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1. First-Year Laboratory

The first-year physics experiments are aimed to give you an introductory grounding in experimental physics.
This requires thinking about the experimental strategy, collecting, recording and analyzing the data and then
writing them in a lab data report.

The following guidelines apply:

1. Read the relevant section(s) of the lab manual before the lab session starts and think about objective
of the experiment.
2. Think about the parameters or variables in the relevant experiment
3. Set up the apparatus and test whether or not it is working as expected.
4. It is often advisable to collect a set of ‘quick look’ data. Apply these data to any formula needed to
calculate the required quantity. Is the answer ‘about right’ or have you blundered somewhere? Check
the calculations.
5. Before collecting your serious data:
 THINK about systematic errors: e.g. is your scale set to zero to begin with?
 THINK about random errors: e.g. which quantity needs multiple measurements?
 THINK about the overall plan. For example, should the data be taken at regular intervals in 𝑥?
Is it better to concentrate on taking data at high values of 𝑥 or over a range as wide as possible?
6. You might want to write down plan in your data report.
7. Perform the experiment as planned. Take your sets of data, including the measurements that you need
to estimate any uncertainties. Keep a well-documented data report.
8. Analyze your data for the results and for the uncertainties that may arise. Write down in your data
report.

There are 10 laboratory sessions. In each lab session, you are expected to carry out the experiment in group
and share data within the group but taking notes in the lab data report is an individual task. The completeness
of the data report will be assessed, and marks are counted towards the final grade. After five labs (half
semester) you are required to write up a formal report in one of the experiments assigned to you. The details
of the lab data report and the formal report will be given in section 6.

By the end of term, we hope you will feel much more confident in your ability to
1. understand the physics related to the experiment.
2. perform experiments to measure a particular quantity or test a given theory.
3. write efficient data report.
4. write appropriate formal report.

This lab manual does not attempt to reproduce theory which is readily available in textbooks. It is assumed
that you will be familiar with any theory you are trying to test. Preliminary reading before coming to the
laboratory is therefore helpful. You should never undertake elaborate measurements until you are sure that
you know exactly what you are trying to accomplish. Measurements without thought are a waste of time.

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2. Significant Figures

For all measured quantities, there will always be an associated uncertainty. The uncertainty is often expressed
by using ± sign after a quantity. Significant figures provide uncertainty without using ± sign. For example, a
measurement gives

height of Doi Suthep = 1676.43 m ± 0.21 m.

The ± is dropped and the uncertainty is implied by the figures that are shown. An individual digit is usually
considered significant if its uncertainty is less than ±5. In the case of Doi Suthep, suppose that the uncertainty
is greater than 0.5 m; thus making the "4" and “3” uncertain. Rounding to the nearest 1 meter, we can write

height of Doi Suthep = 1676 m.

This quantity has five significant figures (in fact a digit does not need to be precisely known to be significant).

2.1. Counting Significant Figures

Consider another example of significant figures representing errors. Quantities 2.3 and 2.30 are different. When
you write 2.3, you are certain about the three tenths (digit 3) but the hundredths are uncertain; the value may
be 2.31 or 2.32 so digit 3 is significant but digit after that is not. In contrast, writing 2.30 means that the
hundredth is exactly zero, so digit 0 is significant.

In general, the rules for interpreting a value written this way are
 All non-zero digits are significant
 All zeros written between non-zero digits are significant
 All zeros right of the decimal AND right of the number are significant
 Unless otherwise indicated, all other zeros are implied to be mere place-holders and are not
significant.
Consider the following examples. The significant digits are underlined.

24 2 significant figures
2400 2 significant figures* (2.4 × 10 )
2400.00 6 significant figures (2.40000 × 103)
0.045 2 significant figures (4.5 × 10−2)
0.0450 3 significant figures (4.50 × 10−2)
0.04500 4 significant figures (4.500 × 10−3)

String of zeros before decimal can be indeterminate. In the above example, 2400 can have 2, 3 or 4 significant
figures depending on the confidence level of obtaining the number. If you are sure only about the first zero,
then 2400 has 3 significant figures. If you are also sure about the second zero, 2400 has 4 significant figures.

2.2. Manipulating significant figures

Addition and subtraction When adding and subtracting numbers, the rules of significant figures require that
the number of places after the decimal point in the answer is less than or equal to the number of decimal places
in every term in the sum. (Treat subtraction as adding the same number with a negative sign in front of it.) If
some of the numbers have no digits after the decimal point, use the same basic rule, but don't record any digits
to the right of the last digit in the least significant number. Hopefully, some examples will clarify these rules.

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Multiplication and division When multiplying and dividing numbers, the number of significant digits you use
is simply the same number of significant figures as is the number with the fewest significant figures. Some
examples:

Why different rules? When you add two numbers, you add their uncertainties, more or less. If one of the
numbers is smaller than the uncertainty of the other, it doesn't make much of a difference to the value (and
hence, uncertainty) of the final result. Thus, it is the location of the digits, not the amount of digits that is
important.

When you multiply two numbers, you more or less multiply the uncertainties. Thus it is the percentage (the
uncertainty in the number divided by the number itself) by which you are uncertain that is important. This is
given roughly by the number of digits, regardless of their placement in terms of powers of ten. Hence the
number of digits is what is important.

2.3. Are there exceptions?

In a way, yes. One is that you should always carry through all the digits you have available in a calculation until
the very end, where you can then truncate your answer to the correct number of significant digits. In other
words, during some intermediate step of the calculation, don't attempt to eliminate the final few digits on your
calculator or write down an intermediate answer with fewer digits and then retype that new number into the
calculator.

You should bear in mind the significant figure rules when doing calculations on the exams. There will be mark
penalties for ignoring these rules. For example, in the division of 123 by 45, a calculator gives
123
= 2.733333333 (incorrect),
45
but the correct answer using the significant digit rules is
123
= 2.7 (correct).
45
Students who give the 2.733333333 answer will lose marks.

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3. Graphical presentation of data

You collect data in a table but present the data in a graph. Graphing your data shows relationships much more
clearly and quickly. You use two levels of graphing in the lab. A graph that appears in your weekly data report
is a rough graph drawn by hand on a graph paper. Your lab instructor will show you how to construct. They’re
most useful when you make them in time to act on them, which means that you should get in the habit of
graphing your data in the lab while you still have access to the equipment. Another graph is a “higher-level”
graph that will appear in your formal report. Such a graph is done neatly (and almost always with a graphing
program). It’s made primarily for the benefit of the person reading your report.

3.1. Linear equation

Figure 3.1. Finding slope of a linear graph.

A linear line can be drawn given two coordinates (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) as shown in Fig. 3.1. There are two
characteristics of interest of the straight line: the slope and the y-intercept. In Fig. 3.1, by knowing that the
change ∆𝑦 = 6.5 − 2.0 = 4.5 and the change ∆𝑥 = 7.0 − 1.0 = 6.0, the slope is defined as

Δ𝑦
slope = , (3.1)
Δ𝑥

which gives ∆𝑦⁄∆𝑥 = 4.5⁄6.0 = 0.8. The value of y-intercept can be obtained directly from the graph in Fig. 3.1
which reads about 1.2. Points on the graph show a relationship between variables 𝑦 and 𝑥.

In general, equation of a straight line between variable 𝑦 and variable 𝑥 is often written in a form

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, (3.2)

where 𝑚 is the slope of the graph and 𝑐 is the y-intercept. The slope is often given by the formula

∆𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦
𝑚= = (3.3)
∆𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥

where (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) and (𝑥 , 𝑦 ) are any two points on the line. The y-intercept 𝑐 can be read directly from the graph
where the line intersects the y-axis. The slope can be positive, negative, zero or undefined (Fig. 3.2).

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 Figure 3.2. Orientations of straight lines with different signs of the slopes

3.2. Plotting a liner graph

Data collection is often tabulated.

One can make a “scatter plot” shown in Fig. 3.3(a). The trend of the data seems to be linear, so a straight is
drawn as in Fig. 3.3(b) to show this trend; this line is called the “trendline”. The trendline does not have to pass
through all data points. A good trick to draw the trendline is that the trendline passes about the “middle” of all
data points. Some data points are above the trendline, and some are below it.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.3. Data 𝑦 and 𝑥 are represented by (a) a scatter plot and (b) a scatter plot with a trendline.

Because the trendline represents all the data points, it is the properties of the trendline that are often of interest.
Consider Fig. 3.3(b), the slope of the trendline can be found by choosing two points on the trendline and then
using the formula slope = ∆𝑦⁄∆𝑥. Moreover, the value of y-intercept can be read directly from the graph. This
procedure is illustrated in Fig. 3.4.

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 Figure 3.4. Finding the slope and the y-intercept of a straight trendline
3.3. Variables

A physics theory in form of an equation represents a relationship between two or more variables. In order to
test the theory, it is often useful to identify
 independent variable,
 dependent variable and
 controlled variable.
In simple experiments, two kinds of measurements are required. One is for the independent variable which can
be thought as a cause. Another is for the dependent variable which can be thought as an effect. The cause-effect
relationship stands the core reasoning for physics and even for science in general. The identification of the
variables should be done in the early stage of studying the theory. Afterwards, an experiment can be designed
in order to test the theory.

Figure 3.5. A simple pendulum

For example, in swinging a simple pendulum shown in Fig. 3.5 which is of the length 𝐿 and under gravity 𝑔, the
period (time of one swing) 𝑇 is given by

𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋 . (3.4)
𝑔

The change in length 𝐿, which can be easily measured by a ruler, will affect the change in the swing time 𝑇
(measured by a stopwatch). In other words, 𝐿 is the independent variable and 𝑇 is the dependent variable. The
gravity 𝑔 cannot be easily changed so we control it. The data point is then (𝐿, 𝑇).

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 Figure 3.6. (a) curved graph and (b) linear graph

From Eq. (3.4), 𝑇 ∝ √𝐿 and the data points (𝐿, 𝑇) follow a curve as in Fig. 3.6a. The curved relationship is
difficult to test because we don’t know how curved the line is just by looking. For this reason, a straight line is
preferred but how can we turn data points (𝐿, 𝑇) in Eq. (3.4) into a linear relationship? One way is to rewrite
Eq. (3.4) as
4𝜋
𝑇 = 𝐿, (3.5)
𝑔

and compare it with a linear equation 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐. If we let 𝑦 = 𝑇 and 𝑥 = 𝐿, the theory predicts that the data
points (𝐿, 𝑇 ) should form a straight line (Fig. 3.6b) with slope 𝑚 = 4𝜋 ⁄𝑔 and y-intercept 𝑐 = 0. The slope of
a straight line can even be obtained numerically by considering the triangle ABC. Hence, this allows calculation
of the gravity 𝑔.

3.4. Graphing checklist

To help you create a good graph in your data report, please follow the checklist and Fig. 3.7.
1. Axes are scaled correctly with divisions equal to “nice” intervals (1, 2, 5 or 10).
2. Graph is drawn to as large a scale as possible. The lower left-hand corner need not be the point (0, 0).
Choose the range of values for each axis to be just wide enough to display all the data you want.
3. Scales on axes are labeled for entire length.
4. Axes labeled, including units
5. Don’t forget caption if in formal report.
6. Points used to calculate slope and intercept are clearly marked, if that method is used.

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Figure 3.7. An example of a hand-drawn graph

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4. Errors
Errors are not mistakes, Let’s embrace them
4.1. Random and Systematic Errors

Error is the difference between an observation and the true value.

Error = observed value − true value
The “observation” can be a direct measurement, or it can be the result of a calculation that uses measurements;
the “true” value might also be a calculated result. Even if we do not know the true value, we may choose to use
a reference value.
No real physical measurement is exactly the same every time it is performed. The uncertainty tells us how
closely a second measurement is expected to agree with the first. Errors can arise in several ways, and the
uncertainty should help us quantify these errors.

 Random error: Data appear as scattered measured values. For example, recording time for an object
with a parachute to fall from a height of 1.0 m for five times gives 0.91, 1.15, 0.98, 1.06 and 1.12 s. The
scatter of values indicates random errors which are sometimes caused by human. Moreover, random
errors can arise from unknown and unpredictable changes in the experiment including the changing
environmental conditions. The “precision” or “reliability” of a measurement is how close a number of
measurements of the same quantity agree with each other. The precision is limited by the random
errors. It may usually be determined by repeating the measurements.
 Systematic error: Reproducible deviation of an observation that biases the results, arising from
procedures, instruments, or ignorance. Each systematic error biases every measurement in the same
direction, but these directions and amounts vary with different systematic errors. Therefore,
systematic error can cause the measured data value to be shifted (in higher or lower sense) from the
true value. The “accuracy” of a measurement is how close the measurement is to the true value of the
quantity being measured. The accuracy of measurements is often reduced by systematic errors, which
are difficult to detect even for experienced researchers.
Figure 4.1 illustrates how errors are seen in a set of measured quantities. On a horizontal number line, the
vertical solid lines are measured data values and the dashed line is the true value. Scattering of measured
quantities indicates random error. Cluster of measured quantities around a value which is not a true value
indicates systematic error.

Figure 4.1. Spread of measured values around the true value

Figure 4.2. Size and location of cluster of hits show precision and accuracy

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Precision and accuracy can be displayed with use of a dartboard as shown in Fig. 4.2. The bullseye is analogous
to the true value of a quantity to be measured. A small cluster of hits indicates high precision, regardless of the
location of the center of the cluster. A cluster no matter what size around the bullseye indicates high accuracy.

4.2. How to spot errors on a graph

Figure 4.3 shows different errors that can be seen on a result graph. The bold lines are drawn as a best-fit line
or trendline. The random error is as likely to be as “plus” as “minus” so the data points scatter on both sides of
the trendline. The systematic error is in one direction and often causes shift of the whole graph.

Figure 4.3. Manifestation of random and systematic errors on a graph

4.3. Reporting uncertainties

In experiment,
measurement = best estimate ± uncertainty.
In first-year physics experiment, you will often repeat measurements of the same quantity for a few times, and
each of the time yields slightly different values. For example, suppose we collect a set of measurements of the
same quantity 𝑥 and obtain
𝑥 = 4.45, 4.38, 4.47, 4.37, 4.40. (4.1)

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What value do we report from this set of identical measurements? What is the best estimate? We want the
sample mean
1
𝑥̅ = 𝑥. (4.2)
𝑁

So,
1
𝑥̅ = (4.45 + 4.38 + 4.47 + 4.37 + 4.40) = 4.41.
5

The mean value comes with uncertainty. Because the value of 𝑥 varies from the minimum of 4.37 to the
maximum of 4.47, so the range is 4.47 − 4.37 = 0.10. Half of the range, 0.10 ⁄2 = 0.05, is approximately the
uncertainty of the mean. So, you report the value of 𝑥 as
𝑥 = 4.41 ± 0.05. (4.3)

Please be reminded that the uncertainty presented here is only the approximate one. There is a statistical
uncertainty evaluation which involves standard deviation. For the spirit of first-year general physics
experiments, the approximate uncertainties will suffice.

In writing a value that comes from repeated measurements, its mean 𝑥̅ with uncertainty Δ𝑥 is usually reported
in the form
𝑥̅ ± Δ𝑥. (4.4)

Our uncertainties will have 1-2 significant figures of relevance and the uncertainties tell us how well we know
our measurements. Therefore, we will round our uncertainties to 1-2 significant figures and then we will round
our measurements to the same number of decimal places : (3.21 ± 0.12) cm, (434.2 ± 1.6) nm, etc.

In reporting uncertainty of a quantity, there are two representations.

 Absolute uncertainty reports uncertainty in the form, for examples,
Length 𝐿 = 1.50 ± 0.05 m
Time 𝑡 = 4.4 ± 0.1 s
Mass 𝑚 = 30.5 ± 0.5 kg
Distance 𝑠 = (2.51 ± 0.02) × 10 m
The number of decimal places of the uncertainty must match that of the measured quantity.
 Percentage uncertainty converts the absolute uncertainty into a percentage. Hence, the above
examples read
Length 𝐿 = 1.50 m ± 3.3% (0.05⁄1.50 = 0.03333 report 3.3%)
Time 𝑡 = 4.4 s ± 2.3% (0.1⁄4.4 = 0.02272 report 2.3%)
Mass 𝑚 = 30.5 kg ± 1.6% (0.5⁄30.5 = 0.01639 report 1.6%)
Distance 𝑠 = 2.51 × 10 m ± 0.8% (0.02⁄2.51 = 0.007968 report 0.8%)

4.4. Error propagation

We need to learn how to propagate uncertainty through a calculation that depends on several uncertain
quantities. Final results of a calculation clearly depend on these uncertainties, and it is here where we begin to
understand how. Suppose you have two quantities 𝑥 ± Δ𝑥 and 𝑦 ± Δ𝑦. How to add, subtract, multiply or divide
these two?
 Multiplication by an exact number: If 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑥, then

Δ𝑧 = 𝑐Δ𝑥 (Absolute uncertainty increases by a factor of 𝑐)

 Addition or subtraction: If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 or 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦, then

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 Δ𝑧 = Δ𝑥 + Δ𝑦 (Add absolute uncertainties)

 Multiplication or division: If 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑦 or 𝑧 = 𝑥 ⁄𝑦, then

Δ𝑧 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦
= + (Add percentage uncertainties)
𝑧 𝑥 𝑦

 Power: If 𝑧 = 𝑥 , then

Δ𝑧 Δ𝑥
= 𝑛 (Percentage uncertainty increases by a factor of 𝑛)
𝑧 𝑥

To find uncertainty of a function, knowledge of calculus is usually required but here we will only interest in the
approximate uncertainty. For example, if you have 𝜃 = 35.5 ± 0.2° and want to calculate sin 𝜃, you first note
that 𝜃 ranges from the minimum of 35.3° to the maximum of 35.7°. The sine of those limiting values will form
a range of sin 𝜃. The uncertainty is thus about half of the range. Therefore, in this example, you calculate

sin 35.5° = 0.581

sin 35.7° = 0.584 (max)
sin 35.3° = 0.578 (min)
Range = 0.584 − 0.578
0.584 − 0.578
Uncertainty = = 0.003.
2

You report
sin 𝜃 = 0.581 ± 0.003.

4.5. Error bar

Figure 4.4. Best fit line with the best estimated slope and the other two lines with maximum and minimum
slope

When a data point with 𝑦 ± Δ𝑦 and 𝑥 ± ±Δ𝑥 is to be plotted on a graph, its uncertainty manifests itself as an
“error bar” or an “uncertainty bar” as shown in Fig. 4.4. The best fit line with the best estimated slope can be

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drawn. Moreover, the acceptable lines of maximum and minimum slope, which manifest the uncertainty in the
slope, can also be drawn.
Suppose the best fit line has slope of 𝑚. The way to report the slope is
slope − slope
slope = 𝑚 ± Δ𝑚, Δ𝑚 = . (4.5)
2

The same goes for y-intercept

𝑐 −𝑐
y − intercept = 𝑐 ± Δ𝑐, Δ𝑐 = . (4.6)
2

The graph in your report should look like Fig. 4.5.

Figure 4.5. The slope and y-intercept with associated uncertainties

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5. Data Analysis

Data analysis is a process of finding the meaning to the experimental data and validating a hypothesis or theory.
Skills for data analysis are
 Identifying types of variables (independent, dependent and control)
 Drawing appropriate graphs including a line of best fit
 Extracting important information from the line of best fit
 Assessing validity, reliability and accuracy
 Determining the sources of errors

5.1. Quantitative data analysis (graph and calculation)

In quantitative data analysis, you are asked to analyze the results and then calculate an unknown value. The
steps are as follow.
1. Apply theory to determine liner relationship between the dependent and independent variables. The
control variable is also noted.
2. Tabulate results (after measurements).
3. Plot the data and draw a line of best fit.
4. Find the slope and y-intercept.
5. Find the error associated with the slope and y-intercept.
6. Calculate the unknown and its uncertainty.
5.2. Qualitative data analysis (evaluation of method and error)

In qualitative data analysis, you are asked to evaluate method and experimental errors. The steps include the
following.
1. Assess validity of the method by suggesting technique to keep the control variable unchanged and the
assumptions satisfied.
2. Assess reliability of result and suggest ways to reduce random errors. For examples, increase the
number of repetitions. Use line of best fit.
3. Assess accuracy of result and suggest ways to reduce systematic error. For examples, calibrate
equipment.
4. Identify sources of error and suggest ways of minimizing them.

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6. Working with Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Excel is a simple tool for analyzing data and producing graphs, and you are encouraged to use Excel
for your formal reports. However, poor use of Excel often leads to bad data analysis and low marks The example
of the poor use of Excel is shown in Fig. 6.1. A better and improved version can be seen in Fig. 6.2

Figure 6.1. Poor use of Excel. No axis labels. No error bars. Unmeaningful trendline.

Figure 6.2. Good Excel graph with care.

6.1. Plotting with Excel

The little box where you put text or number is called cell. Each cell has a letter and a number associate to it.
For examples, cell A1, cell B2, cell D4 etc.

1. Before plotting, you need to have 4 columns with data: x data, y data, x error data, and y error data.

2. First select your x data and y data (you can select multiple boxes in excel by holding down the ctrl button
while selecting). Make sure to select your x data first.

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3. Click “Insert”.
Choose “Scatter”.
A graph should appear.

4. The box area containing the graph is called “Chart”.

Click on the Chart and you will see a + sign.
Click the + sign and you will see dropdown menu.

5. Tick “Axis Titles”. The axis title boxes will appear.

Type the axis title. Don’t forget the units.

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 Type in the “Chart Title” box.

6. Go back to + sign.
Move your mouse to “Error Bars”. You will see small black triangle.
Go to “More Options”.
The default error bars will appear. Don’t panic. These are not the error bars you want.

7. On “Error Bar Options” you can choose to work with y error bars or x error bars.

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8. Let’s first choose “Y Error Bars”.
Scroll down and tick “Custom”.
Click “Specify Value” and a little box will appear.

9. At “Positive Error Value”, click the arrow.

Use mouse the cover the cells error in y.

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10. At “Negative Error Value”, click the arrow.
Use mouse the cover the cells error in y. Click “OK”.
You should get the error bars in y as you want them to be.

11. Now go back to step 6-7 but choose “X Error Bars”

12. Scroll down and tick “Custom”.
Click “Specify Value” and a little box will appear.

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13. At “Positive Error Value”, click the arrow.
Use mouse the cover the cells error in x.
Do the same thing at “Negative Error Value”. Use the mouse to cover the cells error in x.
Click “OK”.

Your graph will look nice and clean with error bars you want.

14. Click on the “Chart area”.

Click the + sign.
Choose “Trendline”.
Choose “More Options”.

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15. Now you are under “Formal Trendline”.
On the graph icon, choose “Linear”.
Scroll down and choose “Display Equation on Chart”.
You can try changing the “Forward” and “Backward”.

16. Still under “Format Trendline”.

On the color icon, you can change the color, the width and the type of your trendline.

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17. You can click on the “Equation” or any number or axis title.
Go to “Home”
You can upsize and downsize the text.

18. You can customize your graph further.

You change the number of decimal places of any number displayed.
You can mange the grid lines (to keep or to delete the grid lines).
You can set the maximum values and the minimum values of the numbers to be shown on each axis.
The blue dot on the data point is called “marker”. You can change its type, size and color too.

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7. Lab Data Report and Formal Report

7.1. Data Report

Each week, you will create a short data report which shows the quantitative data analysis (see section 5.1)
and submit the data report at the end of each lab session. The data report must, on A4-sized paper, include
 Variables to be plotted in order to test theory.
 Data table.
 Linear graph on a separate graph paper. All axes must be labelled, and units are written.
 Calculation of slope, y-intercept and their uncertainties.
 Calculation of the unknown and its uncertainty.

The data reports with feedbacks will be returned to you to help you write a formal report.

7.2. Formal Report

A formal report is a publication-style academic report. It must consist of the followings.

 Title. It is a short description of the experiment, containing sufficient information for the reader to
understand what the experiment is about.
 Introduction. It provides background information about the topic. Introduction should includes the
followings.
What is the question being asked? (What is the objective?)
What do you expect to learn?
Why is this experiment important?
 Theory. The equation or theory being investigated should be discussed here. All symbols must be
explained.
 Methods and Results. The method describes equipment and procedure. A picture of experimental
setup should be here. The reader should be able to repeat your experiment if the equipment is
available. The results should be in form of graph with the trendline equation. The results describe (not
explain) your findings. The use of Excel or similar program for creating graphs is encouraged.
 Discussion. The discussion explains (not describe) the results . The discussion needs to include
quantitative and qualitative data analysis (see section 5.1 and 5.2).
 Conclusion. The conclusion answers the objective and summarizes the whole report. The conclusion
should talk about what you did, how you did it and what you got out of it.
 References It provides an acknowledgement of the use of someone else’s work.

Cautions in writing a formal report are as follows.

1. Appropriate use of language and vocabulary.
2. Appropriate font and size, in black.
3. Math symbol should be italic.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 rather than E = mc2
4. Symbols for the names of functions and units are non-italic.
sin 𝑥 rather than 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, ln 𝑥 rather than 𝑙𝑛𝑥, 10 m/s rather than 10 𝑚/𝑠
5. Approximately equal height of Thai and English characters, and math symbols.
“…อุณหภูมิ T จะค่อย ๆ สูงขึนเป็ น exponential function เมือเวลาผ่านไป…”
Let’s change to
“…อุณหภูมิ 𝑇 จะค่อย ๆ สูงขึนเป็ น exponential function เมือเวลาผ่านไป…”
6. Style may be one-column or two-column.
7. Diagrams must have captions.
8. Equations should be numbered.
9. Page numbers must be included.

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7.3. Example of data report

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7.4. Example of formal report in Thai and in English

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