EE - 3205

Digital Communication
 Course Information
Instructor: Dr. Kamal Shahid
PhD, Postdoc (Aalborg University, Denmark)
Communication, Smart Grids, Microgrids

Textbooks:
1. Digital Communications
Fundamentals & Applications (2nd Edition)
By Bernard Sklar
2. Digital Communication (5th Edition)
By John G. Proakis
Reference Book:
Modern Digital and Analog Communication systems
By B.P. Lathi (3rd Edition)
 Pre-Requisites
• Signals and Systems

• Communication Systems

• Probability and Stochastic Theory

(Optional)
 Grading Policy
Marks

Mid-Term Exam 35

Final Exam 40

Sessional (Tentative)
• Quizzes
• Assignments
• Presentations 25
• Semester Projects

Grand Total 100

 Grading Policy

• Marks Distribution can be changed if

required in favour of the students

• Plagiarism is strictly prohibited!

• Please mind the deadlines for

assignments in this semester
 Digital
Communication

Digital Communication
 Communication
• Purpose of Communication
• To transmit some signal from a source to
destination through a media/ Channel.
 Basic Constituents

Communication

Transmission
Source Destination Media/
Channel
 Example 1
• Radio
– Source: Microphone
– Destination: Speakers in the radio receiver.
– Media/Channel: Space
 Example 2
• Television
– Source: Video Camera & Microphone
– Destination: Picture-Tube & Speakers.
– Media/ Channel: Space
 Example 3
• Telephone
– Source: Microphone in phone set
– Destination: Speakers in phone set.
– Media/ Channel: Wire line (Twisted Pair)
 Example 4
• Cellular Mobile
– Source: Microphone in phone set
– Destination: Speakers in phone set.
– Media/ Channel: Space
 Source

Source

Digital Analog
Source Source
• Digital Communication
– Data transmitted in digital form
 Digital Source
• Binary Source
• Sequence of Bits e.g. Binary files

• Others
• e.g. English Text
can be converted
to binary file using
ASCII code.
 Analog Source
• Examples
• Audio signal captured in a microphone
• Video signal captured in a video camera

Can be converted to digital/ binary using A/D

converters
– Involves 3 steps:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding (e.g. PCM)
 Channels
• Examples
• Wire line
• Fiber Optic Cable
• Space
• Storage Channel (CD, Optical)
• Under-water Acoustic Channel

• Randomness in Channel
• If deterministic, the problem reduces to design an
inverse system.
• But channels have random noise L
 Problem in Communication
“The fundamental problem of communication is
that of reproducing at one point either exactly
or approximately a message selected at another
point.”
(Claude Shannon)
Goals In Comm. System Design
Analog Communication
Vs
Digital Communication
Analog Communication System
Digital Communication Transmitter
Digital Communication Receiver
 Note
• Transmitters modulate analog messages or bits
in case of DCS for transmission over a channel.

• Receivers recreate signals or bits from received

signal (mitigate channel effects)

• Performance Matric
– Analog Systems à Fidelity
– Digital Systems à Bit Rate and Error Probability
Why Digital???
• Easy to Regenerate the Distorted Signal
Uses regenerative repeaters along the transmission path and detect
a digital signal and retransmit a new, clean (noise free) signal.
• Finite-State Signal Representation
• The input to a digital system is in the form of a
sequence of bits (binary or M-ary)

• Immunity to Distortion and Interference

• Digital communication is rugged in the sense that it
is more immune to channel noise and distortion

• Hardware is More Flexible

• Low Cost
• Easier and More Efficient to Multiplex
Several Digital Signals
• Digital multiplexing techniques – Time & Code Division
Multiple Access- are easier to implement than analog
techniques such as Frequency Division Multiple Access.

• Can Combine Different Signal Types – data,

voice, text, etc.
• Encryption and Privacy Techniques are Easier to
Implement

• Good Processing Techniques are Available for

Digital Signals, such as:

– Data compression (or source coding)

– Error Correction (or channel coding)

– Equalization
Any Disadvantages???
 Disadvantages
• Requires A/D Conversions at High Rate
– Nyquist Rate

• Requires Larger Bandwidth

– We will see in the later lectures. . .

• Requires Reliable “Synchronization”

 Block Diagram of a
Digital Communication System
 Detailed Block Diagram
of a
Digital Communication System
• Formatting/ Source Encoding
• Produces A/D conversion (for analog sources) and removes
redundant (unneeded) information

• Reasons for Redundancy

• Signal samples may not be independent of each other
(correlation b/w the conjugated bits)

• Signal values may not be equiprobable (zeros and ones in a

bit stream may not be equal in number)
 Encryption

• Provides privacy in communication

• Prevents unauthorized users from

understanding messages and from
injecting false messages into the system.
 Channel Encoding
• Converts the signal in a way suitable to the
channel
• Shapes the signal in a way that the receiver gets
able to get max. information from what it receives
• Deals with techniques used to enhance digital
signals so that they are less vulnerable to channel
impairments as noise, fading and jamming
• Error correction coding (adds redundant bits)
• For a given data rate, can reduce the probability
of error, PE, or reduces the required SNR to
achieve a desired PE at the expanse of
transmission BW or decoder complexity
Channel Encoding
 Multiplexing Vs Multiple Access
• Multiplexing
• Aggregating different source information
• Multiple Access
• How different users can share the available BW

• Both combine signals that might originate from

different sources, so that they can share a
portion of the communication resource (e.g.
Spectrum, Time)
 Pulse Modulation
• An essential step which transforms each symbol
to be transmitted from binary representation
(voltage levels representing binary ones and
zeros) to a baseband form.
• Includes filtering for minimizing the transmission
BW.

• Baseband
• Refers to a signal whose
spectrum extends from
(or near) DC upto some
finite value.
• Usually less than a few
MHz.
 Bandpass
• Used to indicate that the baseband
waveform is frequency translated by a
carrier wave to a frequency that is much
larger than the spectral content of
baseband.
 Demodulation
• Demodulation is accomplished with the aid of
reference waveforms.

• When references used are a measure of all the

signal attributes (particularly Phase), the
process is termed as coherent.

• When phase info is not used, the process is

noncoherent.
 Equalization
• A filtering option that is used in or after the
demodulator to reverse any degrading
effect on the signal that were caused by
the channel.
 Frequency Spreading
• Can produce a signal that is relatively
invulnerable to interference (both natural
or intentional).
• Can be used to enhance the privacy of
communicators.
• A valuable technique used for multiple
access.
 Synchronization
• To (cause to) happen at the same time.
• Involved in the control of all signal
processing within DCS.
• Plays a role in regulating the operation of
almost every block
 Simplified Block Diagram
of a
Digital Communication System

Digital Source Channel Digital

Input Signal Source Encoder Encoder Modulation

Channel

Output Source Channel Digital

Signal Decoder Decoder Demodulation
 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature
• Information Source
• Device producing information to be communicated
by DCS.
• Information can be analog or discrete.

• Textual Message
• A sequence of characters.
• For DC, msg will be a sequence of digits or
symbols from a finite symbol set or alphabet.
 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature
• Character
• A member of an alphabet or symbols.
• Characters may be mapped into a sequence of binary digits.
• Several standardized codes used for character encoding e.g.
ASCII.

• Binary Digit (Bit)

• Fundamental information unit for all digital systems.
 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature
• Bit Stream
• A sequence of binary digits (zeros and ones).
• Also termed as a baseband signal.
 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature

• Symbol (Digital Message)

– A group of ‘k’ bits considered as a unit

– This unit is referred as a message symbol mi

(i=1,….,M) from a finite symbol set or alphabet

– The size of the alphabet, M, is M = 2k

– Where, k is the no. of bits in a symbol

– For baseband transmission, each mi symbol will be
represented by one of a sets of baseband pulse
waveforms
 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature

• BAUD:
“A unit used to express pulse rate (symbol rate) when
transmitting a sequence of such pulses”

– In wireless systems, the symbol mi is sent by

transmitting the digital waveform for T seconds

– T is the symbol time duration

 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature

1 Binary symbol (k = 1, M = 2)

10 Quaternary symbol (k = 2, M = 4)

011 8-ary symbol (k = 3, M = 8)

 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature
• Digital Waveform
– A voltage or current waveform that represent digital
symbol.
– The waveform characteristics (Amplitude, Width,
and Position for pulses or Amplitude, Frequency,
and Phase for sinusoids) allow its identification as
one of the symbols in the finite symbol alphabet.

– It is called digital waveform because it is encoded

with digital information.
 Basic Digital Communication
Nomenclature

• Data Rate (bps)

– Measure of the bits transmitted per second.
– Given by
𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑔! 𝑀
𝑅= = (𝑏𝑝𝑠)
𝑇 𝑇

– Where,
• k bits identify a symbol from an M = 2k symbol alphabet
• T is the symbol duration
 Classification of Signals
• Deterministic Signal
– A signal whose description is known completely, in either
a mathematical form or graphical form.

– No uncertainty with respect to the signal value at any

time.

– Deterministic waveforms are modeled by explicit

mathematical expressions, e.g.
𝑥 𝑡 = 5𝐶𝑜𝑠(10𝑡)
 Classification of Signals
• Random Signal
– A signal which is known only in terms of probabilistic
description, such as mean value, mean squared value,
and so on.

– Some degree of uncertainty in signal values before it

actually occurs.

– e.g.
• Thermal noise in electronic circuits due to random
movement of electrons.

• Reflection of radio waves from different layers of ionosphere

 Classification of Signals
• Periodic Signals
– A signal that repeats itself after a specific interval of
time.
– A periodic signal g(t) remains unchanged when time
shifted by one period.
– i.e. it satisfies
g(t) = g(t + To) for all t.

– Properties:
• A periodic signal must start at -∞ and continue forever.
• g(t) can be generated by periodic extension of any
segment of g(t) of duration To (the period)
 Classification of Signals

Periodic Signals
 Classification of Signals
• Non-Periodic Signals (Aperiodic)
• A signal is aperiodic if its not periodic.
 Classification of Signals
• Analog Signal
• A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a
continuous range.

• Digital Signal
• A signal whose amplitude can take on only a finite number of
values.
 Classification of Signals
• Energy Signal
– A signal is an energy signal if, and only if, it has
nonzero but finite energy for all time.

• Power Signal
– A signal is a power signal if, and only if, it has finite
but nonzero power for all time.
 Classification of Signals
• General rules:
– A signal with finite energy has zero power, and a
signal with finite power has infinite energy

– A signal cannot both be an energy and a power signal

– Every signal observed in real life is an energy signal

because a power signal must have an infinite duration

– Periodic and Random signals are power signals

– Signals that are both Deterministic and Aperiodic are

Energy signals
 The Unit Impulse Function
• Impulse function is an abstraction.
• An infinitely large amplitude pulse, with zero pulse width,
and unity weight (area under the pulse) concentrated at
a point.
 The Unit Impulse Function
• Sifting or Sampling Property of Unit Impulse
Function:
– The unit impulse multiplier selects a sample of
the function x(t) evaluated at 𝑡 = 𝑡"
"
! 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − 𝑡#)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡#)
!"
– This result means that the area under the
product of a function with an impulse 𝛿(𝑡) is
equal to the value of that function at the
instant where the unit impulse is located.
 Spectral Density
• It characterizes the distribution of the signal’s energy or
power in the frequency domain.

• Important concept for filtering in CS.

• We need to be able to evaluate the signal and noise at

the filter output.

• Two things help in this evaluation

– Energy Spectral Density
– Power Spectral Density
 Spectral Density
Energy Spectral Density
• Signal energy per unit bandwidth in joules/hertz.
• Energy Signals:
" "
𝐸$ = ! 𝑥 % 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ! 𝑋(𝑓) %𝑑𝑓
!" !"
– Where 𝑋(𝑓) is the Fourier transform of the non-periodic signal
𝑥(𝑡).
• Let y$ (𝑓) denote the squared magnitude spectrum,
defined as: y$ 𝑓 = 𝑋(𝑓) %
• The quantity ψx(f) is the waveform Energy Spectral
Density (ESD) of the signal x(t). Thus,
"
𝐸$ = ! y$ (𝑓)𝑑𝑓
!"
 Spectral Density

Why is Energy Spectral Density

so Important?
 Spectral Density

• Energy Spectral Density

and
Autocorrelation
are
Fourier Transform Pairs
 Spectral Density
Power Spectral Density
• Similar to ESD but for Power Signals (Periodic or
Random)
– It gives the distribution of the signal’s power over frequency

• PSD function Gx(f) of a periodic signal x(t) is a real,

even, and non-negative function of frequency that gives
the distribution of the power of x(t) in frequency domain
 Spectral Density
Power Spectral Density
• Average power of a periodic signal is given by
'!&
1 %
𝑃$ = ! 𝑥 % 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇# !'!&
%
• Using Parseval’s theorem:
%!$ )
1 &
𝑃! = - 𝑥 & 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = / 𝑐' &
𝑇" #%!$
& '(#)
• Where Cn terms are the complex Fourier series coefficients of
the periodic signals
• PSD is given as:
"
𝐺$ (𝑓) = 1 𝑐( %𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓#)
 Spectral Density
Power Spectral Density
• Just like ESD, the Autocorrelation of Power Signals
and the PSD are FT pairs.
 Autocorrelation
• Correlation
• A matching process

• Autocorrelation
• Refers to the matching of a signal with the delayed version of
itself.
• Provides a measure of how closely the signal matches a
copy of itself as the copy is shifted τ units in time.
 Autocorrelation
• Autocorrelation of an energy signal
 Autocorrelation
• Autocorrelation of a power signal

• For a periodic signal:

 Autocorrelation
• Properties of an Autocorrelation function
– For real valued energy signal
 Random Signals
• All useful message signals appear random; i.e.
the receiver does not know, a priori, which of the
possible message waveforms will be
transmitted.

• The noise that accompanies the message

signals is due to random electric signals.

• Therefore, we need to be able to form efficient

description of random signals.
Random Signals
 Random Process
• A Random Process, X(A, t) can be viewed as a function of two
variables; an event “A” and time “t”
• A random process is a collection of time functions, or signals,
corresponding to various outcomes of a random experiment.
• For each outcome, there exists a deterministic function, which is
called a sample function or a realization.
 Statistical Averages of a Random Process
• A random process whose distribution functions are continuous can
be described statistically with a pdf.

• In most situations it is not practical to determine empirically the

probability distribution of a random process.

• However, a partial description consisting of the mean &

autocorrelation function are often adequate for the needs of
communication systems
 Stationary Process
• Strict-Sense Stationary
• A random process X(t) is said to be stationary in the strict
sense if non of its statistics are affected by a shift in the time
origin

• Wide-Sense Stationary
• A random process X(t) is said to be stationary in the wide
sense if two of its statistics, its mean and autocorrelation
function do not vary with a shift in the time origin
 Noise in Communication Systems
• Noise
– An Unwanted signal.
– Presence of noise tends to:
• Obscure the signal
• Limit the receiver's ability to make correct symbol
decision.
• Limits the rate of information transmission.
– Sources
• Man made (spark plug ignition noise, switching
transients, radiating electromagnetic signals)
• Natural (Atmosphere, sun, thermal noise etc.)
 Gaussian Function Enters the Scene

• Triangular waveform shape can be obtained by the convolution of

two square waveform shapes.

• Through repeated convolutions, the unmistakable bell shape of a

Gaussian curve starts to emerge.
Gaussian Pattern Emerges for Random Functions
Gaussian Pattern and Convolution Appears in
Random Variables
 Noise in Communication Systems
• Thermal noise is caused by the thermal motion of
electrons in all dissipative components – resistors, wires
etc.

• Thermal noise is described as a zero mean Gaussian

Random Process.

• A random function whose value “n” at any arbitrary time

“t” is statistically characterized by Gaussian PDF.
Noise in Communication Systems
 Noise in Communication Systems
• White noise
– Primary spectral characteristic of thermal noise is that
its power spectral density is same for all frequencies
of interest in most CS.
– Simply, thermal noise source emanates an equal
amount of noise power per unit bandwidth at all
frequencies, from dc to 1012 Hz.
• Thus its PSD Gn(f) is flat for all frequencies.
 Noise in Communication Systems
When the noise power has such a uniform power
spectral density, it is referred as White Noise

• Why White?
– Used in the same sense as with White Light.
• It contains equal amounts of all frequencies within
the visible band of electromagnetic radiation.
 Noise in Communication Systems
• Autocorrelation of White Noise
– The noise signal n(t) is totally de-correlated
from its time shifted versions, for any τ > 0.
• i.e. Any two different samples of white noise
process are uncorrelated.
Noise in Communication Systems
 Noise in Communication Systems
• Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
– Since Thermal Noise is a Gaussian Process and the
samples are uncorrelated, the noise samples are also
independent

– Noise effects each transmitted symbol independently

– Additive means that the noise is superimposed or

added to the signal

– Since thermal noise is present in all CS, thus AWGN

is most often used to model the noise
 Signal Transmission Through
Linear Systems

• Ideal Distortionless Transmission:

• Output signal from an ideal TL may have
» some time delay
» Different amplitude
• But no distortion i.e. same shape
Impulse Response
Frequency Transfer Function
Distortion-Less Transmission
 Distortion-Less Transmission

• To achieve Distortion-less Transmission

• Constant Magnitude Response
• Linear Phase Shift
 Distortion-Less Transmission
• Ideal filters
• The ideal filter is assumed to have a response of
zero magnitude, outside the range fl < f < fu
Ideal Filters
Ideal Filters
 Ideal Filters
• Realizable Filters
• Simplest example
» LPF made up of Resistor & Capacitor
» Known as RC Filters
Bandwidth
 The Bandwidth Dilemma
• Theorems of communication and information theory are
based on the assumption of strictly bandlimited
channels
• Dilemma:
– Strictly bandlimited signals are not realizable, because
they imply signals with infinite duration

– Duration-limited signals can be realized but such signals

are just as unreasonable, since their FT contains energy
at arbitrarily at high frequencies

For all bandlimited spectra, the waveforms are not

realizable
For all realizable waveforms, the absolute BW is
infinite
The Bandwidth Dilemma
 The Bandwidth Dilemma
• The mathematical description of a real signal does not
permit the signal to be strictly bandlimited

• Hence the mathematical models are abstraction

• No wonder that there is no single universal definition for

BW

• All BW criteria have in common the attempt to specify a

measure of the width, W, of a nonnegative real-valued
spectral density defined for all frequencies 𝑓 < ∞
http://reach.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/IEEE_REACH_Pakistan-Spectrum-Allocation-Chart_2.pdf
 Frequency Allocation to Operators
• Within each wireless spectrum band, various frequency
chunks (few MHz) are created by the national spectrum
regulators and sold to different operators for exclusive use.
• The acceptable interference limits in each band are also
specified by the regulators.
• Wireless operators further divide their purchased frequency
chunks into smaller pieces (few KHz) to simultaneously serve
multiple users or applications to maximize their revenues.
• Appropriate multiplexing and MAC techniques are employed
by the wireless operators to maximize the data rates and
serve multiple users.
The objective of innovative interference management techniques
is generally minimizing the resource under-utilization in order to
maximize the revenues of the operators.
http://hostmandriva.com/fab_demo3/spectrum-planning-management/

2G, 3G and 4G Cellular Assignments in Pakistan

 Assignment

• Read & Revise the concepts of

• Random Signals and Processes
• Signal and Systems