Lesson 7 The Accuracy and

Precision
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to :
1. differentiate between precision and accuracy
2. identify different sources of errors in measurements

M easurement in making observations is fundamental to all sciences. A quantitative

observation, or measurement always consists of two parts: a number and scale called a
unit. Both parts must be present for the measurement to be meaningful.
Scientific knowhow is advanced through studies that demand high levels of mathematical
rigidity. These studies make use of precision and accuracy in measuring quantities. Precision and
accuracy ensures the reliability of these studies Precision refers to the degree of closeness or
agreement among the numerical values derived from a series of measurements done successively.
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement or a set of measurement to the true or accepted
value of the quantity measured or when the measured value is relative to a standard value.

Suppose a student is asked tom determine the density of a sample of ethyl alcohol at 20 0C. After three
trials, the following measurements were noted.
Average : 0.782 + 0.778 + 0.780 = 0.780
Trials Value 3
1 0.782
2 0.778 TRUE VALUE = 0.781 g/mL at 200C
3 0.780
The group of measurements has good precision, noting the closeness of the values to each
other. Comparing the average of the experimental values to the accepted value of 0.781 g/mL for ethyl
alcohol at 200C, shows that the group of measurements has a good accuracy.
The percentage error can also be computed using the formula :
% Error = difference between the Experimental and True Values X 100
True Value

Look at the following diagrams. Which of the diagrams show precision ? Which one shows accuracy?

21
 Accuracy and Precision
1. Tell whether the following is A) accurate and precise, B) accurate but not precise,
C) precise but not accurate, or D) neither accurate nor precise.

_______________ _______________ _______________ _______________

2. How do you differentiate between precision and accuracy.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

3. the importance of accurcy and precision in measurement.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

4. Are measurements valid and reliable if they precise but not accurate? Accurate but not
precise ? Explain why?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

5. What will be the percent error if the true value is 6.37 from the three readings of the weight
of the coin which are the following; 6.50 g, 6.25g and 6.35 g for first to third reading,
respectively. Show your solution on the space provided.

Date Performed : _____________________________________ Score : _________________

Date Submitted : _____________________________________

22
 Lesson 8 The Significant Figures
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to :
1. determine the number of significant figures in a number
2. express measurements in the correct number of significant figures
3. identify different sources of errors in measurement

M easurement in science often requires a definite or specific figure to express a certain

number or calculated quantity in a data. Scientists use the correct number of significant
figures to deal with measurements taking into consideration a certain degree of uncertainty.

Significant figure pertains to the digits or figures that are certain to give reasonably reliable
information. Significant figures are helpful in attaining a level of certainty when expressing a calculated
quantity.

Uncertainties in Measurement
All measurements have some degree of
uncertainty; how great the uncertainty depends on
both the accuracy of the measuring device and the
skill of its operator. For example, the magnitude of
the uncertainty associated with weighing an object
will depend on the type of balance employed. On a
triple-beam platform balance, the mass of a sample
substance can be measured to the nearest 0.1 gram;
mass differences less than this cannot be detected on
this balance.
We might indicate the mass of the peso measured on this balance as 12.2 ± 0.1 g ; the ± 0.1 is a
measure of the accuracy of the measurement. It is important to have some indication of how accurately
any measurement is made; the ± notation is one way to accomplish this. It is common to drop the ±
notation with the understanding that there is uncertainty of at least one unit in the last digit of the
measured quantity; that is, measured quantities are often reported in such a way that only the last digit
is uncertain. All the digits, including the uncertain one, are called significant figure. The number 2.2 has
two significant figures, while the number 2.2405 has five significant figures.

23
The following rules apply to determining the number of significant figures in a measured quantity:

1. All non-zero digits are significant.

Example: 457 cm (three significant figures)
0.25 g (two significant figures)

2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant

Example: 1005 kg (four significant figures)
1.03 cm (three significant figures)

3. Zeros to the left of the non-zero digit in a number are not significant; they
merely indicate the position of the decimal point.
Example: 0.02 g (one significant figure)
0.0026 cm (two significant figures)

4. When a number ends in zero that are to the right of the decimal point,
they are significant.
Example: 0.0200 g (three significant figures)
1.0 cm (two significant figures)

5. When a number ends in zero that are not to the right of the decimal point,
zeros are not necessarily significant.
Example: 130 cm (two or three significant figures)
10,300 g (three, four, or five significant figures)

To avoid this ambiguity, standard exponential notations are used. For example, a mass of
10,300 g can be written in exponential notation showing three, four, or five significant
figures :
1.03 x 104 (three significant figures)
1.030 x 104 (four significant figures)
1.0300 x 104 (five significant figures)
In these numbers all zeros to the right of the decimal point are significant (rules 2 and 4).

In carrying measured quantities through calculations the rule used is that the accuracy
of result is limited by the less accurate measurement. In multiplication and division the result must
be reported as having no more significant figures than the measurement with the fewest significant
figures. When the result contains more than the correct number of significant figures must be
rounded off.
For example, the area of a rectangle whose edge lengths are 6.221 cm and 5.2 cm should
be reported as 32 cm2.

Area = 6.221 cm x 5.2 cm = 32.3492 cm2

The answer is rounded off to 32 cm2 (two significant figures) because 5.2 has only two
significant figures.

24
 The rule used to determine the number of significant figures in multiplication and division
cannot be used for addition and subtraction. For these operations, the results should be reported to
the same number of decimal places as that of the term with least number of decimal places.
Example : 20.4
1.322 The value 104.722 is rounded off to 105
83.0__
104.722
Example : Report the result for the indicated arithmetic operations using the correct
number of significant figures. Assume all values are measurements and not exact numbers.

In conducting laboratory experiments, it is important to choose the apparatus you employ so as

to achieve the accuracy your experiment requires.
For example, suppose you need to measure out 10 mL of a liquid to an accuracy of about one
part in fifty, for use as a reagent in a reaction. One-fiftieth of 10 is 10/50 equals 0.2. This means you
must measure out 10.0 ± 0.2 ml of the liquid. The markings on the cylinder correspond to 1 ml intervals;
it would be impossible to estimate between them to a precision of 0.20 ml on the other hand, a 10.0 ml
graduated cylinder with markings every 0.1 or 0.2 ml, would be sufficiently accurate.
It is also important to have a feeling for significant figures when using a calculator, because they
ordinarily display more digits than are significant. As an example, suppose that a student accurately
weighs a peso and finds it to have a mass of 4.9566g. He looks up for the density of the alloy from which
the coin is made and finds it listed as 8.8 g/cm3. The volume of the peso he weighed is then.

Volume = mass / density = 4.9566g/ (8.8g/cm3) = 0.56325

Carrying out this division in a calculator the student obtains 0.56325. This must be rounded
off to two significant figures 0.56 cm3.

25
 EXERCISES
A. Identify the number of significant figures of the following measurements.

______ 1. 745.000 m ______ 6. 0.60 mm

______ 2. 0.00067430 s ______ 7. 00000.0000678000 cm
______ 3. 290. L ______ 8. 170.64 mL
______ 4. 640034 m/s ______ 9. 4000000 g
______ 5. 874 m2 ______ 10. 752507000 s

B. Perform the following calculation. Express the answer to the correct number of
significant figures.

1. 46.0 s + 134.001 s + 12 s __________ 6. 2.5240 cm x 11.02 cm x 102.412 cm __________

2. 0.22 m + 0.1110 m + 365 m __________ 7. 7225.00 m  21.00 s __________
3. 454.25 L - 70.0 L __________ 8. 1000 km  3.003 hr __________
4. 17.563 L - 0.5 L __________ 9. 3.6 cm + 2.13 cm __________
5. 50.08 m x 0.1 m x 16 m __________ 10. 0.782 g + 0.778 g + 0.78 g  3 __________

C. Solve the following problems

___________ 1. If two blocks of wood labeled A and B measures 3.6 cm and 2.13 cm
respectively, what is the combined length of the two blocks? Show solution

___________ 2. If a cube has a measurement of 1 cm in each side, what will be the volume of the
cube in cubic centimeter?

26
 Significant Figures

1. An alloy contains 2.05% of some impurity. How many significant figures are reported in
this value?

2.05% = 0.0205 ( 3 significant figures)

2. Perform the following calculations and express the answers to the proper number of
significant figures:

a) 14 - 0.072 b) 0.0097 + 0.2235 c) 26.9  2.69 d) (13.65)2 e) 14.89  0.003

_________ _________ _________ _________ _________

3. Identify the number of significant figures of the following measurements.
______ 1. 834.000 m ______ 6. 0.560 mm
______ 2. 0.0005630 s ______ 7. 000.00589000 cm
______ 3. 180. L ______ 8. 260.53 mL
______ 4. 530023 m/s ______ 9. 3000000 g
______ 5. 763 m2 ______ 10. 863406000 s

4. Perform the following calculation. Express the answer to the correct number
of significant figures.

1. 0.22 m + 0.1110 m + 365 m = ________________

2. 454.25 L - 70.0 L = ________________
3. 50.08 m x 0.1 m x 16 m = ________________
4. 2.5240 cm x 11.02 cm x 102.412 cm = ________________
5. 7225.00 m  21.00 s = ________________
6. 1000 km  3.003 hr = ________________

5. Round off the following numbers to three significant figures

1. 93.63874 = ________________
2. 0.05846 = ________________
3. 63.25 = ________________
4. 25.673 = ________________
5. 2.7190 = ________________

Date Performed : _____________________________________ Score : _________________

Date Submitted : _____________________________________

27
Scientific Notation
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to :
1. write measurements in scientific notation
2. convert numbers into scientific notation and vice versa
3. identify different sources of errors in measurements

I n science, you will encounter very large or very small numbers. These numbers are
very difficult to handle especially when performing operations. To handle small or
very large number, scientists use scientific notation method. Scientific notation
is a way to express extremely large numbers or small numbers easily and efficiently.
It has 3 parts : mantissa (coefficient), the base, and the exponent.

M
The coefficient or mantissa is the
number that is equal to or more than one
but less than ten.

The base is the number that is

always 10 in scientific notation.

The exponent is the number that

determines how many decimal places the
decimal point should be moved.

A number can always be written with a decimal point. To convert large numbers in scientific notation,
move the decimal to the left until you get a number that is equal to or more than 1 but less than 10. In
writing small numbers in scientific notation we move the decimal point to the right until you get a
number that is equal to more than 1 but less than 10, as the coefficient.

28
EXERCISES
A. Convert the following numbers to scientific form.
___________________ 1. 0.0000000000007254
___________________ 2. 0.000000000000000000027
___________________ 3. 0.00000000111
___________________ 4. 0.000000000000000000000000712
___________________ 5. 0.0000012345
___________________ 6. 1 050 000 000
___________________ 7. 9 000 000 000 000 000 000
___________________ 8. 77 200 000 000
___________________ 9. 6 481 200 000 000 000 000 000
___________________ 10. 22 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000

B. Convert the following numbers to scientific notation to standard form.

1. 2.15 x 10 15 = ____________________________________
2. 8.786 x 10 23 = ____________________________________
3. 8.00 x 109 = ____________________________________
4. 1. 54428 x 1010 = ____________________________________
5. 7.77 x 10 20 = ____________________________________
6. 6.828 x 10 -6 = ____________________________________
7. 3.3 x 10- 16 = ____________________________________
8. 2.08 x 10- 9 = ____________________________________
9. 1.004 x 10 - 18 = ____________________________________
10. 6.8000 x 10 - 11 = ____________________________________
D. Perform the following process
1. Again, express the following numbers in standard scientific notation.
a) 0.000870 b) 6.100 c) 0.203 d) 5,250,000

2. Write out in full the following numbers:

a) 6.3 x 10-6 b) 1.01 x 10-4 c) 3.0 x 10-2

3. Perform the following calculations and express the answers in scientific notation
a) (6.38 x 104) + (5.2 x 105) b) (5.3.x 108) x (9.62 x 10-4)

29
 Scientific Notation
A. Perform the following process
1. Express the following numbers in standard scientific notation.
a) 0.000870 b) 6.100 c) 0.203 d) 5,250,000

2. Write out in full the following numbers:

a) 6.3 x 10-6 b) 1.01 x 10-4 c) 3.0 x 10-2
3. Perform the following calculations and express the answers in scientific notation
a) (6.38 x 104) + (5.2 x 105) b) (5.3.x 108) x (9.62 x 10-4)

B. Convert the following numbers to scientific form.

___________________ 1. 0.0000000000001234
___________________ 2. 0.000000000000000000012
___________________ 3. 0.00000000123
___________________ 4. 0.000000000000000000000000456
___________________ 5. 0.00000678910
___________________ 6. 2 030 000 000
___________________ 7. 8 000 000 000 000 000 000
___________________ 8. 68 100 000 000
___________________ 9. 6 571 100 000 000 000 000 000
___________________ 10. 11 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
C. Convert the following numbers to scientific notation to standard form.
1. 3.26 x 10 14 = ____________________________________
2. 6.6897 x 1021 = ____________________________________
3. 9.00 x 109 = ____________________________________
4. 1. 45517 x 1010 = ____________________________________
5. 8.65 x 10 14 = ____________________________________
6. 7.918 x 10- 6 = ____________________________________
7. 2.8 x 10- 16 = ____________________________________
8. 1.17 x 10- 9 = ____________________________________
9. 2.008 x 10- 18 = ____________________________________
10. 4.7060 x 10- 11 = ____________________________________

Date Performed : _____________________________________ Score : _________________

Date Submitted : _____________________________________

30
Units of Measurement
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to :
1. identify the basic and derived quantities and their units
of measurements

C
2. determine the density of liquids and solids

hemistry is a physical science. The usual parameters measured in chemistry are

the following;

M In 1960, an international agreement set up a system of units called the International System (Le
Systeme Internationale) or the SI. This system is based on the metric system and units derived from the
metric system. The fundamental SI units are listed below.
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Temperature Kelvin K
Time second s
Pressure Pascal Pa
Because the fundamental units are not always convenient, the SI system employs prefixes to
change the size of the unit.

31
Mass
The SI base unit for mass is kilogram. The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains
and it is the same everywhere-on Earth, on the Moon, and in outer space.
1 kg = 1000 g
1 g = 1000 mg
1 g = 1,000,000 g
1 kg = 2.20 lbs
1 lb = 454 g
Length
The SI base unit for linear measurement is the meter. The standard is based on the speed of
light. The official definition of the meter is “the distance traveled by light in a vacuum 1/299,792,458 th
of a second”.
Example : The meter is 39.37 inches, about 10 % greater than a yard.

1 meter = 10 decimeters
= 100 centimeters
= 1000 kilometers
A kilometer has a 1000 meters

The instrument commonly used in the laboratory to measure length

is the meter stick

Temperature

Temperature is a property of the body that determines the direction of heat flow. It is the
degree of hotness or coolness of a body. The higher a body’s temperature, the greater is the tendency
for heat to flow away from it.

The SI unit of the temperature is the Kelvin. Other units are Celsius, oC, Fahrenheiht, oF, and
Rankine oR. These units can be converted from one to another using the following formulas:

K = oC + 273 o
R = oF + 460
o
C = 5/9 (oF – 32) o
F = 9/5 (oC) + 32
= (o F – 32) /1.8 = 1.8 (oC) + 32
Conversion of Temperature Units

a) Convert 25oC to oF b) Convert 180oF to oC c) How much is 40 oC in K ?

o
F = 9/5 (oC) + 32 o
C = 5/9 (oF – 32) K = oC + 273
= 9/5 ( 25 oC) + 32 = 5/9 (180 oF – 32) = 40 + 273
= 45 + 32 = 77oF = 5/9 (148) – 82.2 oC = 313 K

32
Time
The SI unit of time is second, which was originally defined as 1/86,400 of the mean solar day.
It is now defined as the duration of 92,192,631,770 cycles of a specific radiation in the emission
spectrum of the cesium- 135 atom.

Pressure
Pressure is a force exerted per unit area. The SI base unit of pressure is Pascal. One Pascal is
equivalent to a force of one newton exerted on an area of one square meter. There are other units of
measurement frequently used in chemistry.

1 atm = 101.325 Pa = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr

= 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi)
1 bar = 100,000 Pa = 0.9869 atm

33
 Lesson 9 The Derived Units Measurements

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to :
1. determine the derived units measured
2. express measurements using correct units
3. identify different units used to convert one unit to another

D erived units involve measurement of more than one parameter resulting in a combination
of basic units. The International System of Units (SI) specifies a set of seven base units from
which all other SI units of measurement are derived. Each of these other units (SI derived units) is
either dimensionless or can be expressed as a product of (positive or negative, but usually
integral)powers of one or more of the base units.
For example, the SI derived unit of area is the square metre (m2), and the SI derived unit
of density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3 or kg m−3). The degree Celsius has a somewhat unclear
status, and is arguably an exception to this rule. The names of SI units are written in lowercase. The
symbols for units named after persons, however, are always written with an uppercase initial letter (e.g.
the symbol for the hertz is "Hz"; but the symbol for the meter is "m").

Derived Units Measurements

Volume

Volume is defined as the amount of space occupied by an object. Units of volume in the metric
system are derived from those of length. The SI unit for volume is the cubic meter (m 3). However,
chemists often use the unit for volume in the older version of metric system which is the liter. The liter
(L) is a volume equal to 1000 cm3 (or cc). Note the relationship listed below.

1L = 1000 mL 1 L = 1000 cm3

1 mL = 0.001 L 1 L = 1 dm3
1 mL = 1 cm3 1 m3 = 1000 L

The graduated cylinder is the most commonly used laboratory apparatus /glassware to measure
the volume of a liquid. When greater accuracy is required, a pipet or buret is advised. Most laboratory
volumetric glassware is calibrated and marked in liters or milliliters.

34
 
Density ( ) Greek Symbol (“rho”)
Density is an important physical property that aids the identification of substances, it is also an
expression of the mass per unit volume of a substance. The SI unit is derived from the base units of
kilograms and meters, and is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3). The most common unit for density is
gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) which is equivalent to gram per milliliter (g/mL).

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a given substance to a standard substance. For
solids and liquids the standard substance is water, for gases it is usually air, and other times hydrogen.
The only difference between density and specific gravity is that density has units and specific gravity,
being a ratio, does not.

Specific Heat
Specific heat is the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1oC. It
can be calculated using the formula:

Specific Heat = heat energy in calories/mass in grams x temperature change in oC.

Speed and Velocity

Speed is measured in length per unit time ; it has magnitude only. Whereas,
Velocity is measured in length per unit\time; it has magnitude and direction

Conversion of Units of Measurements

Often it is necessary to express a particular quantity in a different unit of measurement. Two
methods could be used:
1. Ratio and Proportion Method
Sample Problem : How many mg are in 2.50 g ?
3
Conversion factor : 1g = 10 mg
1 g/ 103 = 2.5 / x where x is the unknown
Simplifying, through cross multiplication, 1 g (x) = 2.50 g (103)
x = 2.50g (10 3) / 1 g
= 2.50 x 10 3 mg

35
 2. Factor-Unit/ Label method (Dimensional Analysis). In this method, the desired unit is in the
numerator and the given unit is in the denomination.
Using the same problem in (1), the calculation is as follows:
2.50 g x 103 mg / 1 g = 2.50 x 103 g
The conversion factor is : 103 mg/ 1 g because mg is the desired unit.
Suppose, the problem is : How many g are in 2.50 mg ?
The conversion factor is 1 g / 103 mg because gram is the desired unit.
Thus, 2.50 mg x 1 g / 103 mg = 2.50 x 10-3 grams

EXERCISES
A. Conversion
1. Do the following conversion, using dimensional analysis, where ever applicable and express all
answers in exponential form:
1. 150 cm to ft = _______________ 6. 260oF to K = _______________
2. 2.5 kg to mg = _______________ 7. 1500 mL to quartz = _______________
3. 14 gal to L = _______________ 8. 250 mm to km = _______________
4. 550oC to oF = _______________ 9. 12 megatons to tons = _______________
5. 1.25 atm to Pa = _______________ 10. 780 torr to mmHg = _______________

B. Problem solving
1. Express 3.80 feet in
a. millimeters _______________________ d. inches ____________________________
b. centimeters _______________________ e. meters ____________________________
c. yards _______________________

2. What is the volume of a metal container 15 cm long, 5 cm wide, and 4 cm deep?

a. cubic centimeters ____________________ d. pints ____________________________
b. milliliters _______________________ e. gallons ____________________________
c. liters _______________________

3. The density of a sphere is 2.5 g/cm3. If the object weighs 5 g, find the volume of the sphere.

4. The initial height of the water in a cylinder,whose diameter is 5 cm. an object weighing 10g is
added. How high would the the water in the cylinder be if the object has a density of 2.5 g/cm 3.

Life is a walk of faith in the LORD

- Full of surprises  yet fulfilling, - full of tests  yet rewarding.
And – full of trials  yet strengthening …

36
 Measurements and Conversion
A. Measuring the density and specific gravity of a liquid
Objective : To measure the density and specific gravity of an unknown liquid
Materials : Liquid A (unknown), graduated cylinder, platform balance, small
notebook for recording data, and pencil or ballpen
Procedure : 1. Weigh the dry, empty cylinder and record the data.
2. Measure 10 mL of liquid A in a graduated cylinder and record the volume.
3. Weigh the graduated cylinder containing liquid A in a platform balance.
4. Record the temperature of your observations as follows;
Temperature ___________________ 0C
Weight of graduated cylinder + liquid A ___________________ g
Weight of empty graduated cylinder ___________________ g
Weight of Liquid A ____________________ g
Density of liquid A ____________________ g/mL
Specific Gravity of Liquid A ____________________
B. Write T if the statement is correct, likewise F if it is FALSE. F.
______ 1. Measurements are said to be valid and reliable if it is accurate but not precise.
______ 2. Specific gravity is the gravity of a substance compared with the gravity of water.
______ 3. The base of the scientific notation changes from time to time.
______ 4. Grams can be converted to feet.
______ 5. When converting scientific notation to standard form, the decimal point should
be moved to the left if the the exponent is positive.
C. Identify what is asked in each number.
__________________ 1. These numbers are all significant.
__________________ 2. A way to express extremely large or small numbers easily.
__________________ 3. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
__________________ 4. A derived unit from length.
__________________ 5. The actual quantity of matter that a substance contains.
__________________ 6. A system that uses the units kg, m, and sec for measuring.
__________________ 7. The measure of the gravitational attraction by the center of gravity.
__________________ 8. The distance between two points.
__________________ 9. The interval between two events.
__________________ 10. Measurement involving more than one parameter from combination
of basic units.

Date Performed : _____________________________________ Score : _________________

Date Submitted : _____________________________________

37