nature
of the analyses to be conducted. Thus one rater could assign topics or codes to
material that is significantly different from another rater. Strategies to address this
would include clearly stating a list of analyses procedures in the protocol manual,
consistent training, and routine monitoring of raters.

Reliability and Validity

Researchers performing analysis on either quantitative or qualitative analyses should

be aware of challenges to reliability and validity. For example, in the area of content
analysis, Gottschalk (1995) identifies three factors that can affect the reliability of
analyzed data:

stability , or the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the
same way over a period of time
reproducibility , or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories
membership in the same way
accuracy , or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a
standard or norm statistically
The potential for compromising data integrity arises when researchers cannot
consistently demonstrate stability, reproducibility, or accuracy of data analysis

According Gottschalk, (1995), the validity of a content analysis study refers to the
correspondence of the categories (the classification that raters’ assigned to text
content) to the conclusions, and the generalizability of results to a theory (did the
categories support the study’s conclusion, and was the finding adequately robust to
support or be applied to a selected theoretical rationale?).

Extent of analysis

Upon coding text material for content analysis, raters must classify each code into
an appropriate category of a cross-reference matrix. Relying on computer software
to determine a frequency or word count can lead to inaccuracies. “One may obtain
an accurate count of that word's occurrence and frequency, but not have an
accurate accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage” (Gottschalk,
1995). Further analyses might be appropriate to discover the dimensionality of the
data set or identity new meaningful underlying variables.
Q. No. 2Write a detailed note on the procedure of the study.
(20)
There are various approaches to conducting basic and applied research. This article
explains the research process steps you should know. Whether you are doing basic
research or applied research, there are many ways of doing it. In some ways, each
research study is unique since it is conducted at a different time and place.
Conducting research might be difficult, but there are clear processes to follow. The
research process starts with a broad idea for a topic. This article will assist you
through the research process steps, helping you focus and develop your topic.

Research Process Steps

The research process consists of a series of systematic procedures that a researcher
must go through in order to generate knowledge that will be considered valuable by
the project and focus on the relevant topic. To conduct effective research, you must
understand the research process steps and follow them. Here are a few steps in the
research process to make it easier for you:

10 research process steps

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Finding an issue or formulating a research question is the first step. A well-defined
research problem will guide the researcher through all stages of the research
process, from setting objectives to choosing a technique. There are a number of
approaches to get insight into a topic and gain a better understanding of it. Such
as:

 A preliminary survey
 Case studies
 Interviews with a small group of people
 Observational survey

Step 2: Evaluate the Literature

A thorough examination of the relevant studies is essential to the research process.
It enables the researcher to identify the precise aspects of the problem. Once a
problem has been found, the investigator or researcher needs to find out more
about it. This stage gives problem-zone background. It teaches the investigator
about previous research, how they were conducted, and its conclusions. The
researcher can build consistency between his work and others through a literature
review. Such a review exposes the researcher to a more significant body of
knowledge and helps him follow the research process efficiently.
Step 3: Create Hypotheses
Formulating an original hypothesis is the next logical step after narrowing down the
research topic and defining it. A belief solves logical relationships between variables.
In order to establish a hypothesis, a researcher must have a certain amount of
expertise in the field. It is important for researchers to keep in mind while
formulating a hypothesis that it must be based on the research topic. Researchers
are able to concentrate their efforts and stay committed to their objectives when
they develop theories to guide their work.

Step 4: The Research Design

Research design is the plan for achieving objectives and answering research
questions. It outlines how to get the relevant information. Its goal is to design
research to test hypotheses, address the research questions, and provide decision-
making insights. The research design aims to minimize the time, money, and effort
required to acquire meaningful evidence. This plan fits into four categories:
 Exploration and Surveys
 Experiment
 Data Analysis
 Observation
Step 5: Describe Population
Research projects usually look at a specific group of people, facilities, or how
technology is used in the business. In research, the term population refers to this
study group. The research topic and purpose help determine the study group.
Suppose a researcher wishes to investigate a certain group of people in the
community. In that case, the research could target a specific age group, males or
females, a geographic location, or an ethnic group. A final step in a study’s design is
to specify its sample or population so that the results may be generalized.

Step 6: Data Collection

Data collection is important in obtaining the knowledge or information required to
answer the research issue. Every research collected data, either from the literature
or the people being studied. Data must be collected from the two categories of
researchers. These sources may provide primary data.

 Experiment
 Questionnaire
 Observation
 Interview
 Secondary data categories are:
 Literature survey
 Official, unofficial reports
 An approach based on library resources
Step 7: Data Analysis
During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the
researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step.
The research findings are reviewed and reported. Data analysis involves a number
of closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying these categories to
raw data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions.
The researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.

Step 8: The Report-writing

After completing these steps, the researcher must prepare a report detailing his
findings. The report must be carefully composed with the following in mind: The
Layout: On the first page, the title, date, acknowledgments, and preface should be
on the report. A table of contents should be followed by a list of tables, graphs, and
charts if any.

Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section
should include the study’s scope and limits.
Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations
will follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.
Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken
up into sections that are easy to understand.
Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text.
It’s the final result.

Q. No. 3 Write notes on the following: (20)

Encyclopedia of Educational Research

In an era of curricular changes, experiments, and high-stakes testing, educational

measurement and evaluation are more important than ever. In addition to expected
entries covering the basics of traditional theories and methods, The SAGE
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation also covers
important sociopolitical issues and trends influencing the future of that research and
practice. Textbooks, handbooks, monographs, and other publications focus on
various aspects of educational research, measurement, and evaluation, but to date,
there exists no major reference guide for students new to the field. This
comprehensive work fills that gap, covering traditional areas while pointing the way
to future developments. Presents more than eight hundred articles on education in
the United States and the rest of the world, including such topics as elementary and
higher education, organizations, teacher preparation, and educational policy. The
information contained in an encyclopedia is vast and goes deep into the explanation
of any topic. Knowledge carried in dictionaries and other books can at times be
superficial, but an encyclopedia contains knowledge that is thoroughly researched
with a focus on details and facts.
General Types of Educational Research
 Descriptive — survey, historical, content analysis, qualitative (ethnographic,
narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, and case study)
 Associational — correlational, causal-comparative.
 Intervention — experimental, quasi-experimental, action research (sort of)

An encyclopedia is a reference work designed to cover all branches and topics of

knowledge. We might describe someone who seems to know everything as a
"walking encyclopedia." Encyclopedia comes the Greek words for "comprehensive"
(cyclo) and "education" (pedia).
No matter what career field you’re in or how high up you are, there’s always more
to learn. The same applies to your personal life. No matter how many experiences
you have or how diverse your social circle, there are things you don’t know.
Research unlocks the unknowns, lets you explore the world from different
perspectives, and fuels a deeper understanding. In some areas, research is an
essential part of success. In others, it may not be absolutely necessary, but it has
many benefits. Here are ten reasons why research is important:

#1. Research expands your knowledge base

The most obvious reason to do research is that you’ll learn more. There’s always
more to learn about a topic, even if you are already well-versed in it. If you aren’t,
research allows you to build on any personal experience you have with the subject.
The process of research opens up new opportunities for learning and growth.

#2. Research gives you the latest information

Research encourages you to find the most recent information available. In certain
fields, especially scientific ones, there’s always new information and discoveries
being made. Staying updated prevents you from falling behind and giving info that’s
inaccurate or doesn’t paint the whole picture. With the latest info, you’ll be better
equipped to talk about a subject and build on ideas.

#3. Research helps you know what you’re up against

In business, you’ll have competition. Researching your competitors and what they’re
up to helps you formulate your plans and strategies. You can figure out what sets
you apart. In other types of research, like medicine, your research might identify
diseases, classify symptoms, and come up with ways to tackle them. Even if your
“enemy” isn’t an actual person or competitor, there’s always some kind of antagonist
force or problem that research can help you deal with.

#4. Research builds your credibility: People will take what you have to say
more seriously when they can tell you’re informed. Doing research gives you a solid
foundation on which you can build your ideas and opinions. You can speak with
confidence about what you know is accurate. When you’ve done the research, it’s
much harder for someone to poke holes in what you’re saying. Your research should
be focused on the best sources. If your “research” consists of opinions from non-
experts, you won’t be very credible. When your research is good, though, people
are more likely to pay attention.

#5. Research helps you narrow your scope

When you’re circling a topic for the first time, you might not be exactly sure where
to start. Most of the time, the amount of work ahead of you is overwhelming.
Whether you’re writing a paper or formulating a business plan, it’s important to
narrow the scope at some point. Research helps you identify the most unique
and/or important themes. You can choose the themes that fit best with the project
and its goals.

#6. Research teaches you better discernment

Doing a lot of research helps you sift through low-quality and high-quality
information. The more research you do on a topic, the better you’ll get at discerning
what’s accurate and what’s not. You’ll also get better at discerning the gray areas
where information may be technically correct but used to draw questionable
conclusions.

#7. Research introduces you to new ideas

You may already have opinions and ideas about a topic when you start researching.
The more you research, the more viewpoints you’ll come across. This encourages
you to entertain new ideas and perhaps take a closer look at yours. You might
change your mind about something or, at least, figure out how to position your
ideas as the best ones.

#8. Research helps with problem-solving

Whether it’s a personal or professional problem, it helps to look outside yourself for
help. Depending on what the issue is, your research can focus on what others have
done before. You might just need more information, so you can make an informed
plan of attack and an informed decision. When you know you’ve collected good
information, you’ll feel much more confident in your solution.

#9. Research helps you reach people

Research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change, racial
discrimination, gender inequality, and more. Without hard facts, it’s very difficult to
prove that climate change is getting worse or that gender inequality isn’t
progressing as quickly as it should. The public needs to know what the facts are, so
they have a clear idea of what “getting worse” or “not progressing” actually means.
Research also entails going beyond the raw data and sharing real-life stories that
have a more personal impact on people.

#10. Research encourages curiosity

Having curiosity and a love of learning take you far in life. Research opens you up to
different opinions and new ideas. It also builds discerning and analytical skills. The
research process rewards curiosity. When you’re committed to learning, you’re
always in a place of growth. Curiosity is also good for your health. Studies show
curiosity is associated with higher levels of positivity, better satisfaction with life,
and lower anxiety.

Key Features:
 Nearly 700 signed entries are contained in an authoritative work spanning four
volumes and available in electronic and/or print formats.
 Although organized A-to-Z, front matter includes a Reader’s Guide grouping
entries thematically to help students interested in a specific aspect of
education research, measurement, and evaluation to more easily locate
directly related entries.
 Back matter includes a Chronology of the development of the field; a
Resource Guide to classic books, journals, and associations; and a detailed
Index.
 Entries conclude with Further Readings and cross-references to related
entries.
 The Index, Reader’s Guide themes, and cross-references combine to provide a
robust search-and-browse in the electronic version.

Educational Index.
The Education Index is a component of the Human Development Index published
annually by the United Nations Development Programme. Along with economic
indicators and life expectancy index, it is useful for measuring educational
background. GNI per capita (PPP) and life expectancy are also used along with the
education index to obtain the HDI for each country. Since 2010, the Education Index
has been measured by combining the average number of years of schooling for
adults and the expected number of years of schooling for students under the age of
25, each weighted by 50%. Prior to 2010, the education index was measured by the
adult literacy rate (weighted by two-thirds) and the primary, secondary and tertiary
gross enrollment ratio (weighted by one-third). Education is a key component of
well-being and is used as a measure of economic development and quality of life.
This is a key factor in determining whether a country is developed, developing or
underdeveloped.
Education Component of SHDI. The educational dimension is measured with two
indicators. The first one, mean years of schooling of adults aged 25+ (MYS), reflects
the current situation with regard to education in a society. The second one,
expected years of schooling (EYS), indicates the future level of education of the
population. EYS is defined as the number of years of schooling a child of school
entrance age can expect to receive, if prevailing patterns of age-specific enrolment
rates persist throughout the child’s schooling life. When computing the dimension
index for education, the values of MYS and EYS are weighted equally.For most Low-
and Middle Income Countries (LMICs), both variables could be directly obtained
from the Global Data Lab Area Database.

To create the dimension indices and SHDI on the basis of the four indicators (mean
years of schooling of adults aged 25+, expected years of schooling, life expectancy,
and gross national income per capita) the same procedures were used as are used
by the UNDP to compute the regular HDI. To obtain the dimension index for
education, the geometric mean of the separate indices for expected years of
schooling and mean years of schooling is taken.

An education index is a component of the Human Development Index published

every year by the United Nations Development Programme. Alongside the
Economical indicators and Life Expectancy Index, it helps measure the educational
attainment. GNI (PPP) per capita and life expectancy are also used with the
education index to get the HDI of each country.

Since 2010, the education index has been measured by combining average adult
years of schooling with expected years of schooling for students under the age of
25, each receiving 50% weighting. Before 2010, the education index was measured
by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weighting) and the combined primary,
secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio (with one-third weighting). Education
is a major component of well-being and is used in the measure of economic
development and quality of life, which is a key factor determining whether a country
is a developed, developing, or underdeveloped country.

Q. No. 4 Describe the significance of tools of research. (20)

Data collection or research tools refer to the devices or instruments used to collect
data, such as a paper questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. They
are used to measure a variable, or to collect the information needed to answer a
research question. Careful selection of research tools can help the researcher
achieve goals and save time.

Data Collection
Data are facts, numbers, letters or symbols that describe an object, idea, condition,
situation or other factors. They serve as raw material for analysis and provide the
facts and figures which are preparing various measurement scales. They also make
the results of the study publicly available. Collecting data is one of the most
important components of research. Good data plays a significant role in gaining
insight on the on the existing problem or opportunity. Lack of good data limits the
effectiveness of other data tools. Data is vital in every step of the entire process.
However, data is most necessary at the initial step since it helps the researcher to
narrow down the scope of the problem being investigated. There are a number of
methods which are utilized during the data collection process. Some of the most
common data collection methods include use of interviews, questionnaires and
observations.

Data Types
Qualitative: qualitative data are measures of ‘types’ and may be represented by a
name, symbol, or a number code. Quantitative: quantitative data are measures of
values or counts and are expressed as numbers. They are data about numeric
variables (e.g. how many; how much; or how often).

Research Tools
A data collection tool or research tool is any tool used to measure a variable, or to
collect the information needed to answer a research question. Careful selection of
data collection tools can help the researcher achieve goals and save time.

Any research is only as good as the data that drives it, so choosing the right
technique of data collection can make all the difference. In this article, and the next
two articles to be published in the coming days, we will look at three different data
collection techniques – observation, questionnaire and interview, and evaluate their
suitability under different circumstances.

Observation
Observation is one of the most important research tools in the social and human
sciences, having a vital role to play in helping to understand and interpret the social,
cultural and economic environment. Any research benefits from observation, which
entails use of senses to collect data from the external environment, because this
tool is widely used.

observation
The observer must be able to free himself from the constraints of personal values in
order to observe the facts as it is. While doing observation, we must go beyond the
surface and penetrate the depth.

All social researches begin with observation, and ends with it; in other words
observation is an inevitable part of any study or research on any social
phenomenon. The most important positive aspect of observation is that it directly
examines the phenomenon, enabling the behavior to be observed as it happens.

Observation Types
Structured or Controlled: It is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the information, standardized condition of
observation and selection of pertinent data of observation.

Unstructured or uncontrolled: When observation is to take place without above-

mentioned characteristics, is called unstructured observation.

Participant: It is the observer by making himself, more or less a member of the

group he is observing. So that he can experience what the members of the group
experience.

Non-participant: When observer observe as a detached emissary without any

attempt on his part to experience through participation what others feel is called
non-participant .

Pros and Cons

Seeing is believing, they say. Making direct observations of simplistic phenomena
can be a very quick and effective way of collecting data with minimal intrusion;
while at the same time imposing some disadvantages.

Advantages:
 Direct access to research phenomena: because the researcher directly
participates in the social environment of the study, he/she can receive large
amount of information at one time; while other methods may not provide
much information in the short term.
 Trusted data: because the researcher directly collects data when something
happens, so the data can be more trusted.
 High levels of flexibility: in some cases, because research is done on children
with mental illness, addiction and the like, and these people are not able to
provide the researcher with data, he or she uses observation as the best way
to gather information.
 No need for consent: in many cases, people under research do not wish to
cooperate with the researcher for various reasons, such as lack of time; by
observation, the researcher is not obliged to encourage people to participate
in research process; he leads it by his/her own.
 Generating a permanent record of phenomena to be referred to later.
 The researcher can identify the accuracy of materials and statements.
Disadvantages
 Ethical issues: fully informed consent of research participant(s) is one of the
basic ethical considerations to be adhered to by researchers.
 Longer time requirements.
 Impact of observer on primary data: the presence of observer may influence
the behavior of sample group elements and poise negative implications on the
level of research validity.
 Limitation: The environment in which the observation is done is limited and all
data collected are limited to that study environment.
 Unpredictability: since the time and occurrence of many social events is
unpredictable, it is not possible for the researcher to use observation
technique in all research cases.
 High levels of observer bias: in some cases, the observer becomes so
accustomed to his or her environment that he or she loses neutrality.
 Qualitative nature of observation: information obtained by the researcher is
often of a qualitative nature; converting qualitative data to quantitative ones,
analyzing and using statistical methods, are issues that diminish the
importance and value of the qualitative information collected.

Q. No. 5 Write a detailed note on main body of the report. (20)

The Report Body

The body of your report is a detailed discussion of your work for those readers who
want to know in some depth and completeness what was done. The body of the
report shows what was done, how it was done, what the results were, and what
conclusions and recommendations can be drawn.

INTRODUCTION
The introduction states the problem and its significance, states the technical goals
of the work, and usually contains background information that the reader needs to
know in order to understand the report. Consider, as you begin your introduction,
who your readers are and what background knowledge they have. For example, the
information needed by someone educated in medicine could be very different from
someone working in your own field of engineering.

The introduction might include any or all of the following.

 Problems that gave rise to the investigation

 The purpose of the assignment (what the writer was asked to do)
 History or theory behind the investigation Literature on the subject
  Methods of investigation
 While academic reports often include extensive literature reviews, reports
written in industry often have the literature review in an appendix.

SUMMARY OR BACKGROUND
This section gives the theory or previous work on which the experimental work is
based in that information has not been included in the introduction.

METHODS/PROCEDURES
This section describes the major pieces of equipment used and recaps the essential
step of what was done. In scholarly articles, a complete account of the procedures
is important. However, general readers of technical reports are not interested in a
detailed methodology. This is another instance in which it is necessary to think
about who will be using your document and tailor it according to their experience,
needs, and situation. A common mistake in reporting procedures is to use the
present tense. This use of the present tense results in what is sometimes called “the
cookbook approach” because the description sounds like a set of instructions. Avoid
this and use the past tense in your “methods/procedures” sections.

RESULTS
This section presents the data or the end product of the study, test, or project and
includes tables and/or graphs and a brief interpretation of what the data show.
When interpreting your data, be sure to consider your reader, what their situation is
and how the data you have collected will pertain to them.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This section explains what the results show, analyzes uncertainties, notes significant
trends, compares results with theory, evaluates limitations or the chance for faulty
interpretation, or discusses assumptions. The discussion section sometimes is a very
important section of the report, and sometimes it is not appropriate at all,
depending on your reader, situation, and purpose. It is important to remember that
when you are discussing the results, you must be specific. Avoid vague statements
such as “the results were very promising.”

CONCLUSIONS
This section interprets the results and is a product of thinking about the implications
of the results. Conclusions are often confused with results. A conclusion is a
generalization about the problem that can reasonably be deduced from the results.

Be sure to spend some time thinking carefully about your conclusions. Avoid such
obvious statements as “X doesn’t work well under difficult conditions.” Be sure to
also consider how your conclusions will be received by your readers, and as well as
by your shadow readers—those to whom the report is not addressed, but will still
read and be influenced by your report.

RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations are the direction or actions that you think must be taken or
additional work that is need to expand the knowledge obtained in your report. In
this part of your report, it is essential to understand your reader. At this point you
are asking the reader to think or do something about the information you have
presented. In order to achieve your purposes and have your reader do what you
want, consider how they will react to your recommendations and phrase your words
in a way to best achieve your purposes.

Conclusions and recommendations do the following.

 They answer the question, “So what?”

 They stress the significance of the work
 They take into account the ways others will be affected by your report
 They offer the only opportunity in your report for you to express your opinions

Some suggested answers follow.

Results: The shoes got soaking wet, the leather cracked as it dried, and the soles
separated from the tops.
Conclusions: These shoes were not waterproof and not meant to be worn when
walking in water. In addition, the high price of the shoes is not closely linked with
durability.
Recommendations: In the future, the wearer of this type of shoe should watch out
for puddles, not just treetops. When buying shoes, the wearer should determine the
extent of the shoes’ waterproofing and/or any warranties on durability.