PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 3: GENETIC CONTROL OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS, CELL FUNCTION AND CELL REPRODUCTION
1ST SEMESTER (2022-2023)

OUTLINE
Genes
Genetic code
Transcription
RNA Synthesis
Messenger RNA
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
microRNA (miRNA) and Small Interfering RNA
Translation
Control of Gene Function
Genetic Regulation
Enzyme Regulation
Cell Reproduction
Chromosome and their Replication
Control of Cell Growth and Cell Reproduction
Cell Differentiation
Apoptosis
Cancer Figure 2. Basic Building Blocks of DNA

Genes  Nucleotides – combination of one molecule of

 Located in the nuclei of all cells, control heredity phosphoric acid, one molecule of deoxyribose and
from parents to children, as well as the daily one of the four bases: deoxyadenylic,
functioning of all the body’s cells deoxythymidylic, deoxyguanylic and deoxycytidylic
acids
o adenine always bonds with thymine
o guanine always bonds with cytosine

Genetic Code
 The importance of DNA lies in its ability to
control the formation of proteins in the cell, which
it achieves by means of genetic code
 The genetic code consists of successive “triplets”
of bases

Transcription
 Transfer of cell nucleus DNA code to cytoplasm
RNA code

RNA Synthesis
 RNA is synthesized in the nucleus from a DNA
template
 Building blocks of RNA – almost the same as
Figure 1. Central Dogma
those of DNA except: deoxyribose is replaced by
 Each gene, which is composed of ribose and thymine is replaced by uracil
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), controls the  Activation of RNA nucleotides by RNA
formation of another nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid polymerase occurs by adding two extra phosphate
(RNA) radicals to each nucleotide to form triphosphates
 Building Blocks of DNA – phosphoric acid; a
sugar called deoxyribose and four nitrogenous Messenger RNA
bases (two purines, adenine and guanine, and two  Carries the genetic code to the cytoplasm for
pyrimidines, thymine and cytosine)
controlling the type of protein formed
o The phosphoric acid and deoxyribose form
the helical strands that are the backbone of
the DNA Transfer RNA
o The nitrogenous bases lie between the two  Transports activated amino acids to the ribosomes
strands and connect them to be used in assembling the protein molecule
 The specific code in the tRNA that allows it to
recognize a specific codon is called anticodon
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a hydrogen of the NH portion of the other amino

Ribosomal RNA acid is removed forming water
 rRNA along with different proteins, forms
Control of Gene Function
ribosomes, the physical and chemical structures on
which protein molecules are actually assembled
Gene Regulation
 Aka regulation of genetic expression, covers the
miRNA and Small Interfering RNA
entire process from transcription of the genetic
 Are single-stranded RNA molecules of 21 to 23
code in the nucleus to the formation of proteins in
nucleotides that can regulate gene transcription
the cytoplasm
and translation
 The ultimate measure of gene “expression” is
 Are not translated into proteins and are therefore
whether (and how much) of the gene products
called noncoding
(proteins) are produced because proteins carry out
cell functions specified by the genes
Translation
 Promoter – consists of a sequence of bases
 Formation of proteins on the ribosomes
(TATAAA) called the TATA box, the binding site
 Polyribosomes – clusters of ribosomes attached to
for the TATA-binding protein and several other
a single mRNA
important transcription factors that are collectively
referred to as the transcription factor IID complex
 Upstream promoter – located farther upstream
from the transcription start site and contains
several binding sites for positive or negative
transcription through interactions with proteins
bound to the basal promoter
 Enhancers – regions of DNA that can bind
transcription factors
 Chromosomal insulators – gene sequences that
provide a barrier so that a specific gene is isolated
against transcriptional influences from surrounding
genes

Enzyme Regulation
Figure 3. Stages in Protein Synthesis  Enzyme inhibition – responsible for controlling
intracellular concentrations of multiple amino
1. Each amino acid is activated by a chemical
acids, purines, pyrimidines, vitamins and other
process in which ATP combines with the
substances
amino acid to form an adenosine
monophosphate complex with the amino acid,  Enzyme activation – occurs when enzymes that are
giving up two high-energy phosphate bonds in normally inactive are activated when needed
the process
2. The activated amino acid, having an excess of Cell Reproduction
energy, then combines with its specific tRNA  Controlled by the DNA-genetic system
to form an amino acid-tRNA complex and, at  The genes and their regulatory mechanisms
the same time, releases the adenosine determine cell growth characteristics and when or
monophosphate whether cells will divide to form new cells
3. The tRNA carrying the amino acid complex
then comes in contact with the mRNA Life Cycle of the Cell
molecule in the ribosome, where the anticodon  Period from cell reproduction to the next cell
of the tRNA attaches temporarily to its reproduction
specific codon of the mRNA, thus lining up  Mitosis – division of cell into two daughter cells
the amino acid in the appropriate sequence to  Interphase – interval between mitosis, accounts for
form a protein molecule more than 95% of the life cycle of cells
 Peptide linkage (combination of amino acid)  Except in special conditions of rapid cellular
process in which a hydroxyl radical is removed reproduction, inhibitory factors almost always
from the COOH portion of the first amino acid and slow or stop the uninhibited life cycle of the cell

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 Cell reproduction begins with replication

(duplication) of DNA

Figure 5. DNA Replication

Chromosome
 The DNA helixes of the nucleus are packages in
chromosomes
 The human cell contains 46 chromosomes
arranged in 23 pairs
 Histone – protein where DNA are coiled
 Centromere – point located near the center where
chromosomes remain attached to each other
Figure 4. Stages of Cell Reproduction
 Chromatids – duplicated but still attached
 DNA Replication chromosomes
o DNA polymerase – attaches to and moves
Cell Mitosis
along the DNA template strand, adding  Prophase – first stage of mitosis; chromosomes of
nucleotides to in the 5’ to 3’ direction the nucleus become condensed into well-defined
o DNA ligase – causes bonding of chromosomes
successive DNA nucleotides to one  Prometaphase – growing microtubular spines of
another the aster fragment the nuclear envelope at the same
o Replication fork – Y shape area that will time attach to the chromatids at the centromeres,
be the template for replication to begin where the paired chromatids are still bound to each
o DNA helicase – enzymes that break the other; The tubules then pull one chromatid of each
hydrogen bonding between the base pairs pair toward one cellular pole and its partner toward
the opposite pole.
of the DNA
 Metaphase – two asters of the mitotic apparatus
o Leading Strand – oriented in the 3’ to 5’
are pushed farther apart; the chromatids are pulled
direction, toward the replication fork tightly by their attached microtubules to the very
o Lagging Strand – oriented in the 5’ to 3’ center of the cell, lining up to form the equatorial
direction, away from the replication fork plate of the mitotic spindle
o RNA primer – binds to the 3’ end of the  Anaphase – the two chromatids of each
strand chromosome are pulled apart at the center; all 46
o DNA primase – generates primers pair of chromatids are separated, forming two
o Okazaki fragments – formed by multiple separate sets of 46 daughter chromosomes
primers in the lagging strand  Telophase – the two sets of daughter chromosomes
o Exonuclease – removes the RNA primers are pushed completely apart; the mitotic apparatus
dissipates and a new nuclear membrane develops
from the original strands, and the primers
around each set of chromosomes; the cell pinches
are replaced with appropriate bases in two, midway between the two nuclei
o Topoisomerase – can transiently break the
phosphodiester bond in the backbone of Control of Cell Growth and Cell Reproduction
the DNA strand to prevent the DNA in  Three ways in which growth can be controlled:
front of the replication fork from being o Growth is often controlled by growth
overwound factors that come from other parts of the
body
o Most normal cells stop growing when they
have run out of space for growth
o Cells grown in tissue culture often stop
growing when minute amounts of their

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own secretions are allowed to collect in o Cancer cells are often far less adhesive to
the culture medium one another than are normal cells therefore
 Telomere – a region of repetitive nucleotide they tend to wander through the tissues,
sequences located at each end of a chromatid; enter the blood stream, and be transported
serve as protective caps that prevent the all through the body, where they form nidi
chromosome from deterioration during cell for numerous new cancerous growths
division o Some cancers also produce angiogenic
 Telomerase – enzyme that adds bases to the ends factors that cause many new blood vessels
of the telomeres so that many more generations of to grow into the cancer, thus supplying the
cells can be produced nutrients requires for cancer growth
 Cell size is determined by the amount of
functioning DNA in the nucleus. If replication of
the DNA does not occur, the cell grows to a certain
size and thereafter remains at that size
Cell Differentiation
 Refers to changes in the physical and functional
properties of cells as they proliferate in the embryo
to form the different body structures and organs

Apoptosis
 Programmed cell death; involves a specific
proteolytic cascade that causes the cell to shrink
and condense, disassemble its cytoskeleton, and
alter its cell surface so that a neighboring
phagocytotic cell can attach to the cell membrane
and digest the cell
 Caspases – a family of proteases which initiates
apoptosis
 Necrosis – a process in which cells die as a result
of an acute injury; they usually swell and burst due
to loss of cell membrane and may spill their
contents causing inflammation and injury to
neighboring cells

Cancer
 May be cause by mutation or by some other
abnormal activation of cellular genes that control
cell growth and cell mitosis
 Proto-oncogenes – are normal genes that code for
various proteins that control cell adhesion, growth
and division
 Oncogenes – mutated or excessively activated
proto-oncogenes that are capable of causing cancer
 Tumor suppressor genes – suppress the activation
of specific oncogenes
 Probability of mutation can be greatly increased
by:
o Ionizing radiation
o Chemical substances (carcinogens)
o Physical irritants
o Hereditary tendency
o Certain types of oncoviruses
 Invasive characteristics of cancer cell
o Cancer cell does not respect the usual
cellular growth limits because these cells
presumably do not require all the same
growth factors that are necessary to cause
growth of normal cells

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