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    Thermography & Eddy Current Testing Distinguish active thermography with passive thermography. Brie the pico of image processing in themmogrphysoodesivte tesing @_ Enumerate teh principle, advantages, limitations and applications of eddy current sine Explain eddy curent instrumentation with mnaidof block dag. List and eats diferent es of eddy caneat obs explojed fdertand sad speci ow ey 2 ES Seliaelan noes ralute ed apply hemor 2 eddy 7 Ene Sloe iow pal spss. lintations interpretation evaluation (== — TueRMocRAPHY Tests [) 34, INTRODUCTION Thermography testing is an imaging technique that allo Patterns on an object, It is also cal ‘thermography or si nondestructive testing (NDT) WS the visualization of heat &S ‘thermal imaging, infrared (IR) ply thermography. Principle: This testing method is based on the fact that most Components in a system show an increase in temperature when ‘malfunctioning or due to variation in temperature difference at the sub surface detects. This temperature differences cbserved om the investigated surface during inspection willbe Monitored by an infrared camera, techniques, instrumentation, advantages, s of thermography testing are discussed (32) 3.2. BASICS | v v Heated object r energy i elated tot Non-Destructive Testing of Mate (OF INFRARED THEORY. OF INFRARED THEORY fs electromagnetic energy. bjects temperature. The energy at different levels bution can be ob Wavolongth and Froquency 4, Wavolongth served, 2, Froquoncy ¥ Frequenc; J+" Ono orciation -»| Fig. Be Prequency between wavelength and frequency for + GN) if fF Non-Destructive Testing of Morerg, 3a 3.2.4, Heat Transfer and Emissions 4. Emisslon ‘A type of heat transfer where the heat is transferred dire from the surface of an object as an infrared energy (Fig. 3.2), 2. Convection | ‘A type of heat transfer where the heat is transferred by th heated part of gas ot liquid moving upward (Fig. 32). 3. Conduction ‘Atype of heat transfer mainly through a solid object Fig, 3.2), Emission (Infrared) Fig. 3.2. Emission, convection and conduction 4. Emission, reflection and transmission of infrared ~~ Anobject whi sorbs infrared well, emits infrared’ well. TW = Transmission + Absorption + Reflection [ Yy, /WH ‘Transmission, Seorbton. Reflection LA rermograply and Eddy Current Testing 1 tftransmission =O then W_= Emission + Refteion Fig. 3.3. Emission reflection s.Emissivity The amount of energy ra Socadea its temperature and its emi the maximum jown as Black Body. Fig. 34, Emisiiy Fig. 3.4 shows why objects are not perfect emitters of infrared oa [Non-Destructive Testing of Mate evident that only 70% of the emitted. ; ; Emissivity (e) is defined asthe ratio of heat radiated by reg abject Hy) ata given temperature (0 the heat that woulg ‘have been radiated by an ideal black body (Hck toy) tthe same temperature, Y Mathematically, jlable energy is actually 2 le Heisck boty Y- Thus € = 1 signifies that the body is a perfect black body; materials like lamp black, are having € = 0.95 and are considered to be a black body for all practical purposes. ‘One common way of converting a non-black body to a black body isto apply a thin layer of black paint on it. The thin layer paint, being in contact with the body, will have the same temperature as that of the body. So overall the object will act like a black body. G4) v 6. Effects of Emissivity Ifa material of high emissivity and one of low emi placed side by side in the furnace and heated to exa temperature the material with low e would appear to the ferent emissivity of the ‘materials causing them to radiate at different levels. eee 3.3. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING infrared thermography testing is based on the physical phenomenon that any body of a temperature above absolute 2er0 (-273.15°C) emits electromagnetic radiation. ‘There isa clear correlation between the surface of a body and the intensity and spectral composition of its emitted radiation. eros oP py determining its abject cam be determined in a non-contact way, 1 Fig, 3 illustrates the principe of thermography or yo Pras ay and Eddy Current Testing IR camera NIL Excess heat (Radiation) cue to ‘fiction by defective bearing a FE — Bearing (Detective) large number of infrared sensors which can detect and measure small temperature differences. The image showing the temperature differences can be processed and displayed as acolour or grey scale map. 132. Advantages of Thermography Testing ‘Some of the advantages of thermography testing are as follows: ) This technique is highly effective and very easy to use. i) Compared to many other inspection techniques fast and it ‘an create a thermal image. ii) Large areas can be scanned fast, hence major savings in time, People, work and machinery. () Thermographic device is risk free as it does not emit any ‘radiation, The graphic testing may be performed during both day and ime hours. Non Destrctve Testing of Motrig, is a non-contacting type |Npp (x Relative compaion of dsibuton of suaee temperature cy be used over a wide area 3.3.3, Limitations: ‘of Thermography Testing ‘Some of the limitations of. ‘thermography below. () Due to the fact that ible 10 peneirate in extended depths (only fv ive thermography equipment is more expensive th ultrasound devices. change ofthe thermal properties from the inspecte (vi) Ref faces that cannot be made more er bs tion may not be resolved, 134, ELEMENTS OF INFRARED DETECTION SYSTEM. A typical system for detecting infrared radiation Ta given Fig. 36. srermogrehy sand Eddy Current Testing eee ranamieson]_[opucar ‘eum [a objects above O°K radiate inf infrared sources. Infrared source Hehe] for detecting | afrerctradion fared energy and hence are Ga) Non-Destructive Testing of Marri, ‘© Medium wave IR (MWIR: 3 ~ 5 jum) Long wave IR (LWIR: 8 - 14 ym) Choice of IR band or a specific wavelength is dictated by y, technical requirements of a pplication. 3. Optical ComponentsiInfrared Camera ¥ ae required to converge oF fecy tral response, etc. s made of Quartz, CaF, Gy ‘an ordinary black-n-white optical camen that sensor responds to IR or near IR 2-dimensional array of of received IR radiation a known as thermogram. IR. Special germanium lenses have to be ‘made to focus IR rays on the sensor array, Y To mini ion from sensor, special cooling syste are increases the cost of the IR camera at imaging system, 7 The IR image obtained from camera is grey-scale in natuts hence icult to read. To overcome different colors are mapped to different temps the grey-seale image generating a color. image of and Edy Corrent Tesi poor PY st "oy temperature profile Ee ctal vith ed aod cold vinta, ra penne ary intared Detectors and its Types fared ry is between he vis ofthe electromagnetic spectrum sravlengths that range from and microwave segment lectromagnetic region, ‘wavelength to visible light, loser to the microwave region ofthe Jectromagnetic spectrum, wi 300mm 30mm Far Wid Near ROR OR Fig. 3.7, Infrared region ofthe electromagnetic spectrum 1 Table 3.1 shows the wave nature and wavelength, Table 3.1. Wave nature and wavelength Wavelength 0.75 01000 um Infrared waves (Range) Non-Destructive Testing of Mater, ermogropy ord Eddy Current Testing as (On the basis of modes eo andor detecting infrared radiation. (@ Transmission Infrared sensors are also capable of measuring the heat bg broadly classified into two main types. ‘They use infrared energy as is independent of the wavelength being detected. Thermal detectors do not re 1t do have slow response times and low det ies. ion b) Quantum infrared detectors: They provide higher detection performance and faster response speed. Their phot sensitivity is dependent on wavelength. Quantum dei Ihave to be cooled in order to obtain accurate measurements, 5, Signal Processing (0) On the basis of waveforms @ Modulated Pulse: ‘outputs are typically very small, preamy e circuitry are used to further process the rec square pulse signals. Step 35. CLASSIFICATION OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING | “ [#38 depicts the classification of themorapty ting ‘Y Thermography testing can be broadly classified as follows: oanmacally. (@) On the basis of approaches (Passive Gi) Active (b) On the basis of configuration (i Static 7, Non-Destructive Testing of Materia, ‘Approaches EA Passive] Active 1) Classficaron based on approach [Configuration] o— ermogrephy ‘and Eddy Current Testing ——_| Sf THERMOGRAPHY TESTING ~Passiye ss jes Princlplo Hei g passive approach of thermography Sirsctures are naturally at diferent remperature than the background, 1 For example, the human body is norall higher than ambient temperatu %, materials and her or lower) at a temperature S - mechanical Inductive based on sources, Wave forms] A] ZS) [2] puss [square pulso| stop DD Clasificiton based on waveforms of thermography. = oc ‘camera without any adc 1) Claifenion based on confiration iB: Radiation Mode a her OR aI =H = irperature Reanera Lransmission| | Reiecton Internal 1) Clasficalon based on modes oe Scanning ¥ Fig. 3.9 shows the configura o—__ ce C =) Point Une surlaca 1 Clanficaton sed on scanning Sources f the presence of a given abnormality (hotcold respect to surroundings. 182. Advantages Some of the advantages of passive thermography are given Non-Destructive Testing of Mater, i) This method is most effective when looking fo strong therm indications that have persistence, such as water or other fy flowing through conduits. iv) It does not always require expensive thermal ‘Some of the limitations of passive thermography are as follows, (i) Effective result in passive thermography testing depends o, temperature difference (AT) or thermal contrast exists betweey the feature of interest ie. intemal flaw on a specimen; and ig i) An experienced thermographer is needed to interrupt therm graphic results. fe one and relying on the ining and expertise ofthe thermographer. 3.6.4. Applications ications of passive thermography include: Y In active thermography approach, an external stimulus is needed to produce a thermal'contrast in the object surface. When external source of heat is applied the thermal state of the object to be inspected is destabilized. Y Internal defects in the object like voids, eracks, delamination, foreign ma ion ete causes thermal disequilibriua and resulted in distinctive surface thermal patterns betwee? the defects and sound mate ermogropy are Eddy Curent Tesing (Stimulus) External source of heating Fig, 10. Activ approach of thermography tesing J Fig. 3.10 show the active approach ofthe ; rmozraphy testing, the sample is heated by an extemal source leetromagnetic or other). Controlled surface temper ‘The specific thermal properties of material under test influence transport of heat thus causing surface temperature to change with respect to areas with different thermal properties. Due to the thermo physical properties of the testing material defective and non-defective surface produces a measurable thermal constant. IR emissions and application of external heat source can be synchronized with the acquisition system, quantitative data analysis is possible by this method. 172, Advantages Some of the advantages of active thermography testing are as follows, ity to perform one-sided inspection. 3.18 Non-Destructive Testing of Mare Real time data acquisition is possible. Appropriate on most mi used in industries. (i layer structure and porous matey (iv) Inspection of large surface is possible. (¥)_ Relatively unaffected by the object's geometry. ions of active thermography testing are give, ()__ Sensible to duration of heating source. Gi) Expensive (as the R¢ time is very fast in case of meta, hence faster data acquisition system is required). Gii) Surface condition and skness of the object has influence oy the data output. 3.7.4. Applications ‘The typical applications of active thermography include: (Structural evaluation of Glass Reinforced polymer (GRP) pipes. Gi) Assessment of damage on Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CERP) panels. i) Checking sand witched panels of aircrafts. fication of sub-surface defects like cracks, blowholes, and inclusions in metals. 3.8. ACTIVE THERMOGRAPHY. TECHNIQUES | (Types of Active Thermography Testing) \”<" _ Fig 3.11 shows various types of active thermography testing. srermography and Eddy Current Testing = 8) ‘Active ‘Thermography Fig. 3.11, Active thermography techniques Some of the important active thermography techniques are Presented in the following sections. r= 520) Non-Destructive Testing of Materia Ji. PULSED THERMOGRAPHY (FLASH THERMOGRAPHY) 3.9.4. Concept Y _Inthis techni vc, energy sources (xenon flash tubes) are seg 1n surface. The duration of the pulse roseconds by using flashes to sever, The duration and energy source depends on the therm pertes of both, the specimen and the flaw Ised thermography. ides aay tT] PN retecton perma ei Edy CrrentTesing co}! TReamea Reslone | Processor SpecimentTarget Display Heat souce wi (Fash amp) a IReamera | | =| |= ct oc ’ = Procesang Transmission ma ‘Specimen Fig. 3.12, Pulsed thermography Y- Modes of thermography: The specimen is heated from one side while thermal data is collected either from the same side (reflection mode) or from the opposite (transmission mode). this mode, inspecting defects to the heated surface. Fig. 3.13(a) depicts the principle of reflection mode pulsed thermography. | IR camera Flach tamp Specimen’ thermography ‘zones will appear at high The temperature evolution on the surf using an infrared camera. G22] Non-Destructive Testing of Matergy Y > When observing the thermal wave on the surface of y, raterial during defects such as impact damage, disbands and wag ‘camera, These image sequences can contain up 1p eds of thermal images. The analysis softwar, then calculates a result image that based on the applicg algorithm. 3.9.2, Thermographic Signal Reconstruction Y Pulsed (flash) thermography is most readily applicable to ions where the diameter of « subsurface defect is greater than its depth beneath the surface. As the defects aspect ratio approaches unity or less, the maximum tery re difference areas decreases, often to level comparable to the noise level of the IR camera, and is not detectable in the raw camera data. For these low ns, or for quantitative measurement of physical properties, additional signal processing is required. n these cases, the Thermograph ‘method provides a significant degree of improvement in terms of sensitivity, reduction of blurring and depth range compared to contrast analysis. Fig. 3.14 shows the difference between raw data and thermography reconstructed signals. Jn the thermographic signal reconstruction (TSR) process, several hundred frames of raw data representing the time history of each pinel are reduced to a set of equations emogropad y Corrent Fig, 3.14. Difference beoween raw dara end ‘thermography reconstructed sgnats Y The conversion process typi fact that the TSR informat closed form allows advanced manip Aifferentiation, calculation of inflection gi ‘Transforms (FFT) to be performed quickly, adverse noise effects. Data Processing and Analyzing Techniques of Pulsed ‘Thermography ¥ In pulsed thermography (PT), the specimen surface is submitted to a heat pulse photographic flashes. Heat periodic wave with different frequencies and amplitudes. ‘Afler the thermal front came into contact wit the specimen’s ravels from the surface through the specimen, lapses, the surface temperature will decrease ities (eg, porosity cracks, inclusions, disband etc.) can be acted as resistances to het flow that Produce abnormal temperature patterns atthe surface, which can be detected by IR camera. ER Nom Destructive Testing of Mao VY The distribution of heat in a given region over time ay ion as follows. be 5) Tek Q = Energy absorbe e = Effusivi sd by the surface (I/m?), and t penetration co-efficient (kpc. he surface of the specimen the ime between the launch ofthe thermal pulse and recording dat Ea (©) Temperature profile altar Wht we ( Temperature evolution, 3D matrix Fig. 3.18. 3.9.4. Advantages of Pulsed Thermography (@)_ Pulsed thermography is a faster technique and easy to deploy Gi) Numerous processing techniques are available. 1 iy ema propery dat wees Ce mal aby to exchange Bet mib® sronien. 386, Limitations of Pulsed Thermography (Affected by non-uniform be environmental reflections and s ating, surface geometry. Surface preparation is required for low en Thermal losses by convection and ad interpretation of resulvoutput, 398. Applications of Pulsed Thermography ough skin Sensing) beneath the te drilling and fixing. Defect detection under multiply composite. of impact damages on CFRP panels ) Measurement of drill duced defects on laminates. ation of the cracks in turbine components, Y Lock in thermography is also called as modulated thermography. In this technique, the specimen suface is periodically ninated by modulated heating source like halogen lamps, 10 inject thermal waves in to the specimen. Heat is produced and propagates through the material by radiation caused by Periodic waves. Internal defects act as barvier for heat Propagation, which produces changes in amplitude and phase ofthe response atthe surface. Fig. 3.16. Lock-in thermography technique Y Sinosoidal waves are used as input and it has the advantage that the frequency and shape of the response are presented coaly the emplinde and phase delay of the wave may change. 2.40.2. Input and Output of Lock-in Thermography Y Several lamps are used to reduce non-uniform heating and v inerezse amount of energy delivered to the surface. The lex send periodic waves (sinusoidal) at 2 given modulatice frequency ©, for atleast one cycle, until a steady state is achieved. If the wave reaches areas of the object, with in which thermo physical properties, itis partly reflected. The reflec! part interferes with the wave created at the surface, whereby ‘wave as it penetrates through the material. ¥ Mathematically, the thermal diffusion length is given by oe ES nieces (55) = thermal ditfsivity ofthe material (5), G6) Non-Destructive Testing of Maver, (s28]______— © = 2nf = Modulation frequency (rad/s), 3.40.3. _ Aantages of Lock Thormography iple heat source is sult sent eal my ing of the object) to extemal effect ke sunligh 3.40.4, Limitations of Lock-in Thermography ‘This process is slower than pulse thermographiy approach, cations of Lockin Thermography ion of costing thickness. (i) Corrosion detection. (W) Detection of subsurface defects like porosit 3.14. VIBRO THERMOGRAPHY TESTING Y Vibro themogroply (7D, also. known as rsa! thermography or thermosonics, uilizes the mechanical wars 10 directly simulate internal defects and without hearing it surface as in optical methods (pulsed thermography or lock® thermograply), clusion. spemoaraply and Edy Current Testing —_ . Principle produce @ complex. com beam spreading and dispersion of waves, independent from its orientation inside the both internal and open surface defects can be 5 detected, ¥ There are basically to configurations for vibro ography. They are: . Burst vibro thermography (similar to pulsed thermography), and 2 Lock-in vibro thermography (similar to optical lock-in thermography) . Burst Vibro Thermography ¥ In burst vibro thermography, a burst of ultrasonic waves are injected into the test specimen for a short time and it varies Jom milliseconds to few seconds. 3.18 depicts the schematic arrangement of burst vibro thermography. In this method of testing, the ultra sound wave is produced by & transducer made of a stack of piezo elements and concentrated in a titanium hom that acts like a hammer. Hence, the part being inspected should be firmly immobilized (without damaging the specimen) to avoid cantilever effects, clapping and sliding of the transducer. Non-Destructive T (336) _____—— unvasonic trarosucnt (15-40 biz) Intomndh | cofect Specimen Schematle arrangement of burst vlbro thermography ‘where they can be detected with an IR camera, Then the 63 is processed and displayed in the computer, defects ro thermography ‘thermography, ‘modulated Vibro Thermography thermography with a difference in e Y This equipment consists of ultrasonic vibration source, IR camera, control unit, computer with processing software and display unit Y Sonic waves propagate in the material and when they find ion of vibration energy into heat mainly by friction between the contacting surfaces of the defect. Subsequently heat is conducted to the surface where it can be detected by IR camera. The frequency and shape of the response curves are preserved; the change is amplitude and phase delay is processed and recorded for analysis. Non-Destructive Testing of Materi, 3a: LAWS OF THERMAL IMAGING IN THERMOGRAPHY So esTING han’s Law of Radiation fl 3.42.4. Stephat dies was quantified by Joseph v ed he Stephen, who proposed @ | radiation VY Itstates “A body radiates heat per cis ‘proportional to the fourth power of ¥ Mathema (a= or] where H = Heat radiated per unit area per ut @ = Proportionality constant, known as Stephan’s constant= 5,67 « 10-8 wmr?*k, and T = Absolute temperature of the body. The body follows the Stephen’s law is termed as “black body”. 3.42.2. Wien’s Displacement Law Y — Radiated energy is referred to as heat. But strictly speaking the energy is released form of electromagnetic wave. Light is an electromag We respond to our eyes. But the whole lots of electromagnetic waves beyond the range of light are known as infra-red (IR) which are primarily emitted by hot bodies. ¥ The intensity vs wavelength plot for a hot body is shown in Fig. 3.20. semograpi and Edy Current Testing Visible - Peak Wavelength Power radiated ‘at each wave length Wave length a(um) Fig. 3.20. Intensity Vs Wavelength plot for a hot body ‘The Fig. 3.20 shows that the intensity of the emitted radiation peaks at some specific wavelength which is the characteristic of temperature. The peak shifts toward the shorter wavelength a the increase in temperature. This is known as “Wein’s displacement law”. lanck’s Radiation Law emitted by unit surface area into a angle) from the black body as a function of wavelength for a fixed temperature. ¥ The Planck’s law can be expressed by the following equation - B.8) where ht = Plank’s constant = 6.625 x 10-7 erg-sec; K = Boltzman constant = 1.38 x 10"!Serg/*k; and © = Speed of light = 3x10! cm/sec. (€rg is a small unit of energy = one ten million of joule) (34). Non-Destructive Testing of Materia, be eee 7 Tic MAGE PROCESSING IN THERMOGRAPHY NON. ~ DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Yn thermogr energy souree, Whi ‘mechanical or eleetromagnetic. Irespective of the excittg vroree, the thermal image ean be recorded by the IR camer Thermal image process processing stages to record “thermogr Defore processing the received data with the Relp of ip is necessary 10 fix some problems related toy 3.131. Preprocessing Techniques in Thermography Testing ixed Pattorn Noise Fixed Pattem Noise (FPN) is the result of differences responsivity of common problem when wor (FPA). FPN for a particul black body image for Inter subtraction from the sequence, 2. Bad Pixels YA bad pixel can be defined as an anomalous pixel behav the rest of the array. For instance, a de! ‘hot pixel is permanently cA 1s do not provide any useful information and ot with Focal Plane Am configuration can be recovered froma rmogren YA map of bad pixels is generally known from manufacturer or they can be detected manual the value at bad pixel locations is then replace! by the average value of neighboring pixels. caphy and Eddy Current Te srermograp! esting 35) vignetting Y Vignetting is. an causes 3 darker image center due ing depends on 4. Temperature Calibration {A transformation function has to be usec to convert the gray The procedure consists to position the IR camera in front of a reference temperature source (such as a black body or a thick As the reference temperature source is varied, the IR images re recorded. Average ofthe central pixels is the field of view allows to set the ealibration curve through a polynomial §,Nolse Smoothing ¥ One of the useful preprocessing techniques is noise smoothing. ¥ For instance, neighbor processing can be performed by passing a mask or kernel through the image, 344) NON-CONTACT DYNAMIC THERMOGRAPHY INSPECTION TECHNIQUE 3441, What is it? Y¥ Indynamic te (camera, voids, porosity, impact I thinning of the boiler subsurface defects, such as crack damage, spot weld defects and » tubes. G3) Non-Destructive Testing of Marerigy 3.142. Principe %Asany other thermography technique relying on dynamic hey diffusion, the presence of an interface o any defects afer heat diffusion will be observed by a regional and tempers change in the surface temperature. ection Procedure energy it ing in random perature changes in th Iheat source, records the surface t area scanned after heat deposition. Y Fig. 3.21 illustrate typical non-contact dynamic thermography inspection technique used to check and identi subssurface defects. image Fig. 321. Non-contact (ectve) dynamic thermography Inspection technique used to check and Identify subsurface defect ermography and Eildy Curreng Ty ———$ 8] Y The (IR) infrared ray detec eld of view is set to ob only a section ofthe sutac ed. Every f the heat source moves "frame recorded as, scanned is used 49 hole area scanne images and the thermal such as thermal cond thermal diffusivity. scanned, + heat capacity, density and 3444, Advantages Some of the advantages of non-contact djnami ct dynamic thermogra testing are as follows: lermography ) Inspection of larger area in a short novel scan eS 345. APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING (MS_ APPLICATIONS OF THERMOGRAPHY TESTING ‘Thermography tes two for inspection of slam traps, reffactory (passive ns are qualitative in nature, often it thermal image to a previous one and he cause and extend of any changes. I parts having relative motions (rotary ors excessive friction produces heat. This may be due t insufficient or over lubrication. Increased surface temperatures ie 338) Non-Destructive Testing of Mater, internal faults ‘ean be the result of Pel ing is conducted 0 reco mal image fous one andy understanding the extent of any changes. Ab precedes a measurable vi patter leads to compound problems of other parts like bearing ang lustry, mass production requires short cycle ‘automated processes. In this environmen, source for crack detection in automotive components inder block, cylinder head and other parts made by pressur casting process. Eopy CurRENT TESTING (ECT) J 3.46. INTRODUCTION v v Eddy current testing (ECT) is one of the electromagnetic non-destructive methods. Principle: The ECT works on the basis of electromagnetic induction. Eddy currents are induced in a test object usin ‘alternative electromagnetic field. Flaw in the tested objec causes changes in the eddy current and flow pater i ebserved. This change in the current field is useful to identifi the defect. ECT is usually used for the detection of surface and sub surface defects in conducting materials. This method is complementary to ultrasonic testing fo detecting defects close to the surface. rermogrophy and Eddy Current Testing also complementary to the techniques, instrumentation, ions of eddy cure advantages, ing are presented in Fir, BASICS OF EDDY CURRENT Testing err rere err ce ee ere eee 31T. Terminologies Used in Eddy Curent Texing Table 3.2 presents the summary of various terminologies iat study of eddy current testing. cece Table 3.2. Terms used In eddycurrent testing Movement of electrons. in a particular ion through a conductor i called as electricity, = Conductivity is the relative ability of| 3m to conduct electricity. + Resistivity is the opposition of a material's atoms to the flow of electricity; it is the inverse of is the measure of electromotive force and is defined as electrostatic difference between two nodes. a0 Non-Destructive Testing of hy, ie 8. Obm’s law: It isthe basic law of electricity and itys > | 472. What are Eddy Currenggy Ga] fundamental electrical quantity voltage and current, : the 20 8 mel cond a) ation is proces py comer EMER OF the magnetic fee = Electrical Current (ampere), and face oft ate lines), cles . Gus .. gaved electric currents are conmaet metal conductor. These R= Resistance (ohms). = i tere oS 9. Current density: I is the curent per unit area of y~ sate Properties of Ey Cures specimen, _ ‘Some of the main properties of 10. Induction: It is the process of establishing an elec nilsae Ady currents are closed loops of pant fillows: cament in a conductor by placing it in a zone of changsa| | Ea Petpendilar te nic eet . ites Gea Ta oss te lel elecrgce Ns coi Ga a ee efertiog, flow is limited to the area of S winding and the 11, Electromotive force: It is a force, which direc us the inducing magnetic perpendicular to the axis ofthe coils ux aig? 4 lectrons to move in a prescribed format in certain directin| | cn within 2 conductive ma ATA. Generation of Eddy Currents 1 A probe is used to generate edd the effect produced on flowing current ty induction in an electrical circuit. ectrfealctreut 0 ty curets for an inspection, th of electical conductor which ipsing magnetic field forms in and around the coil as the alternating curent flows through the coi nan el ¢ This mean: oppor the change in current that is causing the luced inthe materia change. penerate their own 7 Lenz's law is important in understanding the property o “secondary” ma ‘oppore the cil’s “primary” inductive reacta is one of the properties magnetic field, measured in eddy ing. Non-Destructive Testing of My, or mography and Eddy Current Testing 1 This magnetic ficld expands as the alte themaximum and collapses asthe, ynother electrical conductor is Current rises to {When a flaw is introduced in the conductive material to be ted, the eddy curents are disrupted and is sensed though suitable instrument Flow of eddy current {Paralo} to the coi) Zo 4) Coil (probe) o-faag] atthe end ofthe specimen | »-4oa9| ©) Coil (probe) isn fae hollow cy! Direction of eddy current Fig. 3.22. Generation of eddy currents of different types of cil magnet Feld 3.48:. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF EDDY. CURRENT TESTING 3.184, Basie Principle Y Bidy currents are created through a proces electromagnetic induction, When alternating curren to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magn develops in and around the conductor. F Fig, 3.23. Basie eddy curtent testing system Eddy current testing can detect very small cracks of any Physical complex geometry inimal surface preparation. Non-Desiructive TetIne of May co 2. rosy curont Tone Seat etic field expanding and colaPsin rue oma oe i nen un primary fie Primary field Fig. 3.24. ‘Stage 2 "he primary field induces eddy current in the fest piece nex primary fi to the coil (Fig. 3.25). magnetic field, ich hhas an effect to the coil impeds™ Fig 326. raphy and Eddy Current Testing ——____E. sero Oy ~ citron Fig. 3.26, y is introduced to the conductive test piece, tte eddy currents are disrupted and are read by suitable iesrumentation (Fig. 3.27) Primary field [Sof estn Flawidiscontinuity Fg. 3.27. 483, Advantages of Eddy Current Testing Some of the main advantages of eddy current testing are given below, igh speed testing. Accurate measuring of conductivity. Non-Destructive Testing of My E____—_—_ ver isontinites (defects) at OF NEAT SUFFACE CBN De ray contact required. wides immediate results of inspection. Low cost. 9. Portable. 10. Complex shape can be inspected. Eddy Current Testing of eddy current testing are given belay, to test piece. 3.48.4. Limitations of 1. Limited penetra 2. Only suitable for testing conductive materials. 3. Discontinuities are qualitative not quantitative indications 4A. Not suitable for large areas. 5. Highly skilled persons are required to perform inspection, 6. False indications can result from edge effects and pus ‘geometry. 7. Maintaining distance between the probe and test specimen’ essential. 8.» No permanent record is possible. 9. Interpretation of signal is required. 2 Ree ees 3.49. EDDY CURRENT TESTING INSTRUMENTATION. The basic instruments involved in eddy current testing isso in Fig. 328. Y Any eddy cuent test system consists of the follows instruments: @ Anoscilator, (i) Testeoit, raphy and Eddy Current Testin, eros" ee ‘Signal processing and filtering, ang Oscitator The test coil serves as the main link between the test instrument and the test subject. ¥ Itestablishes a varying electromagnetic field, which induces the eddy current in the test object and increases the magnetic effect inmagnetic materials. % Italso senses the current flow and magnetic effect within the test object and feeds the information tothe signal analysis system. Y Ineddy current testing, defects may be corrupted by noise and other non-defect signals arising from the probe Non-Destructive Testing Fae sped with test object, strocures att ae signal pre components ofa data. 3 Cites are used in eddy curent testing t0 eliminate una, ‘frequencies from the recei ignal. Correct filter setings ean significantly improve th ity the defect signal, whereas incoretsetings can distor the sg presentation. i “/- Two standard filters that are commonly used in impedance pag display instruments are: (@)_ High pass filter (HPP), and (©) Low pass filter (LPF). The main function of the low pass filter (LPF) is to remove tig frequency interference noise. This noise can come from a vay ‘of sources including the instrumentation and/ or the probe it Y The high pass fiter (HPF) is used to eliminate low freq which are produced by slow changes, such as conduc with in material or out of round holes in fastener hole ir 4. Displays ~ Displays can range from single LED and meter readouts ‘multi-frequency presentations on display screens. @) Dedicated display instrument Dedicated instruments are designed for a 5 and are usually able to perform that a Examples of dedicated instruments are crack detecos ‘coating thickness gauges, and conductivity meters. ‘These type of instruments, do not provide the quantiy & information, and can mislead the unskilled operators. ity shi v v spermngr op ard Edy Caren Tesing Impedance plane display Pri impedes plane fondition defects the @ v v Y 7 FACTORS INFLUENCING EDDY 7 (Parameters of Eddy Current T CURRENT TESTING esting) ‘A number of factors, apart from flaw: current response from a probe. Suc ar any of these factors relies on holding the oth climinating their effects on the res eddy current flow. ‘The greater the conductivity of a material the greater the low of eddy currents on the surface. Conductivity if often measured by an eddy curent technique, ‘and inferences can then be dravn about the diferent factors affecting conduct such as material composition, heat ‘teatment, work hardening etc. a_i Testing of Mate, ies only to ferro magnetic materials, the case with be defined asthe mater increases, noise signals resu ons increasingly mask eddy eynet ect becomes MOre Pronounced wig a 8. increased depth. ; Permeability thus limits effective penetration of eddy curren, Magnetic permeability of various materials which affect jg ‘eddy current testing is given below. = Para magnetic ma magnetic permeability sl 8 A Teatng greater than one (2 1 Ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nick their alloys are strongly attracted by magnet concentrate the flux of magnetic fields. Thei permeability is much greater than are (jur >> 1). Ore hundred to several hundred are typical values of elaine permeability. 3. Frequency v Eddy current response is greatly affected by the test frequen) selected. Eddy current testing is performed within a frequency range of approximate 50 Hz to 10 MHz. * AS test frequency is increased, sensitivity to surfat discontinuities increases, permitting increasingly sm! surface discontinuities to be detected. sphy and Eddy Current Testing shermogral "833i «As frequency decreased, eddy curent terial increases. n he Mm, as frequency is. dcr bbe decreased in order speed of coil will be penetration eddy current field extend to the required n. ‘eddy current penetration limited to a valent to the coil diameter. 4&.Proximity/Litt off ¥ The distance between a surface coil and the test surface is called as proximity or lift of. ty decreases exponentially with distance from coil, the amount of lift off or separation between the pecimen has a significant impact on sensitivity. The closer the coupling between coil and test specimen, the denser the eddy current field that can be developed, and thus the more sensitive the tet to any material variable. Conversely, close coupling increases sensitivity to liR off noise due to probe nobbles, when encircling cols are used lift factor. SS offs equivalent to NomDestrociveTetng of Mae, (32) flowing in the tog ie depth produce magne which opposes ty roy fe cao the net magnetic Mux and cas, ‘a decrease in current flow as the depth increases. YAltematively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed g the col's magnetic field, there by weakening ty magnetic field at greater depths and reducing inducy currents. Its mathematically convenient to define the “Standard dep of penetration” where the eddy current is 37% of its suru value, 3.21, EDDY CURRENT TESTING PROBES 3.21.1. Eddy Current Testing Probes on the Basis of Mode of Operation Y Eddy current probes are classified on the basis of modes of ‘operation ie, the way by which eddy current instruments interfaces with the test specimen, Y Four general categories are: T. Absolute probes, 2. Differential probes, 3. Reflection and probes and 4. Hybrid probes, 41. Absolute Probes ¥ , Absolute probe, also called as single coll probe, in which 19 change in material geometry (defects) can be detected 5) excitation coil as a change in oil impedance. spermograpy and Edy Current Tsing oy | 17 Absolute probes ean be used for aw dete measurement, measurements. ction, conduct Hi off measurement and ed The most simple coil comprises a ferrite rod with several turns cof wire wound at one end and which is positioned elove to the surface of the product tested. When a crack, for example occurs in the product surface the eddy currents must travel farther around the crack and this is detected by the impedance change. ‘ Fig. 3.29 shows the arrangement of sensing element of the eddy current testing. < — Plastic epoxy sensing cot Fig. 3.29. Arrangement of sensing element ofthe eddycurrent testing 4 Fig. 3.30 shows the eddy current sensor generating eddy current in operation. ‘Stainiess steethousing Plastic epoxy ‘Sensing coll Magnetic feld Eddy current Target (Surface to be detected for flaws) NomDestructive Testing of Many 33)__—_— Pai to be inspected (Test specimen) Fig 330. Ey current sensor generating edly current in operation clement of the eddy current 2. Differential Probes Differential probe Fig 331 shows construction ofa differential probe. 1) Ferro coro sme Ff -menne ee Can lg, 331, Differential probe rermography nd Eddy Coren Tesing [335] jon Probes - ary and two dary windings, hence as probe with former type coil. ig. 3.32 show the construction and working of a reflection Fig. 3.32, Reflection probe ‘4 Hybrid Probes id probe consists of ing on reflection ind surrounded by two sensing coil working on lifferential mode. These probes are very sensitive to surface defects only. 121.2. Eddy Current Testing Probes on the Basis of Applications (356) ‘Surface probes, Rotating scanner probes, le probes, 1 2. 3 4. Bobbin probes, 5. Spot probes, 6. Weld probes, 7. Sliding probes, 8. Doughnut probes, 9, Encirling probes, and 10. Pencil probes 4. Surface Probes Y Surface probes have smaller diameter housing and coils big Y Right angle surface probes and flexible ¢ surface probes modified form of surface probes, which are designed to areas inaccessible tothe standard straight surface probes. ¥ Fig. 3.33 shows the arrangement of surface probe. fe Jr probe CLIN aa rs Stace (ack) Fig. 3.33, Surface probe 2. Rotating Scanner Probes Rotating scanner probes are used with mechanical devices automatically otating the probe i rormograpin and Eddy Current Testing ——_ 1 These types of probes are provided wi [Rotating spindto —Coll head Fig. 3.34. Rotating scanner probe the probe direct removed. 4 Standard and custom absolute and differential c ¥ Fig. 3.35 shows the const TET Cconnead Leg touching the surface hole Fig. 3.38. Manual bolt hole probe ‘4.Bobbin Probes ¥ Intemal bobbin probes are meant for hallow cireular sections a spection of heat exchanger tubes. Fig. 3.36 shows construction of a bobbin probe. Non-Destructive Testing of Mae s_——" prs rermogropy and Eddy Curren Testing —__ Ing Probes iding probes are desi with fastener in place, at inspect aircraft fastener holes ler Scan rates than spot probes, ir frame inspection, Ly ys Le SAE. Zh techniques are often applied in m: Cable Defect requirements, Internal bobbin Fig. 3.38 shows the arrangement ofa sliding probe. Fig. 3.36. Bobbin probes 5, Spot Probes % Spot probes are used for both surface and subsurface flows YThediameter ofthe probes is usualy large for accommodan, lower frequencies o scanning larger areas. Because of iy larger diameter col the detectable flaw size also increases 6. Weld Probes Y- Weld probes are designed to inspect ferrous welds. Iterative to magnet pare Y They provide a cost effect inspection, which requires the part to be cleaned prior » inspection. Y-Fig.3.37 shows the construction of weld probes. La L- Probe Fig. 3.37, Weld probe [RS Sliding head 1 with ceection coi Fig. 3.38. Sliding probe {doughnut Probes ¥ Doughnut probes are designed to fit above the rivet or bolt hole and inspect for any defect ¥ Fig. 3.39 shows the construction of a doughnut probe, eS Fig. 3.39. Doughnut probe ‘\.Encireling Probes ¥ Inthis type of probes, the coil encircles the test specimen from outside and are used for testing of rods, wires, pipes, tubes etc. As test specimen is surrounded by coils from outside, it of entire circumference will be done with equal Non Destructive Testing of Moray Coll hoad Cable Rod to be inspected Fig. 340. Encicling probe 40. Pencil Probes Y Pencil probes are highly portable and fingers like pencil to conduet inspection of test specimen it or bent shaft wig, eter bores. robe, facilitates the inspection of s Y Fig, 3.41 shows the construction of a pene Célthead Fig. 3.41, Pencll probe 322, MAGNETIC SENSORS IN EDDY CURRENTITESTING Y The selection ofthe most suitable sensor type for eddy cure testing depends on some parameters, including the magn field range, the operating frequency band and the dimensions . Hall effect sensors, and Superconducting QUantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs). hy and Eddy Current Tests mee "gay ve sensors are magnetic inear change in electrical external mag . J Two Hpes of magneto resistive sensors used in eddy current testing are: SV magnetometers are spin-valve transistors used as magnetio field sensors and have a ferro magnet semiconductor hybrid structure. ‘The magnetic tunnel junctions are based on a spin dependent tunneling eff Magneto resistive sensors can be used in eddy current testing to detect the secondary from the eddy currents, These isadvantage of magneto resi high temperature co-efficient. 2.Hall Effect Sensors ¥ Hall effect sensors can detect magnetic fields from eddy currents and can be used in eddy current testing. Hall voltage is proportional to the current flowing through the conductive rectangle and the magnetic induction sensors is the Perpendicular to the conductor. he mT range (mT — milli Fig. 3.42 shows the principle of Hall effect sensor. Directional magnetic field tages of the Hall effect sensor are limite jcon and the relatively large offset. Te cy is much lower than magneto resistaxe 3. SQUID Devices Y Superconducting QUantum Interference Devices (SQUID, ‘magneto meters designed to meant extremely weak mognetic fields. ¥ SQUIDs are based on super conducting loops that cons Josephson junctions. 7 Josephson junction is a type of electronic circuit capable switching at very high speeds when operated at tempera approaching absolute zero. ernogroply nd Ely Cirren'Texing aaa) 7 sQuiDs at enor that can measure extremely low magnetic }ows the principle of SQUID magnetometer as an tions form a super ut voltage is a function of applied produces a correspondis Magnetic fle Josephson Junction Fig. 3.43, Principle In conventional eddy current duced by the eddy currents is detected by means of an induction coil, the typical field noise is about ez at eddy current frequencies of about 100 kHz. In some eases, this field noise is too high for certain such as the detection of tiny oxide particles, De Tet oa we wamion Io these citumstances copper seri be used insead of cil pote, WO 7 uence of high seastvin, even in rsh a high spat resolution and fat figgo* | / Fesponss uo | MHz offered ty SQUIDS mean thatthe powerful seas for eddy current evaluation, ay oF DY CURRENT TESTING) [au SELECTION OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING PROBES'MAGNETIC SENSORS. Te selection of the most suitable sensor type for eddy cae ers like: 1 the weld seam of welded pipes. The sensitivity of segnet robes is higher than encircling probes as they limit pernnsroply ord Ely Current Testing employing coil pro Table 33. Advantages and disadvantage of co ¥ Table 3.4 presents the advantages and dissdvanages of magneto resistive sensors. Tele 34, Advantages and disadvantages of magneto resistive sensors ‘Advantages Disadvantages ¥ Very low field noise to | 7 Dynamic range is oot large Serange. enough fr few applications, Micro size. Expeasive, High frequency operation | ¥ Complex in constuction. ‘spossible. High sensitivity. G66] —_———_ 13. Array Probes ; Yan eddy curvent array is im its v v Non-Destructive Testing of May ray est orm 2 series of sp ina 10% to cover tlements arranged in 81 8 hatag clement gas tnanconsentionl sngle-ol roey In array probes several individual coils grouped logether ’ | amay (ECA) technology provides the ably, drive multiple eddy current coils placed sid Side in the same probe assembly. Data acquisition i performed by multiplexing the eddy Curent coils ina spy pattem to avoid mutual inductance between the individ Multiplexing involves activating and deac specific sequence to leverage the probe's wi ing the interference between coils is minimized ax the resolution of the probe. smaxit Fig. 3.44. Arrangement of eddy current array probe Addvaictages of Eddy Current Array (ECA) probes includ: (j)Larger area can be scanned in a single probe pass wit ‘maintaining a high resolution and faster inspection. oerogr oP! hy and Eddy Current Testing —__ (i) Less operator dependant, array probe yietd consistent results compared to manual racer ag ler sean, improved flaw detection and sizing laned to be flexible or shaped to inspect complex shapes. ins prttsioa Easy to inspect, (o) Easy to analyze because of simpler scan patterns. 4pancake Type Probes 4 a In pancake probes, the col is arranged in such a way whose axisis perpendicular to the surface of the test piece, Pancake probes can be either air core cols or ferrite core coils. Ferrites have high permeability and the inital coil impedance ig higher than the permeability air core cols Pancake type probes are very sensitive to lift off and nn with respect tothe fat surface, ‘These types of probes are used i Pancake type probes are not suitable for detecting laminar flaws as current flow parallel to the surface and they are not strongly distorted, Pancake probes can be used in either manual or automatic eddy current testing, Manual probes are designed especially for testing the surface defects of parts that require supervision and are particularly suitable for the maintenance of seronautie parts. Fig, 3.45 shows the arrangement of pancake probe in eddy current testing, When crack occurs on the surface, current flow is strongly altered and the crack can be detected. lat surface inspection. Fig. 245 Arrangement of pancake probe in eddy current testing [Ga DISPLAY OR READ OUT INSTRUMENT IN EDDY "CURRENT SYSTEM ‘components. For an eddy current ci ive reactance components, the to calculated using the equation. z= RX? G10) where Z= Total impedance, R= Resistance, and X,, = Reactance. Y The resistance and reactance component are ‘vector addition must be used to relate them wi Fig. 3.46 shows a simple impedance plane diagram indicating the impedance with associated angle, is called as phase ange. During inspection, the eddy current signals generated during testing of components are displayed by impedance plane diagram. The strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic ly of the test material cause the eddy current signi! ‘om the impedance plane and is shown in Fig. 3.46. srermography ‘and Eddy Current Testing Impedance | @ Inductive Resetance (X,) —= S Phase angie (9) Resistance (a) —— Fi 346 Edy crane place pane lay of Eddy Current Response on impedance 1e for Magnetic Is Y Fig. 347 depiets the eddy current response on impedance plane for magnetic materials such as t z é Resistance (®)—— Fig, 3.47. Eddy current response on impedance plane Sor magnetle materials Table 3.5 presents variou eddy current testing for magnetic materials Non-Destructive Testing of bay, ria, G0) _———_ able. play panersand el EAST ae te ior magnetic materials im Formed ed8y Curent aking energy away from the Due to magnetic perm the steel concentrates the, magnetic field. Presence of crack causes fewe, eddy curents will be ableto ‘Decrease in resistance and inerease in inductive reactance 3242. Display of Eddy Current Response an Impeding Plane for Non-magnetic materials Fig 3.48 depits the eddy current response on impedane plane for non-magnetic materials such as eluminium, (Non - magnetic ‘material) Inductive Reactanco (Xi) —= Conductivity Fig. 348. Eddy current response on impedance plane ‘for non-magnetic materlals Y Table 3.6 presents various display patterns and their reasons eddy current testing for non-magnetic material remosreply nd Eddy Curren Testing (se | Display Pattern —_) Table 3.6. Displey patterns and tet reso testing for non-magnetic metera Iwerease incoil | Edy current ate being generatedin {he aluminium and this takes energy ‘way from the coil, which shows up increase in resistance, created by the eddy ‘Curent opposes the coils magnetic field and the net effets weaker ‘magnetic field pele nest ee inductive reactance Reversal of both resistance and inductive reactance Presence of crack causes fewer eddy current signals 3243. Analog Meter a6 DisplayiReadout Devices in Eddy Current Testing ‘Analog instruments are the si ‘ ‘ 4 plest form of readout devices available for eddy current testing, ‘They are used for crack detection, corrosion inspection, oF conductivity testing, | ‘These types of instruments contain a simple bridge circuit, which compares the balancing load measured on the test specimen. Ifany changes in the test specimen occur which deviate from normal, the movement of the needle show the dev meter. Fig. 3.49 shows the simple form of analog display device used ineddy current testing Probe connestion® ig, 3.48. Anctog display device used in eddy current testing 3.25, EVALUATION AND INTERPRETATION VY Eddy current method is a popular non-destrueiy testing for inspection of electrically conductive materials, jy the data interpretation plays an important role in the of the results an defects. ions a challenging part in eddy current tesing ar spatial and temporal distribution of ty iy that could affect the response VY The test piece characte (types of coil arrangement and geometry) further complicae the defect pattem in an eddy current testing signal response. impedance plane display, a sigmoid showing amplitude and phase variations of total voltage across the « simple gofnogo displays) impedance plane display is widely used 10 evaluate and interpret signals during defst identification. sermosraphy and Eddy Current Testing axis and resistance on I. Stages of Signal Inverpretation se play ‘rpretation by Impedance Plane Reactance (X,) —> Resistance (R)—— Fig. 3.50. Alr poln Stage 2 ¥ As the test coil is brought into proximi the display dot makes a trajectory from the representin the Fig, 3.5} vm impedance plane display atest specimen toa point impedance of the test specimen as, shown in Testing of Mae xe “hy coment eg 1 or pattern on the impedang terized by a unique positon oF pat oa ee ariables generally arranged along cing, tare obtained by joining off curves. “The curves may propery be terme set of pont that represent the range of some variable to wid dy current testing i sensitive, By altering the parameters such as test frequency and el diameter, the impedance plane ean be manipulated for beir results. eros? “ Crack Inductive Reactance (X,) —= ag and Skin Effect in Evaluation of Eddy Tosting nase Lag ase lag is a parameter ofthe eddy curent sign Phase tag is response from a ‘The goneration of eddy currents can be thought of as a time dependent process, meaning eddy currents below the surface take a little longer to form than those at the surface. Disruption in the eddy currents avway from the surface produce more phase lag than disruption near the surface. Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it possible to estimate the depth of a defect, and with proper reference specimens, determine the rough size ofadefect. The signal produced by a flaw depends on both the amplitude and phase of the eddy currents being disrupted. Non-Destructive Testing of My, B76! re cafelated with he following equa Y Phase lag ca pee] lag, (in degrees) oe erie (0.8 ‘be Standard depth of penetration (in mm), ddiation col and their strength decreases with distance fog the coil The eddy current density is being largest near iraface ofthe conductor, decreasing exponentially at reag depts. Ths delay is known asthe term. skin effet is skin effect occurs when induced eddy currents at gy erate an opposed magnetic field that lowers te 1d, thus causing a decrease in current fy Y The depth of penetration of eddy currents into a materi defined as the depth at which their intensity drops to 37%) of their original int theoretical depth. Iti a function of the induc frequency, as well as the electrical conductivity and te magnetic permeability of the material. So, the skin efi {impacts penetration depth and the ability of eddy curens © detect defects. Greater penetration depth (generally known as skin dept) possible a low frequency, conductivity and permeability ~~ Lesser penetration depth is possible at high frequency, hie conductivity high permeability. rermogroplyy and Eddy Current Testing tn eddy current testing the depth of Penetration can be varied 6 (Skin cepiny 37% of surtace density High frequency High conductivity High permeability Fig. 3.83. Eddy current depth of penetration Sor different frequency cor ¥ In eddy current testing, theoret -caleulated as T Nera ~-G.12) where 5 = Skin depth, f = Coil frequency, = Magnetic perme: & = Electrical conduct b= (from standard data), and from standard data). 328, REMOTE FIELD EDDY CURRENT. TESTING = A variation of eddy current testing is remote field eddy current testing (RFET or simply RFT). It is also called as send-receive probe technique. 3.78] Remote field eddy coupled clectromagnetic ‘encrgys rent testing ms which passes "009k two coils detector an ree : separated by a distance equivalent 10 0 OF THE tines yy ing coils sense the Mux tines ¢ field has an equal sey cross the tube wall {o internal and external indi directly, proportional to w' Fig, 354 shows the principle of remote field eddy cur testing technique. Receiver colt ‘Transmiter Direct col energy path ct ‘energy path Fig. 3.54 Principle of remote field eddy current testing technique (RFT) The signal phase can be used to idemtify the defect depth whereas the signal amplitude identifies the detect volume. Ti placed in the remote area receives the remain ing through the wall over dist are of low strength, dedicate! < | low the analysis of he received induction Ne analysis of the received induc induct mode is used for local mode fr pede eee i he 4 fast, acey method for determining compo, Bn 8, surface various components and thickness measurement ¥ Typical applications of ECT include: 1. Material property determinations (@ Chemical compositions (© Corrosion damage 2 Thickness measurements (O) Rocket motor 4. Flaw detection (2) Testing of casted, welded, forged and rolled products. n of cracks or discontinuity in bolts, nuts, bolt ing \ing defects in aerospace parts. (© Inspection of tubes of heat exchanger, boiler es. ara, Some Pratl ‘.petection of Su surface and near S a a) ‘when they distuf discontinuities depends 0” faci such as type of ma ‘surface finish and condition of the material, the design of probe. : For surface flaws, the frequency should be as high as possi for maximum resolution and high ity. Tor subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are preferred wy fe he required depth of penetration and this resuly jg less sensitivity. «Highly conductive or ferro magnetic materials require te use of an even lower frequency to arrive at some level of penetration. V-The base steps involved in application of identifying sure breaking cracks are presented below: ‘Step I: Selection of Instrument and Probe Y- The eddy current testing instrument includes the basic devies such as an oscillator, probe/test jgnal processing zl display. Y To test surface cracks, pancake probe or' surface probe is preferred. ‘Step 2: Selection of Frequency to Produce the Desired Depth Penetration Y In eddy current testing, depth of penetration depends © frequency, conductivity and permeability. The only variables aemoropy ond iy Coren Teng sa] frequency and other two parameters a coe re defined by the sed for surface cracks a dre wsed to Jocate deeper cracks, ind low frequency 1 General guideline for frequency selection is shown in Crack detection ‘Cladding | | gre TOHE 10OH2 TKHz 1OKiz tOOKe 1 Mle 1OMMe Frequency ———» "Fig. 355. General guidance for selection of frequency ibration Standard to Adjust Instr Recognize the Defect Easily ’ mene 1 Reference standards are employed to establish quality control checks for uniformity of response, which can be related to the minimum size of the erack/defect to be detected. Fig, 3.56 shows the type of standard reference followed to detect surface cracks, Sup 3: (A eens arin me) Fig, 3.56, Type of standard reference e_and setting the Instrumen Suep 4 Placing the coil Po Nall Point Place the coil (probe) 7 tested and set the instrument the surface of the component ty 1 to null point (Fig. 3.57). ‘Nat point t Tndvetve Roactance (X:) Resistance (R) = Fig. 357. ‘Step 5: Scanning the Surface by Moving the Probe in a Patten When the probe is moved over the surface of the specimen, eddy curent strength is altered due to presence of crak Depending on the density and phase lag current circulation, signal response is impedance plane. In fact, since a discontinuity of any size will possess son degre of thickness, it will interrupt eddy currents over a range ‘of current densities and phase lag, depending on

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