3.5 4.

Article

Modelling of a Single Passage Air

PV/T Solar Collector: Experimental
and Simulation Design

Noran Nur Wahida Khalili, Mahmod Othman, Mohd Nazari Abu Bakar and Lazim Abdullah

Special Issue
Sustainable Modelling, Processes and Applications for Societal Development
Edited by
Prof. Dr. Yoshimitsu Uemura, Dr. Jun-Wei Lim and Dr. Worapon Kiatkittipong

https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8070763
 processes
Article
Modelling of a Single Passage Air PV/T Solar
Collector: Experimental and Simulation Design
Noran Nur Wahida Khalili 1 , Mahmod Othman 1, * , Mohd Nazari Abu Bakar 2 and
Lazim Abdullah 3
1 Fundamental and Applied Sciences Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
Seri Iskandar 32610, Malaysia; noran_17005800@utp.edu.my
2 Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Arau 02600, Malaysia; mohdnazari@uitm.edu.my
3 School of Informatics and Applied Mathematics, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
Kuala Terengganu 21030, Malaysia; lazim_m@umt.edu.my
* Correspondence: mahmod.othman@utp.edu.my




Received: 1 May 2020; Accepted: 17 June 2020; Published: 29 June 2020


Abstract: The hybrid photovoltaic/thermal solar collector has attracted research attention for more
than five decades. Its capability to produce thermal energy simultaneously with electrical energy is
considered attractive since it provides higher total efficiency than stand-alone photovoltaic or thermal
systems separately. This paper describes theoretical and experimental studies of a finned single pass
air-type photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar collector. The performance of the system is calculated based
on one dimensional (1D) steady-state analysis using one dimensional energy balance equations, where
simulation was carried out using MATLAB. Experiments were carried out to observe the performance
of the solar collector under changes in air mass flow rate. Experimental values on photovoltaic panel
temperature and air temperature on both air inlet and outlet, together with the ambient temperature
and solar radiation were measured. The simulation results were validated against the results obtained
from experiments using the error analysis method, Root Mean Square Error. At a solar irradiance
level of 800 to 900 W/m2 , the thermal efficiency increases to 20.32% while the electrical efficiency
increases to 12.01% when the air mass flow rate increases from 0.00015 kg/s to 0.01 kg/s. The error
analysis shows that both experimental and simulation results are in good agreement.

Keywords: photovoltaic/thermal; solar collector; single pass; 1D steady-state

1. Introduction
The photovoltaic/thermal PV/T solar collector is a system of heat exchanger that is capable to
harness not only electrical energy, but also thermal energy from the solar radiation absorbed with no
noise, pollution or moving parts. PV/T is used to describe a solar thermal collector with integrated
PV cells that can produce electrical and thermal energy at the same time [1]. Solar energy could be
produced more effectively compared to operating individually, as the simultaneous operation of PV
and solar thermal collector offers higher solar conversion rates [2]. By combining both systems in the
same frames and brackets, PV/T also offers a smaller size collector that requires a smaller area and
lower equipment cost than having two collectors with different systems [3]. Therefore, researchers
have shown increasing interest in PV/T technology, wherein solar energy is predicted to be deeply
exploited and utilized.
Heat and electrical energy collection is the main consideration in the related factors that affect
the overall performance of the PV/T system [4]. The process of harnessing solar energy produces
thermal energy, which increase the temperature of the solar cells. This is because, in a conventional
PV solar collector, only photons with energy greater than or equal to the band-gap energy of the cells

Processes 2020, 8, 763; doi:10.3390/pr8070763 www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2020, 8, 763 2 of 17

will create electron-hole pairs and produce electricity [5]. The rest will be wasted in the form of heat.
Many studies showed that the open circuit voltage of a PV system is reduced if there is increase in
temperature, which could produce lower electrical efficiency. Therefore, it has been proposed and
proved that the overall PV system efficiency can be improved by the addition of a cooler, which could
reduce the temperature of the PV panel [6]. Working fluid, such as water and air, are usually chosen
as the medium of heat removal [7]. The role of the fluid is crucial to help reduce the temperature of
the PV module and increase its photovoltaic efficiency by removing excess heat [8]. Studies carried
out in previous years have investigated the effect of heat removing fluid. Water-typed PV/T collectors
have common parts. What makes them different is that while the flat plat collector has the transparent
glass on top, it is replaced with a plank PV for the water PV/T collector. Since the demand for clean
water, as well as thermal and electrical energy, increases day by day, solar distillation is often chosen to
convert contaminated water to clean water [9].
The studies in theoretical and experimental analysis of photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar collectors
have been conducted by researchers since the mid-1970s and have evolved overtime [3]. Wolf [10]
carried out some of the earliest analysis of the performance of combined solar photovoltaic and heating
systems for a single residence, while Florschuetz [11] extended the famous Hottel–Whillier model
to analyze the performance of the PV/T flat plate solar collector. The technology of air-based PV/T
innovation (PV plus thermal) is widely used and its known general operation efficiencies range from
20–40%. Since the efficiency of crystalline silicon cells range from 10–12%, the thermal part provides
the rest of the efficiency [12]. There are several designs of air passage for a solar PV/T that have been
used previously. Hegazy [13] performed a further study of the thermal, electrical, hydraulic and
overall performances of flat plate photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) air collectors. Four of the most preferred
designs are considered in this study. The models represent where the air is flowing, either over the
absorber (Model I) or under it (Model II) and on both sides of the absorber in a single pass (Model
III) or in a double pass fashion (Model IV). The effects of air-specific flow rate and the selectivity of
the absorber plate and PV cells on the performances have been examined. It has been found that
Model III has the highest efficiency in higher radiation, while Model I has the lowest performance.
Saygin et al. [14] proposed a modified photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar collector where, in the study,
air passes through a slot at the middle of the glass cover in the solar collector. They investigated the PV
system with no cooling and compared the PV/T collector with different distances between the panel
and glass cover (3 cm, 5 cm and 7 cm). In their research, they found that when the distance between
PV module and cover was 3 cm, the highest thermal performance was obtained while a 5 cm gap
between them gives out the highest electrical efficiency. Kumar and Rosen [15] investigated a double
pass photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar air heater attached with vertical fins in the lower channel.
Their findings showed that the solar cell temperature is reduced significantly from 82 ◦ C to 66 ◦ C.
It is also stated that one of the crucial parameters in designing PV/T collectors is the packing factor.
Dubey et al. [16] analyzed two types of PV module, glass-to-glass and glass-to-tedlar, with and without
duct (air pass way) and found that the first PV module type with duct produces higher efficiency than
second type of PV module. This occurred because the radiation that falls on the non-packing area of
the glass-to-glass PV module is transmitted through the glass cover, while in the other type of module,
all radiation is absorbed by the tedlar. The heat transfer occurs through conduction, causing higher
temperature of solar cells in glass to the tedlar-type, resulting in lower efficiency.
The researchers also show their interest in investigating the operation of water-type PV/T solar
collectors. Kiran and Devadiga [17] studied the performance of a PV/T system with water as a cooling
agent. It is found that without cooling, the electrical efficiency of the system is lower as compared to
when cooling is added. The total efficiency of PV/T system was found to be higher than the individual
stand-alone PV panel and currents solar water collector. Azad [18] has conducted a study comparing
the experimental analysis of two heat pipe solar collectors with different numbers of heat pipes and
a flow-through collector. Three collectors with six pipes, 12 pipes and one-flow through type have
been constructed and tested simultaneously. It is concluded that to increase the efficiency of heat
Processes 2020, 8, 763 3 of 17

pipe collectors, the number of heat pipes and the effective absorber area need to be increased by the
proper design of the heat pipe condenser. However, as water-type PV/T collector is costly and hard to
maintain, the air-type PV/T collector is often preferred.
It is known that the PV cell temperature change affects the electrical efficiency of the PV module.
Therefore, it is crucial to note the parameters that could affect the PV cells temperature; most importantly,
the PV cell encapsulation and material properties. The effects of external factors such as the solar
irradiance, ambient temperature and wind speed must also be considered [19]. A study has been
completed that proved the accumulation of dust, shading, and bird fouling has a significant effect on
PV current and voltage, and consequently, the harvested PV energy [20]. The changes in surrounding
conditions or atmospheric phenomena could be considered as the most affecting factors contributing
to the performance of a PV/T collector. An analytic expression for solar radiation can be defined on a
clear sunny day, however it is not possible during cloudy days. Hence, there has been a study on a
statistical tool to detect abnormal operating conditions that affect the performance of the PV panel
effectively for PV plants that are not equipped with a weather station [21].
The common method used to simulate a performance of a PV/T solar collector is a one-dimensional
(1D) energy balance equation representing the heat transfer occurring in the collector. Sathyamurthy et
al. [22] studied a one-dimensional energy balance equation and wrote a review on the enhancement
techniques of solar still, including flat plate collectors, pulsating heat pipes, concentrating collectors,
evacuated tube collectors, parabolic trough, thermoelectric effect, solar water heater and PV/T still.
Zondag et al. [23] used this method to investigate and compare the performance of seven different
design types of PV/T collectors to study the electrical and thermal efficiency of collectors of each
design which can be grouped into four; sheet-and-tube PV/T collector, channel PV/T collector, free
flow PV/T collector and two-absorber PV/T collector. It is concluded that the highest efficiency is
produced by channel-below-transparent-PV design. In [5], the researchers improved the PV/T solar
collector design which integrated a PV panel with a water heating component; a serpentine-shaped
copper tube and air heating component which is a single pass air channel. The simulations using
1D energy balance equations showed that when both fluids are operated alone, the total thermal and
electrical performances are only satisfactory, and higher when operated simultaneously. Tiwari and
Sodha [24] evaluated the overall performance of hybrid PV/thermal (PV/T) air collectors with different
configurations; unglazed and glazed PV/T air heaters, with and without tedlar. It is found that in
the unglazed PV/T module, there is no difference in the solar cell temperature of with and without
tedlar, except there is a slight increase in outlet air temperature in the model due to absence of tedlar.
Sarhaddi et al. [25] presented a detailed thermal and electrical model developed to calculate the thermal
and electrical parameters of a typical PV/T air collector which includes the parameters such as solar
cell, temperature, back surface temperature, outlet air temperature, open-circuit voltage, short-circuit
current, maximum power point, voltage, maximum power point current, etc.
In this study, a 1D mathematical model of energy balance equations was uniquely developed
representing the heat transfer in the solar collector system built. The simulation is used to represent
the solar collector system to better understand the effect of the parameter changes on the its
performance. Since the operation of the PV/T solar collector involves uncertainty of the weather
changes, the simulation is extensively used to carry out a comprehensive study. The unique design of
the solar collector that is used to develop the model in this study is a single pass air PV/T solar collector
attached with fins. The objective of this paper is to present a comprehensive mathematical model with
a focus on the simulation description details. The results of the simulation are then verified with actual
data collected from the experiment carried out. This paper is structured as follows. The design of
the solar collector fabricated specifically for this study is explained in Section 2. The mathematical
modelling representing the solar collector system is discussed in Theoretical Analysis in Section 3
and its solution in Section 4; while in Section 5, the experimental results obtained are presented as a
validation to the simulation results. The results and discussion are presented in Section 6, and the last
section is dedicated for the conclusion of the study.
Processes 2020, 8, 763 4 of 17

2. Design of Solar Collector

Based on the literature review, a design of a solar collector consists of a PV module and a single
pass air channel below the module as shown in Figure 1. This configuration has been widely used by
previous researchers, however, the system built in this study focuses on a compact design of an air
PV/T solar collector. The PV panel used is a commercial 50 W monocrystalline silicon CG-M050 panel
of dimension 69 cm × 54 cm × 3 cm. The PV panel is a three-layer panel with a tempered glass on
top and an absorber plate at the bottom, comprised of solar cells encapsulated by a thin adhesive
layer called ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA). Fins are added parallel to the air flow direction as a heat
transfer rate enhancement factor by providing augmented heat transfer area. The gap between the
absorber plate and the back plate created an air passage for the heat transfer. The system operated
with air is forced in and out of the collector by two 12 V DC fans to extract the excess heat from the
PV module to be converted into useful heat in other energy applications. Aluminium is selected to
fabricate the backplate and the fins attached on it by taking into account its ability absorb and transfer
heat from solar cell, as well as the density of the material and its economic viability [26]. The fabrication
of the PV panel into a solar collector was carried out by a collaboration with a local manufacturer.
All data from the experiment are collected through a data logger connected to a PC. The temperature,
air mass flow rate and solar irradiance are measured using temperature sensors, flowmeters and a
pyranometer respectively.

Figure 1. Exploded view of the photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) solar collector.

Figure 1 shows the exploded view of the designed air PV/T solar collector where the set of fins
can be seen attached to the backplate of the collector. The aluminium panel acts as a frame to support
the collector system, while Figure 2 shows the cross-sectional view of the collector.

Figure 2. Cross sectional view of the PV/T solar collector.

Processes 2020, 8, 763 5 of 17

3. Theoretical Analysis
In this study, a steady-state one dimensional analysis is obtained. The governing equations are
obtained which involve steady-state energy balance equations at various points of the solar collector.
The thermal schematic model of the collector is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The thermal schematic model of a finned single pass PV/T air solar collector.

To simplify the analysis, the following assumptions were made:

1. Steady state of energy transfer was achieved.

2. Heat capacity effects of the solar cells and back plate were neglected.
3. The temperatures of the glass cover, solar cells and plates vary only in the direction of air flow.
4. The side losses from the system are negligible.

Following the work by [23,27,28], the energy balance equations for each temperature nodes can
be written as follows:

1. For the nodes of the solar cells of the PV module;

(1 − ) + ( ) 1− 2 3 4
1
z }| { z }| { z }| { z }| {
    Ac  
τ g αp (=1 ℎ
− PF)G + pv (ℎPF) 1 − η(pv G
− τ g α+ −= h)cp+
f Tℎp − T f −+ hrpbp
+A ℎ Tp −−Tbp
ab (1)
5 6
z }| { z }| {
   
+hrps Tp − Ts + hcpw Tp − Tw

=ℎ ( − )+ℎ ( − )
2. For the air temperature nodes;

7
=1− (1 − )3 = =
. z }| { z }| {
mC f dT f   Aab  
= hcp f Tp − T f + hcbp f ηp Tbp − T f (2)
W dx Ac
 1
( − )η+ ℎ= 1 − A f in  ( − ℎ
) +efficiency, η( f in =
− tan)hmh
= f0in and m =
 2hcbp f 2
where fin effectiveness, p Aab 1 − η f in fin mh k f in w f in .
f in

3. For the nodes of the surface of back plate with fins;

8 7 4
z }| { z }| { z }| {
  Ac   Aab  
Ubp Tbp − Ta + hcbp f ηp Tbp − T f + hrpbp Tbp − Tp = 0 (3)
Aab Ac

The heat transfer terms involved in the equations above are defined as follows:

1. The rate of the solar energy absorbed by the absorber plate of the PV module per unit area.
2. The rate of the solar energy received by solar cells of the PV module after transmission and the
rate of electrical energy available per unit area.

1
= − + − + − + −
Processes 2020, 8, 763 6 of 17

3. The rate of heat transfer to the air flow per unit area.
4. The rate of energy radiated to the surface of the back plate and fins per unit area.
5. The rate of energy radiated to the sky per unit area.
6. The rate of heat transfer to the wind per unit area.
7. The rate of heat transfer to the air flow per unit area.
8. The rate of heat lost to ambient through back plate per unit area.

Equation (1) can be rearranged into:

!
  1      
X1 = A Tp − T f + B Tp − Tbp + C Tp − Ts + D Tp − Tw (4)
γ

The heat transfer coefficients are defined as

A = hcp f , B = hrpbp , C = hrps , D = hcpw

 
X1 = τ g αp (1 − PF)G + τ g αpv (PF) 1 − ηpv G,
Aab
γ=
Ac
Equation (2) can be rearranged into:

dT f    
X2 = A Tp − T f + Eγηp Tbp − T f , (5)
dx
where the heat transfer coefficients are defined as

E = hcbp f ,
.
mC f
X2 =
W
Equation (3) can be rearranged into:
     
Ubp Tbp − Ta = Eγηp T f − Tbp + Bγ Tbp − Tp . (6)

From Equations (4) and (6), the expression for temperature of absorber plate and backplate can be
written as Equations (7) and (8), respectively:

H17 − T f H15
Tp = (7)
H16

Tp H12 − T f hcp f − H11

Tbp = (8)
hrpbp
The variables Tp and Tbp can be eliminated from Equation (5) by substituting Equations (4) and (6)
into it. The following linear first order differential equation with boundary condition is obtained.

dT f
= A0 − A1 T f (9)
dx

Tf x=0
= Tin = Ta
Processes 2020, 8, 763 7 of 17

A0 and A1 are the constants obtained through algebraic manipulations where

H17 H18 − H11 H16 hcbp f γ2 ηp

A0 = .
mC f
W H16 hrpbp

H15 H18 + H16 H19

A1 = .
mC f
W H16 hrpbp
 
H11 = τ g αp (1 − PF)G + τ g αpv (PF) 1 − ηpv G + hrps Ts + hcpw Tw
hrpbp
H12 = hcp f + + hrps + hcpw
γ
hrpbp
H14 = Ubp + hcbp f γηp +
γ
H15 = hcp f H14 + hcbp f hrpbp ηp
!2
hrpbp
H16 = − H12 H14
γ
hrpbp
H17 = −H11 H14 − Ta Ubp
γ
H18 = hcp f hrpbp + hcbp f γ2 ηp H12

H19 = hrpbp H13 + hcp f hcbp f γ2 ηp

Solving the first order linear differential equation in Equation (9) gives the solution as expressed
in Equation (10) below:
A0 A
T f (x) = + Ta e−A1 x − 0 e−A1 x (10)
A1 A1
The average temperature of the PV is calculated using numerical integration rule as in Equation (11)
to obtain Equation (12).
Z Lc
1
Tpv = Tp = Tp dx (11)
Lc 0
Z Lc " # " # 
1 H17 H15  Ta −A1 Lc A0 A0 −A1 Lc Ta A0 
Tpv = Tp = Tp dx = − − e + Lc + e + −  (12)
Lc 0 H16 H16 Lc  A1 A1 (A1 )2 A1 (A1 )2 

Following are the heat transfer coefficients employed in the above equations. The radiative heat
transfer coefficient between the absorber plate of the PV panel and the sky is given by Equation (13) [25].
 h i
hrps = σε g Tp + Ts Tp 2 + Ts 2 (13)

where Ts is equivalent sky temperature represented by Swimbank’s formula [29] given by Equation (14).
 
Ts = 0.0552 Ta 1.5 (14)

The radiative heat transfer coefficient between the absorber plate and the backplate is obtained
from Equation (15).  h i
σε g Tp + Ts Tp 2 + Ts 2
hrpbp =     (15)
1−εpv 1 1−εbp Aab
εpv + Aab /Ac
+ εbp Ac
Processes 2020, 8, 763 8 of 17

The wind convective heat transfer coefficient is calculated by Equation (16) (in Mac Adam (1954)
as cited in [30]).
hw = 5.7(3.8v) (16)

The convective heat transfer coefficient between air and absorber plate is evaluated by Equation (17),
and between air and backplate by Equation (18).

Nuk f
hcp f = (17)
Dh

Nuk f
hcbp f = (18)
Dh
in which Dh is the cross-section area of the collector and k f is thermal heat conductivity in the air
channel given by Equation (19).
" !#
Tp + Tbp
k f = 1.0057 + 0.000066 − 300 1000 (19)
2

Nu, the Nusselt number is determined based on the flow of the air (laminar, transition and
turbulent) as determined in Equations (20)–(22) (Heaton (1964) as cited in [31]).
For Re < 2300 (Laminar flow),

D m
 
a (Re)(Pr) Lch
Nulam = Nure f + (20)
D n
 
1 + b (Re)(Pr) Lch

where
Nure f = 5.3, a = 0.00190, b = 0.00563, m = 1.71 and n = 1.17

For 2300 < Re < 6000 (Transition flow) (Hausen (1943) as cited in [32]),

     23  vis !0.14
2 1 D f
= 0.116 Re − 125 Pr 1 + h 
 
Nutran 3 3 (21)
Lc vispv

For Re > 6000 (Turbulent flow) [33],

Nuturb = 0.018Re0.8 Pr0.4 (22)

4. Solution to the Equations

The model explained in Section 3 is used to perform simulation by using MATLAB to analyze
the performance of the solar collector. The proposed algorithm built for the simulation is shown in
the flowchart in Figure 4. The program is initiated with the setting up of the values of parameters
(Table 1) and estimated temperatures of the absorber plate, Tp and the temperature of the back plate,
Tbp which are then used to calculate the temperature of air and thermophysical properties of the fluids.
Then, the simulation runs to calculate the values of the temperature of air, T f to be used to compute the
new value of Tp and Tbp . The process continues by calculating the difference between the estimated
temperature and the computed temperature. If the difference calculated is less than 0.01 ◦ C, the process
stops iterating, and the new computed values of the temperature will replace the old ones.
Processes 2020, 8, 763 9 of 17

Begin

Set the parametric values such as , , , ,

and all heat transfer coefficients

Estimate initial temperature for and

Calculate using the initially guessed temperatures

Substitute into the energy balance equations to

compute new values of and

Calculate the difference between the guessed temperature and

new computed temperature of and

Check if the temperature

difference is less than 0.01°C

End of iteration. Replace the old temperature of and with the new
computed ones. Calculate the electrical, thermal and total efficiency

End

Figure 4. Flowchart for the MATLAB algorithm.

Processes 2020, 8, 763 10 of 17

Table 1. Values of coefficients and ambient conditions used in the simulations.

Parameter Value Parameter Value

Width of collector Wc 0.54 Height of fin h f in 0.01905
Length of collector Lc 0.69 Width of fin w f in 0.001
Depth of collector Dc 0.02 Distance between fins d f in 0.05
Absorptivity of PV αpv 0.938 Number of fins n f in 9
Absorptivity of absorber plate αp 0.951 Ambient temperature (K) Ta 303
Absorptivity of glass αg 0.06 Wind speed v 2.0
Emissivity of PV εpv 0.8 Irradiance G 800
The solar cell temperature at reference
Emissivity of glass εg 0.94 Tre f 298
condition
Emissivity of back plate εbp 0.96 PV panel power temperature coefficient βre f 0.005444
Electrical efficiency at the reference
Electrical conductivity α 5.67 × 10−8 ηre f 0.14
temperature

Energy Analysis
The thermal efficiency is calculated by simplifying the equations by [23]:
.
mC f (T0 − Ti )
ηth = (23)
Ac G

The efficiency of crystalline silicon cells decreases with increasing temperature, since the open
circuit voltage and fill factor decreases, but the short circuit current slightly increases. The electrical
efficiency of the collector written as a function of temperature based on [23,34] is as follows:
  
ηele = ηre f 1 − βre f Tpv − Tre f (24)

Since there is difference in the nature of the electrical and thermal energy, the total overall thermal
equivalent efficiency of a PV/T solar collector, as referred to [11] is calculated as:

ηtotal = ηth + ηele (25)

5. Experimental Validation
The PV/T solar collector is set up (see Figure 5) for data collection in the compound of Universiti
Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP). The set-up is based on the following conditions. To simplify the analysis,
the following assumptions were made:

1. Mounting Location—PV modules can be mounted on ground, where a power source is available,
while heat capacity effects of the solar cells and back plate were neglected.
2. Shading—Photovoltaic arrays are adversely affected by shading. A well-designed PV system
needs clear and unobstruct access to the sun’s rays from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. Even small shadows,
such as the shadow of a single branch of a leafless tree can significantly reduce the power output
of a solar module. Keep in mind that an area may be unshaded during one part of the day but
shaded at another part of the day.
3. Orientation—PV modules are ideally oriented towards true south.
4. Tilt—The PV modules need to be installed according to the latitude angle of the location where
it is placed. For the compound of UTP where the collector system is installed, the tilt angle is
approximately 4.3590◦ .
Processes 2020, 8, 763 11 of 17

Figure 5. Experiment set-up for data collection of the PV/T solar collector.

Validation methods were performed by comparing results obtained experimentally and

theoretically based on the trend shown on the related graphs. In this study, the error analysis
performed was Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) [25];
v
t n
1 1 X 2
= =
RMSE − − x, exp,i
,xsim,i (26)
n
i=1

6. Results and Discussion

The mathematical model that was developed is used to carry out the simulation in MATLAB and
the data collected from the experiment were used to calculate the performance of the solar collector.
The algorithm in Figure 4 is used in predicting the values of parameters in the simulation, which are
validated using the experimental results. The developed model is said to be valid if the results of both
theoretical and experimental curves show good agreement. The results obtained from the simulation
and experiment carried out are shown graphically in the figures below.
As the mass flow rate is set higher, the PV and outlet temperature drops. This can be seen in the
graph of temperature rise (difference between inlet air temperature and outlet air temperature) against
the air mass flow rate (Figure 6). The temperature rise decreases with the increase in air mass flow rate
since heat was transferred away by the moving air.
Processes 2020, 8, 763 12 of 17

25

Temperature Rise (K)

20

15

10

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Mass Flowrate (kg/s)

Experiment results Simulation results

Figure 6. Comparison between the theoretical and experimental results on the effect of air mass flow
−
rate to the temperature at G = 800–900 Wm−2 and Ta,avg
, = 310 K.

Figures 7 and 8 show the effects of an increase in air mass flow rate on the collector efficiencies;
electrically and thermally. At a solar irradiance level of 800 to 900 W/m2 , the thermal efficiency increases
to 20.32% while electrical efficiency increases to 12.01% when the air mass flow rate increases from
0.00015 kg/s to 0.01 kg/s. It can be concluded that the solar collector system achieved an optimum
thermal efficiency when the air mass flow rate approached 0.01 kg/s, while optimum electrical efficiency
was achieved at an air mass flow rate of 0.02 kg/s. In connection with Figure 6, it can be seen that when
mass flow rate increases, the thermal efficiency increases since the average temperature of the collector
drops, until a certain point. The increase in mass flow rate increases the heat transfer coefficient
between the air and the air channel; which leads to a decrease in photovoltaic cells. This caused
the electrical efficiency to increase, although the increase is comparatively small to the increase in
mass flow rate. In spite of that, it is shown in Figure 5 that the electrical efficiency increases with
the mass flow rate. In the simulation carried out, the environmental parameters are set such that
ambient temperature is at 310 K, solar irradiance at 850 W/m2 , and wind speed at 2 m/s. While the
high flow rate produced thermal efficiency for the collector, it also increased the unnecessary electricity
demand to operate the fans. However, if the air mass flow rate is too low, the collector temperature
increases which leads to lower electrical efficiency. Hence, it will only be beneficial if the mass flow
rate is kept at an optimum point because the significant increase in efficiencies is only at a low flow
rate and approaches a plateau at higher flow rates. While thermal efficiency showed good agreement
between simulation and experimental results, the slight difference between the simulated value and
actual electrical efficiency is due to the fact that the data are collected under natural Malaysian weather
conditions. The uncertainty of weather is a challenge faced during the data collection process since any
atmospheric changes could affect the performance of the solar collector. However, due to the chaotic
nature of weather to be simulated, the model is highly sensitive to the initial conditions which could
lead to a very different realization of the simulated weather [35]. Therefore, since the results obtained
in this study are of a similar trend presented in previous studies, it could be said that the simulation
and experimental results are in good agreement.
Processes 2020, 8, 763 13 of 17

0.25
0.25

0.2
0.2

efficiency
Thermalefficiency 0.15
0.15

0.1
Thermal

0.1

0.05
0.05

0
0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012
Mass flowrate (kg/s)
Mass flowrate (kg/s)
Experimental results Simulation results
Experimental results Simulation results

Figure 7. Comparison between the theoretical and experimental results on the effect of air mass flow
−
rate to the thermal efficiency at G = 800–900 Wm−2
− and Ta,avg
, = 307.5 K.
,

0.16
0.16
0.14
0.14
efficiency

0.12
Electricalefficiency

0.12
0.1
0.1
0.08
0.08
Electrical

0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.02
0
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Mass Flowrate (kg/s)
Mass Flowrate (kg/s)
Experiment results Simulation results
Experiment results Simulation results

Figure 8. Comparison between the theoretical and experimental results on the effect of air mass flow
−
rate to the electrical efficiency at G = 800–900 Wm−2 ,
− and Ta,avg = 310 K.
,

Figure 9 shows the relationship between current production and solar irradiance. Both are directly
proportional and it is shown in the figure that the higher the solar radiation, the higher the current
produced. In a silicon solar panel, the electron band, E g , decreases with increasing temperature and it
enabled the absorption of additional photons [36]. These additional photons consequently slightly
increase the short-circuit current, Isc (photocurrent), produced. The graph in Figure 10 depicts a
bell-curved shape which shows the solar radiation reading captured by the pyranometer throughout a
day of the experiment carried out. The radiation increases when it approaches noon, and decreases
when the sun sets. The ambient temperature that was recorded during the day increases from 30.64 ◦ C
in the morning to 38.85 ◦ C during noon and later decreases to 33.53 ◦ C in the evening.
Processes 2020, 8, 763 14 of 17

2.5

Current (A) 1.5

0.5

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Solar Irradiance (W/m2)

Figure 9. Direct relationship between current produced by the PV panel and the solar irradiance.

1000
900
800
Solar radiation (W/m2)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min)

Figure 10. Reading of solar irradiance throughout a day (6 November 2019) during experiment.

The results of the error analysis performed on the data collected experimentally and theoretically
are summarized in Table 2. When the ambient temperature is at 301–304 K, the values of RMSE for
the thermal efficiency, ηߟth௧௛when solar irradiance are 100–200 W/m2 , 300–400 W/m2 and 500–700 W/m2
are 0.07%, 0.10% and 0.02% respectively. Meanwhile, for electrical efficiency, ߟη௘௟௘ ele , when ambient
temperature is at 301–304 K, the RMSE values are 0.02%, 0.03% and 0.02%. On average, the values of
RMSE for Tܶ௣௩
pv , Tܶ௙
f , ηߟth௧௛, ηele
ߟ௘௟௘and Triseܶ௥௜௦௘
are 5.99%, 7.74%, 0.07%, 0.02% and 5.38% respectively.
௣௩ ௙ ௧௛ ௘௟௘ ௥௜௦௘

ࢀ࢖࢜ ࢀࢌ ࣁ࢚ࢎ ࣁࢋ࢒ࢋ ࢀ࢘࢏࢙ࢋ

Processes 2020, 8, 763 15 of 17

Table 2. Values of coefficients and ambient conditions used in the simulations.

Ambient Solar Irradiance Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) (%)

Temp. (K) (W/m2 ) Tpv Tf ηth ηele Trise
100–200 5.22 1.56 0.07 0.02 5.46
301–304 300–400 5.31 4.00 0.10 0.03 6.68
500–700 4.69 9.96 0.02 0.02 2.93
100–200 5.40 0.98 0.18 0.02 6.15
300–400 3.26 5.15 0.08 0.02 5.16
305–306
500–600 3.86 9.74 0.02 0.02 3.34
700–800 5.68 14.01 0.02 0.02 3.62
100–200 8.09 0.92 0.17 0.02 8.66
300–400 5.54 5.67 0.08 0.04 6.92
307–308
500–700 4.69 12.03 0.02 0.02 3.92
800–900 7.20 16.72 0.01 0.02 3.96
100–400 9.12 3.10 0.09 0.03 11.17
309–311
800–900 9.83 16.76 0.00 0.02 1.98

7. Conclusions
A PV/T solar collector integrating a PV module and a single pass air channel with a compact size
design is discussed in this paper. As an enhancing factor of the heat transfer, a set of fins parallel to the
air flow was attached to the back plate. A set of one-dimensional heat transfer equations representing
the collector system was developed by constructing the temperature nodes at various points; on the PV
module, back plate, air inlet and air outlet. The developed model was used to simulate the performance
of the PV/T solar collector in MATLAB. A focus on comprehensive mathematical modelling and a
detailed description of the simulation process was presented to provide a clear understanding of the
model developed. From the experiment that was carried out, the following conclusions are made in
this study; the developed model portrayed the performance of the solar collector since the results of
both simulation and experiment are in good agreement. Hence, the model developed for the solar
collector could contribute to the further analysis on the performance of the PV/T solar collector with
different configurations, under different parameters.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed for this study. Conceptualization, N.N.W.K., M.O., M.N.A.B.
and L.A.; methodology, N.N.W.K., M.O. and M.N.A.B.; validation, M.O., M.N.A.B. and L.A.; formal analysis,
N.N.W.K., M.O. and M.N.A.B.; resources, N.N.W.K. and M.N.A.B.; software, N.N.W.K., M.N.A.B.; supervision,
M.O., M.N.A.B. and L.A.; writing—original draft preparation, N.N.W.K. and M.O.; writing—review and editing,
M.O., M.N.A.B. and L.A.; funding acquisition, M.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Yayasan Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, grant number 0153AA-H27.
Acknowledgments: This research was supported by Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia. The authors
would like to convey their gratitude to the reviewers for their significant remarks and suggestion for this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Processes 2020, 8, 763 16 of 17

Nomenclature
Aab total exposed surface area (m2 ) bp back plate
Ac solar collector surface area (m2 ) c convection
Cf specific heat capacity of fluid (J/(kg K)) f fluid
h heat transfer coefficient g PV panel tempered glass
.
m air mass flow rate (kg/s) i input
T temperature (K) o output
U overall heat loss coefficient (W/(m K2 )) pv PV
vis f fluid viscosity r radiative
w f in fin thickness (m) s sky
w wind
Greek Letters
η efficiency Abbreviations
ele electrical
Subscripts PF packing factor
a ambient th thermal

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