2-18 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

• Use of recommended design procedures and software

for sizing bridge waterways;
• Location and design of bridges to resist damage from
scour and hydraulic loads created by stream current,
ice, and debris;
• Calculation of magnitude of contraction scour, local
scour, and countermeasures thereto;
• Design of relief bridges, road overtopping, guide
banks, and other river training works; and
• Procedures for hydraulic design of bridge-size culverts.

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2.6.2—Site Data C2.6.2

A site-specific data collection plan shall include The assessment of hydraulics necessarily involves
consideration of: many assumptions. Key among these assumptions
are the roughness coefficients and projection of long-term
• Collection of aerial and/or ground survey data for flow magnitudes, e.g., the 500-yr flood or other
appropriate distances upstream and downstream from superfloods. The runoff from a given storm can be expected
the bridge for the main stream channel and its to change with the seasons, immediate past weather
floodplain; conditions, and long-term natural and man-made
changes in surface conditions. The ability to statistically
• Estimation of roughness elements for the stream and project long recurrence interval floods is a function of the
the floodplain within the reach of the stream under adequacy of the database of past floods, and such
study; projections often change as a result of new experience.
• Sampling of streambed material to a depth sufficient to The above factors make the check flood
ascertain material characteristics for scour analysis; investigation of scour an important, but highly
variable, safety criterion that may be expected to be
• Subsurface borings; difficult to reproduce, unless all of the
• Factors affecting water stages, including high water Designer s original assumptions are used in a post-design
from streams, reservoirs, detention basins, tides, and scour investigation. Obviously, those original
flood control structures and operating procedures; assumptions must be reasonable given the data,
conditions, and projections available at the time of the
original design.
• Existing studies and reports, including those conducted
in accordance with the provisions of the National Flood
Insurance Program or other flood control programs;
• Available historical information on the behavior of the
stream and the performance of the structure during past
floods, including observed scour, bank erosion, and
structural damage due to debris or ice flows; and
• Possible geomorphic changes in channel flow.

2.6.3—Hydrologic Analysis C2.6.3

The Owner shall determine the extent of hydrologic The return period of tidal flows should be correlated to
studies on the basis of the functional highway classification, the hurricane or storm tide elevations of water as reported
the applicable federal and state requirements, and the flood in studies by FEMA or other agencies.
hazards at the site. Particular attention should be given to selecting design
The following flood flows should be investigated, as and checking flood discharges for mixed population flood
appropriate, in the hydrologic studies: events. For example, flow in an estuary may consist of both
tidal flow and runoff from the upland watershed.
• For assessing flood hazards and meeting floodplain If mixed population flows are dependent on the
management requirements—the 100-yr flood; occurrence of a major meteorological event, such as a
hurricane, the relative timing of the individual peak flow

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 SECTION 2: GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES 2-19

• For assessing risks to highway users and damage to the events needs to be evaluated and considered in selecting the
bridge and its roadway approaches—the overtopping design discharge. This is likely to be the case for flows in
flood and/or the design flood for bridge scour; an estuary.
If the events tend to be independent, as might be the
• For assessing catastrophic flood damage at high risk case for floods in a mountainous region caused by rainfall
sites—a check flood of a magnitude selected by the runoff or snow melt, the Designer should evaluate both
Owner, as appropriate for the site conditions and the events independently and then consider the probability of
perceived risk; their occurrence at the same time.
• For investigating the adequacy of bridge foundations to
resist scour—the check flood for bridge scour;
• To satisfy agency design policies and criteria—design
floods for waterway opening and bridge scour for the
various functional classes of highways;
• To calibrate water surface profiles and to evaluate the
performance of existing structures—historical floods,
and
• To evaluate environmental conditions—low or base
flow information, and in estuarine crossings, the spring
and tide range.
Investigation of the effect of sea level rise on tidal
ranges should be specified for structures spanning
marine/estuarine resources.

2.6.4—Hydraulic Analysis

2.6.4.1—General

The Engineer shall utilize analytical models and

techniques that have been approved by the Owner and that
are consistent with the required level of analysis.
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2.6.4.2—Stream Stability

Studies shall be carried out to evaluate the stability of

the waterway and to assess the impact of construction
on the waterway. The following items shall be considered:

• Whether the stream reach is degrading, aggrading,

or in equilibrium;

• For stream crossing near confluences, the effect of the

main stream and the tributary on the flood stages,
velocities, flow distribution, vertical, and lateral
movements of the stream, and the effect of the
foregoing conditions on the hydraulic design of the
bridge;

• Location of favorable stream crossing, taking into

account whether the stream is straight, meandering,
braided, or transitional, or control devices to
protect the bridge from existing or anticipated future
stream conditions;
• The effect of any proposed channel changes;

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 2-20 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

• The effect of aggregate mining or other operations

in the channel;
• Potential changes in the rates or volumes of runoff
due to land use changes;
• The effect of natural geomorphic stream pattern
changes on the proposed structure; and
• The effect of geomorphic changes on existing
structures in the vicinity of, and caused by, the
proposed structure.

For unstable streams or flow conditions, special

studies shall be carried out to assess the probable future
changes to the plan form and profile of the stream and to
determine countermeasures to be incorporated in the
design, or at a future time, for the safety of the bridge and
approach roadways.

2.6.4.3—Bridge Waterway C2.6.4.3

The design process for sizing the bridge waterway shall Trial combinations should take the following into
include: account:

• The evaluation of flood flow patterns in the main • Increases in flood water surface elevations caused by
channel and floodplain for existing conditions, and the bridge,
• The evaluation of trial combinations of highway • Changes in flood flow patterns and velocities in the
profiles, alignments, and bridge lengths for consistency channel and on the floodplain,
with design objectives.
• Location of hydraulic controls affecting flow through
Where use is made of existing flood studies, the structure or long-term stream stability,
their accuracy shall be determined. •
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Clearances between the flood water elevations and

low sections of the superstructure to allow passage of
ice and debris,
• Need for protection of bridge foundations and stream
channel bed and banks, and
• Evaluation of capital costs and flood hazards
associated with the candidate bridge alternatives
through risk assessment or risk analysis procedures.
2.6.4.4—Bridge Foundations

2.6.4.4.1—General C2.6.4.4.1

The structural, hydraulic, and geotechnical aspects of To reduce the vulnerability of the bridge to damage
foundation design shall be coordinated and differences from scour and hydraulic loads, consideration
resolved prior to approval of preliminary plans. should be given to the following general design
concepts:

• Set deck elevations as high as practical for the given

site conditions to minimize inundation by floods.
Where bridges are subject to inundation, provide for
overtopping of roadway approach sections, and
streamline the superstructure to minimize the area
subject to hydraulic loads and the collection of ice,
debris, and drifts.

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 SECTION 2: GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES 2-21

• Utilize relief bridges, guide banks, dikes, and other

river training devices to reduce the turbulence and
hydraulic forces acting at the bridge abutments.
• Utilize continuous span designs. Anchor
superstructures to their substructures where subject to
the effects of hydraulic loads, buoyancy, ice, or debris
impacts or accumulations. Provide for venting and
draining of the superstructure.
• Where practical, limit the number of piers in the
channel, streamline pier shapes, and align piers with
the direction of flood flows. Avoid pier types that
collect ice and debris. Locate piers beyond the
immediate vicinity of stream banks.
• Locate abutments back from the channel banks where
significant problems with ice/debris buildup, scour, or
channel stability are anticipated, or where special
environmental or regulatory needs must be met, e.g.,
spanning wetlands.
• Design piers on floodplains as river piers. Locate their
foundations at the appropriate depth if there is a
likelihood that the stream channel will shift during the
life of the structure or that channel cutoffs are likely to
occur.
• Where practical, use debris racks or ice booms to stop
debris and ice before it reaches the bridge. Where
significant ice or debris buildup is unavoidable, its
effects should be accounted for in determining scour
depths and hydraulic loads.

2.6.4.4.2—Bridge Scour C2.6.4.4.2

As required by Article 3.7.5, scour at bridge A majority of bridge failures in the United States and
foundations is investigated for two conditions: elsewhere are the result of scour.
The added cost of making a bridge less vulnerable to
• For the design flood for scour, the streambed material damage from scour is small in comparison to the total cost
in the scour prism above the total scour line shall be of a bridge failure.
assumed to have been removed for design conditions. The design flood for scour shall be determined on the
The design flood storm surge, tide, or mixed basis of the Engineer s judgment of the hydrologic and
population flood shall be the more severe of the 100-yr hydraulic flow conditions at the site. The recommended
events or from an overtopping flood of lesser procedure is to evaluate scour due to the specified flood
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recurrence interval. flows and to design the foundation for the event expected to
cause the deepest total scour.
• For the check flood for scour, the stability of bridge
The recommended procedure for determining the total
foundation shall be investigated for scour conditions
scour depth at bridge foundations is as follows:
resulting from a designated flood storm surge, tide, or
mixed population flood not to exceed the 500-yr event
• Estimate the long-term channel profile aggradation or
or from an overtopping flood of lesser recurrence
degradation over the service life of the bridge;
interval. Excess reserve beyond that required for
stability under this condition is not necessary. The • Estimate the long-term channel plan form changes over
extreme event limit state shall apply. the service life of the bridge;

If the site conditions, due to ice or debris jams, and low • As a design check, adjust the existing channel and
tail water conditions near stream confluences dictate the use floodplain cross-sections upstream and downstream of
of a more severe flood event for either the design or check bridge as necessary to reflect anticipated changes in the
flood for scour, the Engineer may use such flood event. channel profile and plan form;

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 2-22 AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS, SEVENTH EDITION, 2014

Spread footings on soil or erodible rock shall • Determine the combination of existing or likely future
be located so that the bottom of footing is below scour conditions and flood events that might be expected to
depths determined for the check flood for scour. result in the deepest scour for design conditions;
Spread footings on scour-resistant rock shall be
designed and constructed to maintain the integrity of the
supporting rock.
Deep foundations with footings shall be designed to • Determine water surface profiles for a stream reach
place the top of the footing below the estimated contraction that extends both upstream and downstream of the
scour depth where practical to minimize obstruction to bridge site for the various combinations of conditions
flood flows and resulting local scour. Even lower elevations and events under consideration;
should be considered for pile-supported footings where the
piles could be damaged by erosion and corrosion from • Determine the magnitude of contraction scour and local
exposure to stream currents. Where conditions dictate a scour at piers and abutments; and
need to construct the top of a footing to an elevation above • Evaluate the results of the scour analysis, taking into
the streambed, attention shall be given to the scour potential account the variables in the methods used, the available
of the design. information on the behavior of the watercourse, and the
When fendering or other pier protection systems are performance of existing structures during past floods.
used, their effect on pier scour and collection of debris shall Also consider present and anticipated future flow
be taken into consideration in the design. patterns in the channel and its floodplain. Visualize the
effect of the bridge on these flow patterns and the
effect of the flow on the bridge. Modify the bridge
design where necessary to satisfy concerns raised by
the scour analysis and the evaluation of the channel
plan form.

Foundation designs should be based on the total scour

depths estimated by the above procedure, taking into
account appropriate geotechnical safety factors. Where
necessary, bridge modifications may include:

• Relocation or redesign of piers or abutments to avoid

areas of deep scour or overlapping scour holes from
adjacent foundation elements,
• Addition of guide banks, dikes, or other river training
works to provide for smoother flow transitions or to
control lateral movement of the channel,
• Enlargement of the waterway area, or
• Relocation of the crossing to avoid an undesirable
location.

Foundations should be designed to withstand the

conditions of scour for the design flood and the check
flood. In general, this will result in deep foundations. The
design of the foundations of existing bridges that are being
rehabilitated should consider underpinning if scour
indicates the need. Riprap and other scour countermeasures
may be appropriate if underpinning is not cost effective.
The stability of abutments in areas of turbulent flow Available technology has not developed sufficiently to
shall be thoroughly investigated. Exposed embankment provide reliable scour estimates for some conditions, such
slopes should be protected with appropriate scour as bridge abutments located in areas of turbulence due to
countermeasures. converging or diverging flows.
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 SECTION 2: GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES 2-23

2.6.4.5—Roadway Approaches to Bridge C2.6.4.5

The design of the bridge shall be coordinated with the Highway embankments on floodplains serve to
design of the roadway approaches to the bridge on the redirect overbank flow, causing it to flow generally parallel
floodplain so that the entire flood flow pattern is developed to the embankment and return to the main channel at the
and analyzed as a single, interrelated entity. Where roadway bridge. For such cases, the highway designs shall include
approaches on the floodplain obstruct overbank flow, the countermeasures where necessary to limit damage to
highway segment within the floodplain limits shall be highway fills and bridge abutments. Such countermeasures
designed to minimize flood hazards. may include:
Where diversion of flow to another watershed occurs as
a result of backwater and obstruction of flood flows, an • Relief bridges,
evaluation of the design shall be carried out to ensure
compliance with legal requirements in regard to flood • Retarding the velocity of the overbank flow by
hazards in the other watershed. promoting growth of trees and shrubs on the floodplain
and highway embankment within the highway right-of-
way or constructing small dikes along the highway
embankment,
• Protecting fill slopes subject to erosive velocities by
use of riprap or other erosion protection materials on
highway fills and spill-through abutments, and
• Use of guide banks where overbank flow is large to
protect abutments of main channel and relief bridges
from turbulence and resulting scour.

Although overtopping may result in failure of the

embankment, this consequence is preferred to failure of the
bridge. The low point of the overtopping section should not
be located immediately adjacent to the bridge, because its
failure at this location could cause damage to the bridge
abutment. If the low point of the overtopping section must
be located close to the abutment, due to geometric
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constraints, the scouring effect of the overtopping flow

should be considered in the design of the abutment. Design
studies for overtopping should also include evaluation of
any flood hazards created by changes to existing flood flow
patterns or by flow concentrations in the vicinity of
developed properties.

2.6.5—Culvert Location, Length, and Waterway Area C2.6.5

In addition to the provisions of Articles 2.6.3 and 2.6.4, The discussion of site investigations and hydrologic
the following conditions should be considered: and hydraulic analyses for bridges is generally applicable to
large culvert installations classified as bridges.
• Passage of fish and wildlife, The use of safety grates on culvert ends to protect
vehicles that run off the road is generally discouraged for
• Effect of high outlet velocities and flow concentrations large culverts, including those classified as bridges, because
on the culvert outlet, the downstream channel, and of the potential for clogging and subsequent unexpected
adjacent property, increase in the flood hazard to the roadway and adjacent
• Buoyancy effects at culvert inlets, properties. Preferred methods of providing for traffic safety
include the installation of barriers or the extension of the
• Traffic safety, and culvert ends to increase the vehicle recovery zone at the
• The effects of high tail water conditions as may be site.
caused by downstream controls or storm tides.

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