INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH

M. S. Aziz et al., Vol.13, No.4, December, 2023

Performance Comparison of the Standard

Photovoltaic Thermal Collector (PVT) and
Photovoltaic Thermal Collector with Phase Change
Materials (PVT-PCM)
Muhammad Syazwan Aziz* , Adnan Ibrahim*‡ , Muhammad Amir Aziat Bin Ishak* , Anwer. B. Al-
Aasam * , Ahmad Fazlizan* , Ag Sufiyan Abd Hamid** ,

* Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, 43600, Malaysia
** Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu 88400, Malaysia
(azizmsyazwan@gmail.com, iadnan@ukm.edu.my, amiraziat93@gmail.com, anwor.bassim@gmail.com, a.fazlizan@ukm.edu.my, pian@ums.edu.my)

‡Adnan Ibrahim, Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, Tel: + 60 389118581, iadnan@ukm.edu.my

Received: 31.01.2023 Accepted:05.03.2023

Abstract- The purpose of this study is to evaluate the thermal and electrical efficiency of PVT-PCM and PVT for photovoltaic
thermal collectors. A square absorber tube with PCM was utilized in the study, introducing a new approach to photovoltaic
thermal collectors. COMSOL computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software was employed to carry out the simulations, and the
tests were conducted as indoor experiments in a lab. Water was used as the transmission fluid in this study. Different volume
flow rates ranging from 1–3 LPM were assessed for both experiment and simulation by considering the radiation range of 400,
600, and 800W/m2. At a volume flow rate of 2 LPM, experimental results showed that PVT-PCM achieved higher electrical
and thermal efficiencies of 9.95% and 88.3%, respectively, compared to the simulation results of 10.0% and 86.5%. Comparable
outcomes were seen with both the simulation and experiment.
Keywords Jet impingement, Photovoltaic Thermal (PVT), Heat transfer, Solar collector, CFD simulation

1. Introduction reduced installation costs when the two systems are integrated
into one place [8]–[10]. Furthermore, it can be said that PVT
The overall efficiency of photovoltaic systems has systems could be further enhanced by employing alternative
increased with continuous expansion in solar energy design structures and materials in an appropriate quantity
applications. Conventional photovoltaic (PV panels) differs without resulting in bad energy prices or prolonged payback
based on the composition material, but in order to produce periods [11]–[14]. PVT units' combined thermal and electrical
electricity, the PV panels generally only need photon from efficiencies were identical to the overall efficiency because
light [1]–[3]. However, solar radiation's heat causes the PVT systems are segmented on the employed working fluid as
temperature of PV panels to inflate, which reduces their well as the configurations of the collector. Another option
electrical efficiency [4]. Cooling methods can be introduced would include the collector being a tube, heat pipe, sheet, or
to avoid this reduction [5], [6]. One method would be others [15], [16]. To enhance the overall system efficiency,
combining the collectors into a hybrid system called various collector configurations have been examined for
Photovoltaic-Thermal (PVT). Most current PVT research different systems [17], [18].
studies have concentrated on systems that employ water as a
A water-based photovoltaic thermal simulation employed
heat transfer fluid because of the higher heat capacity when
seven new absorber collector design configurations. A range
contrasted with air, enabling the system to continue year-
of rectangular and round hollow tubes was considered to
round operation [7]. Due to this, better efficiencies of thermal
choose the cross-sectional shape of the absorber. The most
and electrical can be achieved with water systems versus air
efficient one was the spiral flow design, which had a cell
systems. Other benefits include space conservation and
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RENEWABLE ENERGY RESEARCH
M. S. Aziz et al., Vol.13, No.4, December, 2023

efficiency of 11.98% and a thermal efficiency of 50.12% [19]. of 68C for the PV module, while the spiral flow system
Ibrahim et al. built a pair of PVT water collectors. One achieved the lowest temperature of 45.2C. Al-Waeli et al. [30]
collector would be a spiral flow absorber, and the other would used a nanofluid and nano-PCM-based PVT to improve a PV
be a single-pass rectangular tunnel [20]. According to the module's electrical performance and characteristics, obtaining
data, the spiral flow configuration achieved the maximum a maximum PV efficiency of 13.7% compared to 7.1% for a
electrical and thermal efficiency levels. Three PVT water conventional PV module.
collectors were developed and compared by Sopian et al.
This paper presents a novel approach to enhancing the
regarding thermal performance before fabricating prototypes
thermal performance of the PVT system by using a square
[21]. The first was a direct collector, the second was a parallel
absorber tube with PCM. The study analyzed the impacts of
collector, and the third was a split flow collector. PVT
PCMs and thermal collectors separately for PVT systems. The
systems with split flow designs are deemed more efficient
numerical performance of the systems was evaluated and
since cold water passes from both sides of each flow. Thus, a
compared to different thermal collector designs. Additionally,
split-flow design can increase a water-based PVT system's
the effects of solar radiation level and mass flow rates on
thermal and electrical efficiency. Mihai et al. [22] propose an
temperature and overall system performance were assessed for
innovative technical solution for increasing PVT efficiency by
the system.
equipping PV panels with a cooling system and integrating a
water-to-water heat pump with hot water storage, resulting in
2. Research Description
an overall increase in efficiency of up to 45%, and making it
more competitive than separate use of PV panels and solar
collectors. Barbu et al. [23] investigated the potential solution Three different water flow rates (1, 2, and 2.5 L/min) and
of integrating solar renewable energy in the district heating by three different radiation levels (400, 600, and 800W/m2) were
using a system of PVT to cover the domestic hot water (DHW) used to evaluate the system numerically and experimentally.
requirements of the end-users, which generated both These systems were connected to solar panels, one without
electricity and heat in a micro-cogeneration system with good PCM signifying PVT while the other employing PCM
thermal and energy outputs. signifying PVT-PCM. The models were validated via
experiments. The systems have been designed based on
The main functions of PCMs in PVT include improved comparable-sized elements and generally use the same
cooling for PV modules and thermal energy for working fluid designs and calculations as the numerical models. The spiral-
flow via thermal collectors [24], [25]. Moreover, the heat of designed absorber tube is attached to the PV panel by
a PV module can be controlled using PCM materials, which eliminating any air gap between them to enhance heat
can hold a considerable amount of heat when they transition transmission.
from solid to liquid. Although such materials could be liquid
or solid, they absorb sensible heat. This phenomenon helps to 2.1. Numerical Investigations
eliminate heat from objects like solar panels when in close
contact. The 3D models have been created by using COMSOL
The performance pertaining to a PVT system in the software. Therefore, a square cross-section is present for the
presence and absence of PCM was numerically compared by absorber tubes of these models. Fig. 1 depicts the PVT and
Gaur et al. in France [26]. The temperatures of different PVT-PCM systems.
system components were evaluated by designing a thermal
model. During winter, achievement of 16.5% and 16.87% of
electrical efficiency was possible, while a specific range of
ambient temperature and solar irradiation was employed in
this study. As per Fayaz et al., the heat transfer and
performance of water-based PVT systems can be improved
with PCM [27]. Kyaligonza et al. [28] utilized a 3D numerical
model to compare four solar module configurations and
validate their proposed three configurations of PVT-PCM,
which achieved the highest conversion efficiency and specific
electrical power per unit area and found that a 0.5m/s increase
in inlet velocity resulted in a 0.06% increase in efficiency.
Hussein et al. [29] conducted experiments and numerical
simulations to evaluate the electrical and thermal performance
of three types of PVT flow configurations: direct, web, and
spiral flow. The results show that PVT systems have higher
efficiency in converting solar radiation energy to electrical and Fig. 1 PVT and PVT-PCM systems
thermal energy than conventional PV modules. The spiral
flow collector achieved the highest electrical efficiency of Table 1 Properties of solar module's layers [31]
9.1%, while the spiral flow and direct flow collectors had the Specific
Thermal
highest overall efficiencies of 35% and 27.5%, respectively. Layer
Thickness Density
conductivity
heat
The PVT web flow system exhibited the highest temperature (m) (kg/m3) capacity
(W/m.K)
(J/kg.K)

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Tempered
0.032 2450 0.7 790 5. At all solid boundaries of the fluid passing path: no‐slip
glass condition
EVA 0.0005 960 0.311 2090
PV cell 0.00021 2330 130 677
PVF 0.0003 1200 0.15 1250 𝑢=𝑣=𝑤=0 (7)

Table 2 Properties of Paraffin Wax [32] 6. At the inlet:

Properties Solid phase Liquid phase
Melting point 56 (oC) 56 (oC) mass flow rate 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑑𝑜𝑡, and 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑛 (8)
Latent heat 142.7 (kJ/kg) 142.7 (kJ/kg)
Thermal conductivity 0.4 (W/m oC ) 0.2 (W/m.oC ) 7. At the outlet:
Density 670 (kg/m3) 640 (kg/m3)
Specific heat 2.4 (kJ/kg oC ) 1.6 (kJ/kg oC ) 𝑝=0 (9)

The COMSOL software ran a 3D numerical simulation in Laboratory-based experimental data were used to verify
stationary state conditions. The simulation assumes the the present 3D simulation of the PVT. Comparing the
following: 100% transmissivity to be present in the EVA PV simulation's heat efficiency findings versus the experimental
layer, no dust on the PV surface can impact solar energy results and the results from Adnan et al.'s system [26].
absorption, and the flow is incompressible and laminar. The Furthermore, these numerical results aligned with
following can be regarded to be the key partial differential photovoltaic thermal collectors (PVT) performance with
equations as thermal energy equations for fluid and solid different absorbers designs [19]. As shown in Table 3, this
layers and continuity and momentum equations pertaining to simulation could offer reliable results to analyze and validate
fluid layers: the PV performance.

Thermal energy equation [33], [34]: Table 3 Simulation results validated with experimental.
Adnan et al. [19] Present Present
𝜌𝐶𝑃 𝑢. ∇𝑇 + ∇. q = Q + 𝑄𝑡𝑒𝑑 , 𝑞 = −𝑘∇𝑇 (1) simulation work experimental work
GT ηth GT ηth GT ηth
Continuity equation: 437.13 51.84 400 45.04 400 43.39
631.40 52.15 600 53.78 600 50.25
𝜌∇. 𝑢 = 0 (2) 812.72 52.13 800 58.11 800 58.64

Momentum equation: In a real-world scenario, wind speed and solar radiation

keep changing constantly. The PVT system is regarded to be
𝜌(𝑢. ∇)𝑢 = ∇. [−𝑃𝑙 + 𝐾] + 𝐹 (3) dynamic with regard to functioning. Due to this, the 3D
stationary model can be deemed a viable alternative to deal
Regarding the fluid, structural and explicit simulations, with challenges and ambiguities pertaining to time-consuming
COMSOL meshing technologies provide physics choices that 3D dynamic models. Thus, the current examination employs
aid in automating the meshing process. The program will 1000 W/m2 of radiation for the experiment.
adjust to more logical meshing settings if the physics option is
set in the software. Boundary conditions are based on the 2.2. The experimental Investigations
following [35]–[38]:
The systems have been evaluated in an experimental
1. At the top surface of the PVT: General inward heat flux indoor setup; Fig 2 and 3 demonstrate the system and the
equipment employed in the experiment. Indoor tests in the
2. At the top surface of the PVT: diffuse surface condition laboratory can yield accurate measurements since, in such
situations, solar radiation can be controlled. This study
4 employed three PV modules. A conventional PV module was
−𝑛. 𝑞 = 𝜀𝜎(𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 − 𝑇 4 ), (4)
the first one. The second PV panel was linked to the spiral
where σ is the Stefan‐Boltzmann constant design of a tube absorber as a PVT system, and the final one
has deemed the same PVT system as PCM. The specification
3. At the top surface of the PVT: convective heat flux was identical since testing of all models was done on the same
PV panel.
𝑞𝑜 = ℎ. (𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑡 − 𝑇) (5)

4. At the side boundaries of the PVT module: insulation

−𝑛. 𝑞 = 0 (6)

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Water flow is initiated to regulate and stabilize the

requisite flow precisely. The tests were conducted such that
the parameters' accuracy was well preserved. Next, the solar
simulator was activated per the volumetric flow rate to prevent
any pre-heating of the components from obtaining accurate
outcomes. It was observed that the data remained stable with
practically no change after 20-30 minutes, subject to various
volumetric flow rates.

Each sample's data were compared and analyzed for any

substantial inaccuracies or differences. Nonetheless, the
researchers considered the data produced after at least an hour
of testing to ensure stability and to prevent any errors or
Fig. 2 PVT / PVT-PCM back-end system ambiguities in the data. The schematic arrangement of the
internal experimentation, including all equipment and parts,
This segment discusses the components and tools used to their location, and fixtures, is systematically illustrated in Fig.
gather data in this experiment. An AC-power-supply 4.
transformer-powered solar simulator with 70 500-W halogen
lights was deployed for supplying irradiance to solar systems.
Standard equipment and gear were used to gather data from
the research. The TES 132 solar power meter, a digital flow
meter DHYB-800, a thermocouple k-type, an IV tracer
PROVA 1011, and a data taker DT 85 were a few of the most
crucial tools and technologies used. Instruments were affixed
to the systems at the necessary places to gather data, which
was then scrutinized to accomplish the study's objectives. The
instruments do not function perfectly, and each comprises
some error. Table 4 shows the error rate of the instruments
utilized in the tests. Table 5 shows that the used model of the
PV panel was VE-100-36M model specifications.

Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of an indoor experimental setup

including all components and equipment.

Most instruments have inaccuracies, where inaccuracy is

defined as the difference between what it does and reads.
Some instruments are complex to calibrate, while some can be
Fig. 2 PVT / PVT-PCM back-end system easily calibrated, and errors can be reduced to obtain accurate
readings. Nonetheless, in most cases, errors cannot be
Table 4 The experiment's measuring equipment. overlooked entirely. Thus, uncertainty evaluation is required
to understand equipment-related errors that may develop in the
Instruments Error rate
investigation. For the evaluation of uncertainty, Eq. (1) has
TES 132 solar power meter ∓10 𝑊 ⁄𝑚 2 or 5%
been used [39]
thermocouple k-type 0.1 oC
A digital flow meter DHYB- 0.5%
𝜕𝑅 2 𝜕𝑅 2 𝜕𝑅 2 0.5
800 𝑊𝑅 = [(𝜕𝜒 𝜔1 ) + (𝜕𝜒 𝜔2 ) + ⋯ + (𝜕𝜒 𝜔𝑛 ) ] (10)
1 2 𝑛

Table 5 The specifications of the PV panel

Electrical performance under Standard Test Conditions WR represents uncertain outcomes. (ω1, ω2, …, ωn) are the
(STC) independent variable uncertainties, whereas R is a known
Rated Maximum Power Pmax 100 W function of (χ1, χ2, …, χn). Before extrapolating to additional
The voltage at Maximum Power Vmp 18.59 V experiments, the uncertainty in the present research's statistics
Current at Maximum Power Imp 5.38 A was estimated as in Table 6. The result has an uncertainty of
Open Circuit Voltage Voc 22.42 less than 3%, which is a good indication of the precision of the
Short Circuit Current Isc 5.76 A measurement.

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Table 6 The PVT system measurements' uncertainties.

The uncertainty Symbol Value
In the thermal efficiency WR1 1.96%
In the electrical efficiency WR2 1.00%
In the experiment's overall WR 2.20%

3. Evaluation Results and Rationale

3.1. Effects of mass flow rate on thermal efficiency

Thermal efficacy is dependent on temperature differential

and mass flow rate. Figs. 5, 6, and 7 illustrate the differences
in water outlet temperature and thermal efficacy from Eq. (11)
with the values of the volume flow rate 1, 1.5, and 2 LPM
under solar irradiation of 400, 600, and 800 W/m2 [40], [41].

𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑚 𝑜 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇𝑖 )⁄𝐼 ∗ 𝐴 (11)

Fig. 7 Changes in water outlet temperature and thermal
Where mo represents mass flow rate, Cp represents the efficiency with various volume flow rates under 800 W/m2
specific heat capacity of heat transfer fluid, To represents solar irradiance
outlet temperature, Ti represents inlet temperature, I is the
solar irradiance intensity, and A represents the collector area. Adding PCM to the PVT system significantly improved
since the thermal efficacy rose by about 15% in all situations.
Nonetheless, there was no entire match between the
theoretical estimates and experimental outcomes since ideal
conditions were used in the simulation, while the experimental
conditions were practically the same. The experiment was
conducted under laboratory conditions, with cooling
equipment regulating the inlet temperature of the water
ranging from 19 to 22 degrees. For simulation, water was
assumed to be at 20 degrees, and the PV surface was exposed
to radiation values of 400, 600, and 800W/m2. Additionally,
solar simulators were employed, and there was a very small
deviation of ∓50 W/m2 between the required radiation
intensity and the PV surface area's radiation intensity. Fig. 8
illustrates the PV panel surface temperature distribution with
the solar radiation change for both systems, PVT-PCM and
PVT. Even though PCM use significantly decreases the
Fig. 5 Changes in water outlet temperature and thermal temperature in regions not having tubes for cooling under the
efficiency with various volume flow rates under 400 W/m2 PV, the highest PV surface temperature is displayed in Figs. 9
solar irradiance and 10.

Fig. 6 Changes in water outlet temperature and thermal

efficiency with various volume flow rates under 600 W/m2 Fig. 8 Temperature distribution of the system at volume flow
solar irradiance rate 2 LPM and 600 W/m2 PVT-PCM

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Although using Phase Change Material (PCM) can Fig. 13 shows the effect of solar radiation on the I-V and
significantly reduce the temperature in regions without PV properties of the photovoltaic cell measured at PVT and
cooling tubes under the PV module, the highest temperature PVT-PCM at irradiance of 800W/m2. In Fig. 13, it can be
of the PV surface can still be observed, as depicted in Figs. 9 observed that an increase in solar radiation leads to an increase
and 10. This could be attributed to the uneven heat in the current and voltage of the PV cell. However, the voltage
distribution on the PV surface, especially in areas with no decreases slightly at higher solar radiation levels while the
PCM. current increases. As a result, the power output of the PV cell
increases with increasing solar radiation up to a certain point,
beyond which it starts to decrease due to the decrease in
voltage. Additionally, as the volume flow rate increases, the
PV cell's temperature decreases, leading to increased PV
efficiency. Compares the thermal efficiency of the PVT,
which is difficult to evaluate due to varying factors such as
technology, absorber tube design, location, and configuration
in previous studies.

Fig. 9 Simulation finding for the changes in PV surface's

maximum temperature with various mass flow rates

Fig. 11 Simulation finding for the changes in PV surface's

maximum temperature with various mass flow rates

Fig.10 Experimental findings for the changes in PV

surface's maximum temperature with various mass flow rates

3.2. . Effect of mass flow rate on PV panel efficiency

Since efficiency decreases with increasing temperature,

the average surface temperature directly impacts the PV cell's
efficiency. Figs. 11 and 12 illustrate the average surface
temperature and electrical efficacy as a function of the Fig. 12 Experimental findings for the changes in PV
experimental volume flow rate. surface's maximum temperature with various mass flow rates

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3.5 45
Acknowledgments

40 The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher

3
35 Education of Malaysia under the Fundamental Research Grant
2.5 Scheme (FRGS/1/2019/TK07/UKM/02/4) and the Faculty of
30
Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah
2 25 (UMS) under SPBK-UMS phase 1/2022 (SBK0518-2022)
20
(UMS) research grants.
1.5
15
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