Eng1769 Ccby

METALS AND FABRICATION
ARC WELDING 3
Advanced Arc Welding Information Book
Learner’s Guide
ENG1769
Arc Welding 3
Advanced Arc Welding
Information Book
ENG1769
Learning Resource
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First published 2007
Second edition January 2009
Third edition December 2010
ISBN 978-1-74205-714-9
© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010
This resource includes content from:

Metal Fabrication Volume 1, Part 1: Fabrication & Welding Theory, Technical Publications Trust
Metal Fabrication Volume 2, Part 1: Fabrication & Welding Theory, Department of Training and Workforce Development
Metal Fabrication Volume 3, Part 1: Fabrication & Welding Theory, Training Publications
Engineering: Fabrication & Welding Theory, Technical Publications Trust
Metals & Engineering Training Package: Manual Heating, Thermal Cutting & Gouging, Department of Training and
Workforce Development
Engineering: Welding Theory 1, Training Publications
Engineering: Materials Science (Resource Book), Department of Training and Workforce Development
Welding Metallurgy, Training Publications
Engineering: Welding Technology Aluminium/Stainless Steel (Resource Book), Training Publications
Metals & Engineering Training Package: Manual Metal Arc Welding, Department of Training and
Metals & Engineering Training Package: Weld Using Gas Metal Arc Welding Process, Department of Training and
Engineering: Welding 5 Certification Theory, Department of Training and Workforce Development
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Image used on cover © 2010 JupiterImages Corporation.

& Fabrication Advanced Arc Welding
Contents
Coded welding – Weekly schedule......................................................1
Chapter 1 Distortion.......................................................................9
Chapter 2 Welding safety.............................................................31
Chapter 3 Codes and regulations...............................................71
Chapter 4 Welding terms and symbols......................................91
Chapter 5 Welding plain carbon steel...................................... 115
Chapter 6 Heat treatment...........................................................129
Chapter 7 Weld testing...............................................................155
Chapter 8 Weld preparation and set up....................................201
Chapter 9 Weld procedures.......................................................223
Chapter 10 Metal cutting and gouging.......................................237
Chapter 11 Elementary electrical terms.....................................265
Chapter 12 MMAW, arc conditions and electrodes...................285
Chapter 13 Welding alloy steels..................................................307
Chapter 14 Non-ferrous metals...................................................331
Chapter 15 GTAW and equipment...............................................345
Chapter 16 GMAW/FCAW and equipment..................................365
Chapter 17 Oxy-fuel gas welding................................................417
Chapter 18 Automatic welding....................................................445
© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769 iii

Table of contents
Appendices
Appendix 1 Competency mapping
Appendix 2 Hot-work permit (example)
Appendix 3 Compulsory classification designators a
Appendix 4 Compulsory classification designators b
Appendix 5 Classification systems – Creep resistant steels
Appendix 6 Classification systems – High strength steels
Appendix 7 Scope for ISO 17632:2006, MOD
Appendix 8 Classification from ISO 17632:2006
Appendix 9 Classification systems from ISO 17632:2006
Appendix 10 Examples of designation
iv © VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769

Coded welding
Weekly schedule
In this section we will look at the following.
Weekly schedule
• Week 1 – regulations (AS 1796 Item 2)
• Week 2 – safety (AS 1796 Item 1)
• Week 3 – terms and symbols (AS 1796 Item 3)
• Week 4 – elements in steel (AS 1796 Item 4)
• Week 5 – heat treatment (AS 1796 Item 5)
• Week 6 – weld testing (AS 1796 Item 6)
Test A
• Week 7 – weld joint preparation (AS 1796 Item 7)
• Week 8 – welding procedures (AS 1796 Item 8)
• Week 9 – metal cutting and gouging (AS 1796 Item 9)
• Week 10 – electrical terms (AS 1796 Item 10)
• Week 11 – arc conditions (AS 1796 Item 11)
• Week 12 – MMAW and electrodes (AS 1796 Item 12)
Test B
• Course review
• Competency mapping
© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769 1

Coded welding – Weekly schedule
Week 1 – regulations (AS 1796 Item 2)

1. Codes and Standards
1.1 Identify the SAA Standard given below:
AS 1796:2001, AS/NZS 1554, AS 1210, AS 1674
1.2 Briefly describe the reasons (or purpose) for each Standard.
2. Regulations and Acts
2.1 What is the difference between a code (or Standard) and an Act or
regulation?
2.2 List three Acts or regulations.
2.3 List four government departments that may be involved with code of
practice in the welding industry.
3. WorkSafe WA
3.1 Occupational Safety and Health Act:
■■ intention
■■ employer’s responsibilities
■■ employee’s responsibilities.
Week 2 – safety (AS 1796 Item 1)

1. Describe each of the following hazards associated with welding.
1.1 Electric shock: primary, secondary, cables, HF.
1.2 Fire and explosions: hazardous locations (definitions), site work, containers,
fire extinguishers, assistant’s role.
1.3 Fumes and ventilation: confined space, flux coatings, surface and metal
coatings, alloys.
1.4 Cylinders: storage handling, identification.
1.5 Scaffolds: staging, kickboards, rails.
1.6 Skin/eyes: radiation, arc , heat, sparks, slag, protection.
1.7 X-rays/gamma rays: sources, weld examination, precautions.
1.8 First aid: electric shock, burns, injury, coma.
Assignment
• List major welding hazards.
• List possible causes of these hazards.
• Describe effects on welders’ health.
• Describe methods of prevention of injury from these hazards.
2 © VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769

Week 3 – terms and symbols (AS 1796 Item 3)
1. Weld symbols
1.1 Identify the SAA Standard.
1.2 Interpret weld symbols and welding symbols.
2. Welding terms:
2.1 butt and fillet welds
2.2 refer AS/NZS 1554.
Week 4 – elements in steel (AS 1796 Item 4)

1. Typical steel analysis.
2. Elements in steel and their effects (physical and mechanical properties).
3. Consumables – matching to parent metal (see also section 12).
Week 5 – heat treatment (AS 1796 Item 5)

1. Iron/carbon diagram: upper and lower critical temp; heat treatments.
2. Heating and cooling: time/temp/grain size, cooling rates, stress.
3. Mechanical properties: strength, hardness, ductility, fatigue (related to heat
treatment).
4. Prevention of undesirable properties: pre-heat, interpass temp, heat input.
5. Heating methods: gas, electric, fuel oil
6. Temperature measurement.
Assignment
• Describe the main heat treatment methods.
• Temperatures and time involved.
• Phase changes that occur.
• Cooling rates.
• Changes in mechanical properties as a result.
Week 6 – weld testing (AS 1796 Item 6)

1. Describe the need for weld testing.
2. List and describe weld tests used in the fabrication industry:
a) destructive (workshop/laboratory)
b) non-destructive.
3. List and describe:
a) external weld defects
b) internal weld defects.

Test A
Section 1 to 6
Week 7 – weld joint preparation (AS 1796 Item 7)
1. Edge preparations (sketch, dimension) AS 1554:
a) open and closed square
b) single and double bevel
c) single and double V
d) single and double U
e) transitions.
2. Reasons for and methods of preparation.
3. Reasons for pre and post cleaning (methods).
4. Backing bars, backing strips, back purging, back gouging.
5. Alignment, fit-up and temporary support (methods), jigs.
Week 8 – welding procedures (AS 1796 Item 8)

1. Define:
■■ welding procedure specification
■■ welding procedure qualification.
1.1 List the steps required to qualify a welding procedure:
■■ make up a procedure
■■ prepare test sample
■■ weld test sample
■■ evaluate test sample
■■ modify procedure
■■ prove results and record
■■ gain approval (authority).
2. Variables on a welding procedure.
3. Completion of welding procedures.
Assignment
• List twelve (12) items that should appear on a welding procedure.
• Make up a welding procedure for a single V butt weld on a 20 mm thick steel
plate in the 1G position.
• Welding process is MMAW.

Week 9 – metal cutting and gouging (AS 1796 Item 9)
1. Flame cutting (manual and machine).
2. Plasma cutting.
3. Gouging (arc air and flame).
4. Mechanical edge preparation (guillotine, shears, nibbler, machining, grinding).
5. List uses and applications.
Assignment
• Given the common elements found in plain mild steel (iron, carbon, manganese,
silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, chromium, nickel), describe the purpose of these
elements and their effect on the mechanical properties and also the weldability as
the amounts are increased.
Week 10 – electrical terms (AS 1796 Item 10)

1. Define terms: voltage, amperage, resistance, arc voltage, OCV, alternating and
direct current, square wave.
2. List OCV for AC and DC machines.
3. Describe requirements: cables, joiners, work connections, machine terminals.
4. Welding machines:
{{ AC transformer
{{ DC generator
{{ AC/DC rectifiers
{{ DC inverters (constant voltage and constant current form)
{{ current control methods.
5. High frequency uses and safety.
6. Welding machine comparisons and applications – advantages and limitations of
each type.
Week 11 – arc conditions (AS 1796 Item 11)

1. Compare the effects of welding variables on arc stability and completed welds.
2. Current type and polarity, voltage, amperage, arc length, travel speed, electrode
angles (approach and travel), flux type.
3. Discuss ‘arc blow’ (causes, effects and remedies).
4. Discuss effects of arc conditions and stability on slag control.

Week 12 – MMAW and electrodes (AS 1796 Item 12)

MMAW process
1. List factors that influence electrode selection.
2. Interpret electrode classification systems (AS/NZS 4855).
3. Name the common types of electrode coatings used:
3.1 functions of flux coatings, characteristics, applications.

Test B
Section 7 to 12
Week 13 – welding alloy steels (AS 1796 Item 13)
1. Reasons for using alloy steels.
2. Describe and define:
2.1 low alloy steel
2.2 high alloy steel.
3. List uses of alloy steel.
4. List common alloying elements used, describe effects on properties and
weldability:
4.1 manganese, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, silicon, vanadium.
5. Weldability of low alloy steels:
5.1 carbon equivalent
5.2 hardenability
5.3 welding techniques and procedures.
Week 14 – welding non-ferrous metals (AS 1796 Item 14)

1. List common non-ferrous metals.
2. Describe how metal properties affect weldability:
2.1 melting point
2.2 refractory oxides
2.3 thermal conductivity
2.4 electrical conductivity
2.5 expansion rate
2.6 hot shortness
2.7 colour change
2.8 gas solubility.
3. Discuss cutting methods:
3.1 mechanical, air arc plasma.

Week 15–17 – welding processes GMAW, GTAW, SAW and

electroslag (AS 1796 Item 15,16,18)
1. Describe principles of operation.
2. Describe applications.
3. List advantages and disadvantages.
4. List equipment required and describe characteristics and functions of component
parts.
5. Discuss variables:
5.1 current, polarity, volts, amps, travel rate, shielding medium (flux-gas),
GTAW electrodes, GMAW metal transfer modes, consumables, and
stick-out.
6. Discuss possible faults.
7. Discuss safety considerations.
Week 18 – oxy-acetylene welding processes (AS 1796 Item 17)

1. Describe principles of operation.
2. Describe applications.
3. List advantages and disadvantages.
4. List equipment required.
4.1 oxygen and acetylene description, production, storage and handling
4.2 consumables (AS 1167.1 and 2).
5. Discuss flame settings.
6. Discuss possible faults.
7. Discuss safety considerations.
Course review (provided by your lecturer)

• Test C
• Section 13 to 18.

Chapter 1 – Distortion
Introduction
Welding has proven to be a highly successful and reliable method of joining metals
and other materials. Joints that are as strong and reliable as the parent metal itself are
easily produced. The major problem associated with welding is ‘distortion’. Distortion
tends to occur in all weldments, and to completely eliminate distortion is extremely
difficult. The challenge for the welding operator is to reduce distortion to a minimum, or
at worst, to keep it to within acceptable limits.
There are many factors that cause, or influence, the amount of distortion which will
occur in a weldment due to welding. The welding operator needs to understand these
factors if he/she is to successfully control distortion.
In this chapter we will look at the following.
zz What causes distortion?
{{ the heat input
the amount of welding
the number of runs or passes
diameter of electrode
the amperage used
the polarity
the welding process
the welding position
{{ amount of restraint
{{ internal stresses in the parent metal (residual stress)
{{ properties of the parent metal
zz Types of distortion due to welding
{{ longitudinal distortion
{{ transverse distortion
{{ angular distortion
{{ warping, bowing or buckling
zz Methods of minimising distortion
{{ control of heat input
{{ use of restraint
{{ other methods of control

zz Contra-heating
{{ advantages of the process
{{ principles of flame straightening
{{ cooling procedure
{{ application to plates
{{ precautions to be observed.
Term Definition
distortion the overall movement of parts being welded, from
the position they occupy before welding to the
position they occupy after welding

What causes distortion?

The major reason for distortion in arc welding is the fact that when the weld metal is
deposited, it is molten and therefore fully expanded. The molten weld metal will solidify
and can only exert contraction forces as it cools. This shrinkage force then acts on the
parts to cause movement.
The other cause of distortion is expansion and contraction, which always accompanies
changes in the temperature of metals. As metals are heated they expand, and then
cool as they contract. Furthermore, the amount metals expand and contract per 1 °C
change in temperature is particular to each metal and does not change. The amount
which a metal expands or contracts per 1 °C change in temperature, is known as the
coefficient of linear expansion.
The coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 0.000012. This means that if a piece of
steel is heated uniformly, it will increase its length by .000012 of its original length for
each °C that it is heated.
For example: A piece of steel bar 1 m long (1000 mm) is heated 100 °C. How much
expansion will occur?
Expansion = original length x increase in temperature x coefficient of expansion
1000 x 100 x .000012
Expansion = 1.2 mm
Three things should be noted.
zz This expansion can not be prevented, however it may be directed in a different
direction.
zz It will contract the same amount for a decrease in temperature of one degree, as
it will expand for an increase in temperature of one degree.
zz The forces due to expansion and contraction are exceptionally high – enough to
bend or break the material itself.
The expansion forces exerted by steel at low temperatures are extremely high.
However when steel is heated to high temperatures it becomes softer, weaker and
plastic. In this plastic condition it is not capable of exerting as much force as when it
was cold. As expansion continues with increasing temperature, the metal in this plastic
condition yields and changes its shape. As the steel cools it becomes progressively
stronger and less plastic. It can exert progressively more force as the temperature falls.
This leads to the common statement that shrinkage forces are greater than expansion
forces.
An illustration of the above can be seen in the following example.
If a bar of steel at room temperature is heated uniformly throughout, it will expand
uniformly in all directions as represented by the dotted lines in Fig 1.1 (a). Since
the bar is unrestrained, it will contract uniformly to its original dimensions when
allowed to return to room temperature.

(a) Unrestrained bar before

heating and after cooling to
room temperature
Unrestrained bar when

uniformly heated to a
specific temperature
After heating
(b) Restrained bar

at room temperature
Lateral expansion
Bar when uniformly

heated while restrained
(c)
Restrained bar after heating

and cooling to room temperature
is shorter, thicker and wider
Fig 1.1 – Expansion and contraction (a), (b) and (c)
If the bar of steel is placed in a vice before heating, as illustrated in Fig 1.1 (b), lateral
expansion cannot take place. The same amount of volume expansion must occur, but
expansion along the bar’s horizontal axis is prevented; hence abnormal expansion
takes place in thickness and width. When the heat is removed and the deformed
bar returns to room temperature, it will still tend to contract or shrink uniformly in all
directions. Thus, the shape after cooling is as shown in Fig 1.1 (c). The bar is now
shorter, thicker, and wider. It has been permanently deformed or distorted.

In welding, the situation described is created by the concentrated nature of the heat
source, which causes local expansion and contraction as the weld progresses. Local
expansion and contraction takes place in the parent metal adjacent to the weld. The
colder, surrounding mass of metal acts to restrict movement from these forces, as did
the vice in the example, and creates distortion.
It can be seen from the example that the major factors causing distortion are:
zz expansion and contraction due to temperatures changes
zz uneven expansion and contraction due to restraint
zz contraction forces having a greater effect than expansion forces, due to the
plasticity of the metal at elevated temperatures.
Thermal conductivity
Metals that conduct heat well are also good conductors of electricity.
Copper and aluminium are good conductors and so need more heat to counteract the
loss when heat is conducted away from the weld area. On the other hand, stainless
steel is a poor conductor; heat is accumulated and retained at the weld area without
much loss.
A copper work lead should be used in preference to using strips of mild steel when
an extension to the welder’s work lead is unavoidable. The mild steel is not a good
conductor and causes more resistance in the circuit, making the machine hot and
electrically less efficient.
Additionally, there are various other factors that will influence how much or what type
of distortion takes place. In practical terms, these additional factors affecting distortion
can be grouped as:
zz the heat input
zz the amount of restraint
zz the internal stresses in the parent metal
zz the properties of the parent metal
zz deposited weld metal properties.
The heat input

This depends on the:
zz amount of welding
zz number of runs or passes
zz diameter of the electrode
zz amperage used
zz polarity
zz welding process
zz welding position.

The amount of welding

It is obvious that the greater the amount of welding, the greater will be the heat input
and the amount of metal exerting contractional forces. Consequently, the greater the
amount of distortion which will occur. The size and length of welds must comply with
design requirements, as over-welding increases distortion and costs.
The type of preparation also affects the amount of welding; some preparations require
more weld deposit than others. Comparing butt preparations in plate of the same
thickness, (Fig 1.2) the double-U requires the least filler, with double-V, single-U and
single-V following in that order.
Double-U Double-V Single-U Single-V
Fig 1.2 – Comparison of weld volumes
It can be seen from Fig 1.2 that a single-V butt weld contains approximately twice as
much weld metal as a double-V butt. Additionally with double sided preparations, the
shrinkage forces are balanced on each side of the plate, further reducing distortion.
The number of runs or passes

Fewer passes with large electrodes are preferable to a greater number of passes with
small electrodes. The shrinkage forces from each pass tend to be cumulative, thereby
increasing the shrinkage with each successive run.
In single V-butt preparation with a gap, the first run exerts practically a transverse pull.
The second run exerts shrinkage at the top of the bead (face of the weld), but the
shrinkage is restricted at its base. The first run acts as a fulcrum or hinge, and bending
takes place (distortion).
Transverse distortion
Angular distortion
Fig 1.3 – Distortion in a single V-butt weld

As the welding continues, each subsequent run or layer contracts at the top and is
restricted to some extent at the bottom. As further runs or layers of weld metal are
deposited, lesser movement will occur as the member is becoming more rigid, but
distortion will occur to some degree as long as the welding operation continues.
Consequently, the more runs or layers put down in a given size butt or fillet joint, the
greater the movement of the parts being welded (ie the greater the distortion).
The diameter of the electrode

From these factors, it should also be clear that a large electrode used within the correct
current range and speed range will deposit a given weld size with less heat input than a
smaller electrode using the correct current, but travelling at a slow speed, and possibly
requiring more weld runs.
The amperage used

If high amperages are used for a particular size of electrode, the amount of heat
produced is increased. This in turn melts and upsets more of the parent metal, thus
creating greater distortion upon cooling. Ideally, enough heat to ensure complete fusion
(without excessive melting of the base metal) is what’s required.
The polarity
When DC machines are used, particularly in conjunction with large diameter
electrodes, it is common practice to select electrode positive polarity (+ve). Higher
amperages are required to ensure complete fusion, but the heat input is reduced by
the increased travel speed, and higher deposition rate, when the electrode polarity is
positive.
The welding process

By their nature, the various welding processes add more or less heat to the weld zone,
and thus produce differing levels of distortion. Consider the heating effects of welding
processes such as:
zz oxy-acetylene; manual metal arc
zz submerged arc
zz gas-metal-arc (spray and dip transfer)
zz flux-cored
zz gas tungsten arc.
Processes with higher deposition rates and lower heat inputs will produce the lowest
levels of distortion.
The welding position

Positional welding normally slows down the welding speed and requires the use of
multi-pass techniques. Since these two factors tend to increase heat input, welding
should be carried out in the flat position wherever possible.

Amount of restraint
When a weld is made, the weld metal and adjacent parent metal are very hot and in a
plastic state until cooling is well advanced. If the parent metal is firmly held in position
during cooling, the plastic metal will stretch or yield under the action of the contraction
stresses and distortion will be reduced. Welding jigs and fixtures are used to control
distortion in this way.
Internal stresses in the parent metal (residual stress)

Stresses are usually present in the components of a weldment. They are caused by
previous metal working processes such as thermal cutting, guillotining, rolling,
pressing etc. These stresses may combine with, or oppose, the shrinkage forces due
to welding, and thus increase or decrease the amount of distortion.
Properties of the parent metal

If metal had a zero coefficient of linear expansion, then distortion would not occur. From
this it follows that as a metal’s coefficient of linear expansion increases, the amount of
distortion will also increase.
In practice we see that stainless steel distorts considerably more than structural steel,
because its coefficient of linear expansion is approximately one and a half times that of
structural steel, and its thermal conductivity is half that of structural steel.
Consider the three most commonly fabricated metals.
Metal Coefficient of linear

expansion
Steel 0.000012
Aluminium 0.000026
Austenitic stainless steel 0.000017
If we looked at the aforementioned coefficients of expansion, the immediate impression

would be that distortion would be twice as great in aluminium as it is in steel. This
however is not the case. The level of distortion found in steel fabrications and
aluminium fabrications is fairly similar, because the higher thermal conductivity of
aluminium results in more uniform expansion and contraction. By far the greatest levels
of distortion are found in stainless steel fabrications.
It must be kept in mind that distortion is a product of uneven expansion and
contraction. Aluminium has the highest level of thermal conductivity. Because heat is
conducted more rapidly away from the weld zone, expansion and contraction are more
uniform throughout the weldment. This, coupled with the lower strength of aluminium,
enables it to yield more readily to absorb shrinkage stresses. This results in lower
levels of distortion than may be expected.
Stainless steel on the other hand is a poor conductor of heat. This, coupled with a
relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion, causes considerable distortion due to
localised, uneven expansion and contraction in the weldment.

Types of distortion due to welding

Distortion can be considered to act in four different ways, which are:
zz longitudinal distortion
zz transverse distortion
zz angular distortion
zz warping or buckling (a combination of the other types of distortion).
Longitudinal distortion
Contraction forces acting along the line of the weld will pull the ends of the weld
towards each other. This creates what is commonly termed ‘longitudinal distortion’
(Fig 1.4).
Longitudinal
direction of
contraction forces Parent
material
Weld
metal
Fig 1.4 – Longitudinal distortion

Transverse distortion
Contraction forces acting across the line of the weld will pull the sections of parent
metal towards each other, thus creating what is commonly termed ‘transverse
distortion’ (Fig 1.5).
Transverse
direction of
contraction forces
Parent
material
Weld
metal
Fig 1.5 – Transverse distortion
As a simple example, consider a double-V butt weld. When the first run is made, the
contracting weld metal draws the edges of the plate together. The weld metal, as
deposited, is in a fully expanded state. It contracts as it cools, drawing the plate edges
together (Fig 1.5). This example also indicates angular distortion.

Angular distortion
Transverse contraction forces across the weld face cause the section of parent metal to
rotate about a longitudinal axis lying along the root of the joint, thus creating an angular
change in the position of the parent metal (Fig 1.6).
Direction of
transverse
forces
Angular
change
Longitudinal
Longitudinal Angular axis
axis change
Fig 1.6 – Angular distortion
Warping, bowing or buckling

Longitudinal, transverse, and angular contraction occurring together can produce some
complex distortion problems. This is most common in thin plates. The simple example
in Fig 1.7 illustrates the warping and bowing effect created by the presence of all three
contraction forces.
Longitudinal
contraction
Longitudinal angular
contraction
Transverse
Transverse angular
contraction
contraction
Fig 1.7 – Warping and buckling as a result of contractional forces
Correction of warping such as this can be very difficult when multi-pass welds are
involved. Successive beads are deposited on metal that is already distorted, tending to
compound the total distortion.

Methods of minimising distortion

Decisions with respect to distortion control always begin with an appraisal of the
particular job, and the ways in which distortion is likely to occur. With reference to the
causes already discussed, the methods of minimising distortion can be arranged as:
zz control of heat input
zz use of restraint
zz other methods of control.
Control of heat input

zz Choose a welding process capable of making narrow, high speed welds,
wherever possible.
zz Minimise the number of runs by correct edge preparation.
zz Use the largest size electrode, consistent with the job application.
zz Avoid over-welding by keeping reinforcement to a minimum level, and by
maintaining strict control of joint fit-up.
zz Use of backstep or sequence welding techniques to avoid localised heat
build-up.
zz Use chill bars.
zz Minimise the number of passes.
zz Use intermittent welding as and whenever specified.
1 2 3 4
Fig 1.8 – Backstep technique
Incorrect Correct
Fig 1.9 – Number of runs
Fig 1.10 – Intermittent fillet welds

Use of restraint
The greatest distortion generally occurs when the parent metal is free to follow the
shrinkage of the weld metal, and the least distortion occurs where little movement of
the parent metal can take place.
Restraint may be defined as any force that opposes the contraction forces which
produce distortion. Methods commonly used include:
zz clamps
zz jigs and fixtures
zz back-to-back assembly
zz tack welds
zz strong backs
zz sequence welding.
Fig 1.11 – Clamping back-to-back
13 12 7 5 1 6 8 17 18
11 10 9 3 2 4 14 15 16
Fig 1.12 – Sequence of welding fillet welds on either

side of a vertical member

Other methods of control

Balanced welding
When welding is balanced, heat input is also balanced, eliminating transverse angular
distortion and thus controlling distortion.
Fig 1.13 – Balanced welds
Pre-setting parts
Allowance is made for parts to move into the required position.
Fig 1.14 – Pre-setting
Cambering
Parts are pre-cambered to allow for movement into the required position.
Fig 1.15 – Pre-cambering

Design of weldment around the neutral axis
Neutral axis Unbalanced shrinkage forces

create angular distortion
Shrinkage forces on either side of

the neutral axis balance each other,
resulting in minimal distortion
Neutral axis
Fig 1.16 – Neutral axis
Welds may be placed on either side of the neutral axis, to balance shrinkage forces.
The methods of distortion control just described can be applied to minimise distortion
either prior to welding (pre-setting, pre-cambering) or during welding (sequence
welding, chill bars, clamping, intermittent welding, use of jigs and fixtures).
Although distortion can be corrected after welding, it is difficult, expensive, and
undesirable. Distortion can be corrected in the following ways:
zz hammering or forging – suitable for light sections only
zz pressing – suitable for larger and heavier sections
zz contra-heating – this involves localised heating, as a means of employing
shrinkage forces to pull the component to the desired shape.

Contra-heating
Although contra-heating can be used for correction of distortion, it is more commonly
used for two other industrial applications, which are:
zz flame straightening of steel sections
zz cambering of steel sections.
In many instances a skilful person, with the help of an oxy-fuel set and some simple
mechanical aides, can perform the same operations as large and costly bending/
pressing machines. Fig 1.17 shows an example of the amount of movement that can
be obtained with the use of the flame bending technique.
1 2
1 2
Fig 1.17 – Two beams that were fabricated in the normal manner, and then
cambered, by the controlled use of the oxy-fuel flame

Advantages of the process

zz The portability of the oxy-fuel flame means that the work may be carried out on
site. Thus heavy, bulky objects do not need to be returned to the workshop for
pressing.
zz Many objects are just too large or complex to make mechanical methods an
economic proposition, thus leaving oxy-fuel heating the only suitable alternative.
zz The oxy-fuel flame can be directed into inaccessible locations that might
otherwise require dismantling or removal of the section.
zz Low equipment cost and simple operation.
Principles of flame straightening

A complete understanding of the principles involved in the use of the oxy-fuel flame
for bending or straightening structural steel is required before the process can be
applied successfully. Lack of understanding of these principles can lead to damage
and distortion of the metal; particularly by the incorrect application of heat and/or
overheating.
The process of bending or straightening structural steel sections is based on controlling
the resulting expansion and contraction of the metal due to the application of intense
localised heat. It must be noted that a high temperature is not required for the process;
the temperature should not exceed 600 °C. What is needed is rapid heat input, and
therefore large heating torches are generally required.
When intense heat is applied to a local area, the surrounding cold metal acts to resist
expansion. Therefore, most expansion will occur in the direction of least resistance. On
cooling, however, contraction will occur equally in all directions, resulting in the heated
area becoming slightly shorter. This can be used to produce noticeable movement
at the ends of structural members, particularly in the case of long narrow sections. If
the above principle is thoroughly understood, with experience the tradesperson will
develop an understanding of exactly where and how much heat is required to bend a
member the desired amount, in the desired direction.
It must be remembered that the principle relies on applying the heat quickly, and does
not require a high temperature. In some instances it may be found to be advantageous
or necessary to assist the process with mechanical aides such as jacks, clamps and
wedges etc. For example in the case of heavy members, where unsupported weight
would act against the desired direction of movement during expansion and contraction.

Bent member Deformed area to be

flame straightened
Intense heat applied in

the correct wedge-shaped
pattern
Abnormal expansion
occurs here
Expansion resisted in
these directions by
cold surrounding metal
Upon cooling, contraction

occurs equally in all directions
Movement occurs in
these areas because
of contraction here
Final result of carefully

planned and executed
heating pattern
Fig 1.18 – Sequence of events in flame straightening heating pattern

In almost all applications involving structural sections, a wedge-shaped heating pattern
is required. The proportions of the wedge are shown in Fig 1.19.
3X
Fig 1.19 – Proportion of the heating wedge
This wedge-shaped area should be marked out on the member for the operator’s
guidance. The apex of the wedge should commence at the root of the member and
extend across its full width. This wedge-shaped heating pattern must be maintained,
regardless of the cross-sectional shape of the member being heated. Examples of the
application of the wedge-shaped heating pattern to various structural sections and their
resultant direction of movement is shown in Fig 1.20 (a), (b) and (c).
ANGLE
(Heat legs in order indicated)
ANGLE
(Heat legs in order indicated)
2
2
2
1 2
2
1 2
1
CHANNEL
1(Heat both flanges
(Heat both flanges (Heat web first at the same time,
CHANNEL
at the same time) then flange) then web)
(Heat both flanges
(Heat both flanges (Heat web first at the same time,
at the same time) then flange) then web)
Fig 1.20 (a)

2
1
TEE
(Heat web, (Heat in order (Heat web,
then flange) indicated) then flange)
Fig 1.20 (b)
EB OR EC-BEAM
(Heat both flanges
(Heat in order (Heat web,
at the same time,
indicated) then flange)
then web)
Fig 1.20 (c)
Fig 1.20 – Application of the heat wedge to structural sections (a), (b) and (c)

Cooling procedure
As the process relies on the metal surrounding the heat wedge to be kept as cool as
possible, where more than one wedge is required the metal must be allowed to cool
between heats. It will be desirable in most cases to speed up the cooling rate by water
quenching. Quenching the heated steel will not cause any undesirable change in
properties, provided the temperature in the first place is kept below the lower critical
range (600 °C maximum for plain carbon steel). Fig 1.21 shows a suitable quenching
spray using water and compressed air.
Metal Air
tubing hose
Rubber hose
Water and
air spray
Fig 1.21 – Equipment for providing an atomised spray for quenching
The advantage of the atomised spray is that the fine spray produced is rapidly
converted to steam on contact with the heated steel, and the heat quickly evaporates –
leaving the metal dry.
Application to plates
The principles described can be employed successfully to straighten distorted or
buckled plates. Local buckling should be tackled by spot heating on the convex side of
the buckle, as in Fig 1.22.
Excess Excess Excess

metal metal metal
(top) (bottom) (top)
Panels with stiffeners
Fig 1.22 – Spot heating shrinks excessive metal on the convex side of the buckle

Buckles that extend to the end of the plate can be removed by employing the
wedge-shaped pattern as in Fig 1.23.
Fig 1.23 – Use of the heat wedge to correct buckles extending to the edges of plates
Precautions to be observed
zz Members under stress from external loads should be treated carefully, as this
stress may cause pronounced buckling or even failure at the heated zone.
zz Care must be taken with welded components, as any residual stresses caused by
welding will tend to be relieved when heated. This may add to, or subtract from,
the normal movement gained from contraction in the heated zone.
zz The process should not be carried out on material other than mild steel, without
full knowledge of any change in the properties of the metal that may result.
zz Due to the size of the heating equipment required, the allowable draw-off rate for
single cylinders of acetylene is likely to be exceeded in prolonged work. In such
cases, consideration should be given to manifolding several cylinders together.
zz It is worth noting again that the maximum temperature of the steel must be
restricted to 600 °C, particularly when water quenching, so as to avoid any
undesirable change in the properties of the metal.

Chapter 2 – Welding safety
Introduction
The various welding processes used in the metal fabrication and welding industries
are often divided into categories, depending on whether the source used to generate
the heat required for melting of the parent metal and fusion is a combustible gas or an
electric source.
The various methods used to shield the weld from the atmospheric gases and their
undesirable effects on the molten weld pool and surrounding hot parent metal are often
used to further define the welding processes. For example, the oxy-fuel gas process
relies on a flame to provide heat and shielding, where resistance welding relies on high
current for resistance heating but does not have a visible heat source and does not
require shielding.
The arc welding processes use a visible electric arc to provide heat and have some
form of shielding to protect the arc zone from atmospheric contamination.
To be effective, any welding process basically requires the application of three basic
operations:
zz heat or energy source – needed for melting parent and filler material and fusion
zz atmospheric shielding – to prevent oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere from
contaminating the weld and weld zone
zz filler metal – to provide the required fill and weld build-up.
The above factors will be looked at in our more detailed examination of the various
welding processes; however the most important thing to be considered before any
welding or cutting operations are carried out is the safety of the welding operator
and those around them. A clean, tidy workplace, free from clutter and debris and
combustible materials is also an essential requirement for the safety of all welding
personnel.


zz Personal safety
{{ electric shock
{{ fumes
control of fumes
{{ radiation
{{ fire and explosion
{{ burns
{{ noise
zz Special hazards
{{ confined spaces/hazardous locations
{{ cutting or welding near hazardous locations
{{ working on tanks and containers
{{ cylinder colours
{{ working on scaffolds
zz First aid for welders.

Personal safety
To achieve safe working conditions in industry, all personnel should be able to
recognise potential hazards that apply to their particular occupation and then take the
appropriate preventative measures.
As a worker within the general metal fabrication industry, the welder can be subjected
to all of the safety hazards associated with this industry. They may be injured through
incorrect lifting practices, falling or tripping, or incorrect use of hand tools and
machines.
Additionally, others working in the vicinity of welding operations are at risk from hazards
such as fumes, radiation, flying slag, fire or explosions. They too must be protected if
their safety and health is not to be put at risk.
The major hazards associated with any welding operations are:
zz electric shock
zz fumes
zz radiation
zz fire and explosion
zz burns
zz noise.
Electric shock
Electrical principles and requirements for arc welding machines will be discussed in
later sections, however at this stage it is necessary to clarify some basic electrical
terms.
zz Voltage is the force which makes current flow. Voltage is essentially electrical
pressure.
zz Current is a measure of the amount of electrons flowing and is expressed in

amperes.
zz Open circuit voltage is the voltage between welding terminals when the
machine is switched on but welding is not in progress.
zz Resistance is the hindrance of a conductor to the passage of current.
zz Conductor is a material that permits the easy flow of electricity.
zz Insulator is a material that will not convey an electric current.
The effects of electric shock on a welding operator may simply be a slight tingling
sensation when the body is exposed to low voltage and electric current. A more severe
exposure may cause pain and muscle contractions and superficial burns at the entry
site.
If the electrical force (voltage) is sufficient to cause high current flow, then the welder
may have symptoms ranging from slight to severe muscle contractions and burns. If
the current path is through vital internal body organs such as the heart, then death from
cardiac arrest may occur.

The prevention of electric shock from welding equipment relies on three major
principles.
1. The voltages at the output terminals of a welding machine are kept low enough to
prevent easy passage of lethal current through the body.
2. Electrical resistance in any potential circuit is kept low. Current will take the path
of least resistance, however effective insulation will prevent or inhibit current flow.
3. Voltage and current path are confined to the welding circuit.
Welding power sources

Some of the arc welding power sources that are commercially available are capable
of supplying a wide range of welding current that enables the machine to be used for
different applications. The power source must have a front label that clearly describes
the characteristics of the machine in terms of the input voltage and output voltages at
no load (or open circuit voltage) and output current and duty cycle. The output voltages
at typical load currents should also be shown on the label. Open circuit voltage should
be in the 35–80 V range for AC, and 32–110 V range for DC.
Typical voltages under load or (arc voltage) may be anywhere in the 16–40 V range,
depending on the welding process. The gas tungsten arc welding process for example
tends to load up the power source more than other processes and will operate
successfully at 16 V or above. Solid wire processes such as submerged arc welding or
gas metal arc welding may operate over a wider range between 16–40 V. The manual
metal arc welding process however generally needs to have a power source that is
able to deliver a safe OCV that enables easy arc starting and a minimum 24 V under
load to successfully run most of the covered electrodes.
Power sources generally operate over a maximum output voltage range that is
restricted by law and complies with the requirements of Australian Standard® AS1674.
To maximise the safety of the welding operator and reduce the risk of electric shock or
electrocution, the OCV of arc welding power sources is restricted to:
Maximum OCV for DC machines – 110 V
Maximum OCV for AC machines – 80 V
Even with these limitations, severe electric shock is still possible. In fact welders have
been known to have been electrocuted when using a power source with an OCV as low
as 45 V.
Input voltage or anything on the primary connection side of the welding machine can be
a source of potentially fatal electrical shock in a welding circuit. Only licensed electrical
trades people are allowed to work on the 240 V or 415 V input or any internal circuits
of a welding machine. Make sure the input lead insulation is not damaged, and that all
input connections are tight and secured.
Welding output voltage and current occurs between the output terminals. The output
circuit of a welding machine is not generally connected to the frame or earth of the
welding machine.
Between the output connections and any cables, work clamps or a torch connected to
them should be treated as live when the welder is turned on. All connections should be
tight and all insulation should be secure and properly maintained.

Welding power sources can also supply power for ancillary devices such as hot boxes,
or supply voltages and control circuit voltages for remote devices and wire feeders.
The voltages used for these devices can vary up to a dangerous 110 V. Typically,
a safe voltage such as 24 or 32 V is now used. Individual manufacturers may also
provide auxiliary power at other voltages.
High frequency type outputs tend to increase the risk of insulation breakdown or
electrocution because they assist current to flow.
Factors determining the severity of electric shock

zz The amount of current passing through the body
{{ A current flow of less than 0.04 amperes can cause tingling or pain.
{{ A current flow above 0.05 amperes can cause muscle contraction and stop
a human heart.
zz The duration of the current flow

{{ A longer current flow time increases the risk.
zz The amount of voltage present in the circuit

{{ Increased voltage will result in greater current flow, but even quite low
voltages can be dangerous.
zz The current path

{{ If the current path is via vital organs, then the risk of serious injury is much
greater.
zz The state of health of the person receiving the shock

{{ A weak or sick person would be more susceptible.
zz The phase of the heart cycle at the instant the shock occurs.
The body’s electrical resistance

The body is a good conductor because of its water content, but dry skin acts as an
insulator that naturally resists the flow of current. Moist skin in contact areas, and
contact over large areas, increases the chance of electric shock. Dry protective
clothing, gloves and footwear increase insulation and resistance, thereby reducing the
possibility of electric shock.
zz Normal dry skin has a resistance of approximately 100 000 Ohms and if exposed
to 80 volts will allow 0.0008 Amps to flow using the rule A = v/r or 80/100 000.
zz Wet skin has a resistance of approximately 500 Ohms and if exposed to 80 volts
will allow 0.16 Amps to flow using the rule A = v/r or 80/500.
zz Wet skin and a short current path with resistance of 250 Ohms and if exposed to
50 volts will allow 0.2 Amps to flow using the rule A = v/r or 50/250.

Figure 2 has been removed. It was reproduced from page 29 of

AS 1674.2-2007.
Fig 2.1 – Transformer type welding circuit
Avoiding electric shock

The following practices are highly recommended.
zz Input electrical supply circuits (primary) should be kept as short as possible and
be serviced only by electrical tradespersons.
zz Welding equipment should be in good repair and fully insulated.
zz Work return contact points should be close to the site of welding and be carefully
selected. All connections should be clean and tight.
zz Machines should be switched OFF and unplugged when changing leads or
carrying out any maintenance.
zz When the machine is to be left without any welding taking place, electrode stubs
should be removed and the machine should be turned off.
zz The welding circuit should be isolated by a circuit breaker when it is not actually
being used for welding or for changing of electrodes. Alternatively, a VRD
(voltage reduction device) should be fitted to the welding machine.
zz Avoid any moisture and keep everything dry. Remember, sweating decreases
body insulation, therefore be extra careful when involved in welding under hot
conditions.
zz Dry insulating material such as wooden boards or rubber mats should be used in
confined spaces.
zz Dry gloves in good repair should be worn when handling any welding circuit or
equipment, particularly when changing electrodes.
zz Footwear should be insulating, dry and in good condition.
Fumes
Studies in safety and health in welding suggest the main adverse health risk for
welders is working in confined spaces for extended periods of time. Investigators have
found a higher incidence of respiratory ailments in this group. Welders are known to
have higher incidence of bronchitis and emphysema.
Further studies found that although arc welding produces visible, infra-red and
ultraviolet light that increases in intensity with current and this radiation represents risk
to welders, particulate fumes represent the greatest health risk to welders.
Sources of fumes
Fumes are produced in all welding and cutting operations. Fumes may be a mixture of:
zz any by-products of a combustion process (carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide or
any other gases)
zz any chemical reaction between atmospheric gases such as nitrogen or oxygen in
the vicinity of the electric arc (nitrogen dioxide, ozone)
zz arc shielding gases such as carbon dioxide, argon, helium or the various gas
mixtures
zz vaporised materials or elements such as iron, manganese, nickel, zinc, chromium
or cadmium from the parent metal, metal coatings, or welding consumables
zz airborne particles from metal working, grinding, welding or fluxes that are small
enough to be inhaled.

Effects of fumes
Research suggests that the build up of any welding fumes in a well ventilated workshop
is normally at low levels and tends to pose no great health risk. However, given that
most workshops are not effectively ventilated, any concentration of fumes from highly
toxic metals, even in low concentrations, may also cause health problems with respect
to the upper respiratory tract, lungs, blood, liver, kidneys and central nervous system.
The welder may also be deprived of the basic oxygen level needed to maintain good
health.
Certain constituents found in welding fumes are recognised as being particularly
dangerous, even in very low concentrations. Welding operators should be aware of the
dangers associated with working with metals such as beryllium, cadmium, zinc and
lead.
Table 2.1 gives an indication of the toxicity of some of the fumes more commonly
encountered by welding operators.
Metal Fume Ventilation

Effect
fumes source recommended
aluminium irritation to eyes, nose and throat
parent metal local exhaust
(Al) chronic bronchitis
irritation to eyes, skin, nose and
antimony throat, and lungs
alloys local exhaust
(sb) heart damage
stomach upsets
dermatitis
stomach upsets
arsenic headache isolation box,
alloys
(As) nasal infections fresh air supply
cancer
internal organ damage
barium dust disease

some inner shield
stomach and circulatory system local exhaust
(Ba) wires
problems
carcinogen, highly toxic, quick
acting poison
beryllium isolation box,
eye damage alloys
(Be) fresh air supply
respiratory failure
chronic illness
boron irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory
alloys local exhaust
(B) system
cadmium highly toxic, carcinogen alloys isolation box,

(Cd) heart, lung and kidney damage surface coating fresh air supply


Effect
carcinogen, toxic to lung and
chromium
skin alloys local exhaust
(Cr)
nasal irritation
irritant to nose and throat
copper parent metal
metal fume fever local exhaust
(Cu) alloy
stomach upsets
cobalt irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory isolation box,
alloy
(Co) and circulatory system fresh air supply
iron benign siderosis

parent metal general ventilation
(Fe) possible carcinogen
fatigue, insomnia, headache
muscle aches and pain, stomach
lead parent metal local exhaust
upsets
(Pb) coatings aux. air supply
brain, nerve and kidney damage
high blood pressure
lithium irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory isolation box,
alloy
(Li) system fresh air supply
irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory

magnesium parent metal
system general ventilation
(Mg) alloy
metal fume fever
toxic, chronic damage to brain
manganese and nervous system local exhaust
alloy
(Mn) irritant to eyes, throat, skin, aux. air supply
respiratory system
mercury chronic damage to brain, bones parent metal isolation box, fresh
and teeth air supply
(Hg) alloy
nausea
irritant to skin and respiratory
system
molybdenum mild irritant to eyes and alloy local exhaust
respiratory system
(Mo)


Effect
nickel skin and respiratory irritation and parent metal local exhaust
mutations
(Ni) alloy aux. air supply
cancers
heart, lung, kidney damage
silver metal fume fever parent metal local exhaust
(Ag) major irritant to eye, skin, alloy
respiratory system
thorium cancer parent metal local exhaust
(Th) irritant to respiratory system alloy
(radioactivity is absorbed by
body)
tin benign stenosis of lungs parent metal local exhaust
(Tn) (seen on x-ray) solders
alloy
titanium irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory parent metal local exhaust
system
(Ti) alloy
tungsten hard metal disease parent metal local exhaust
alloy
vanadium irritant to skin, eyes, respiratory alloy local exhaust
system
(V) aux. air supply
green tongue
bronchitis
chemical pneumonia
zirconium cancer parent metal local exhaust
irritant to respiratory system alloy
(radioactivity is absorbed by
body)
zinc metal fume fever parent metal local exhaust
(Zn) irritant to eyes, skin and alloy
respiratory system

Fume Ventilation
Gases non-toxic effect
source recommended
acetylene not-toxic, mild anaesthetic, fuel gas general ventilation
depressant effect
(C2H6)
displacement of oxygen in
atmosphere
argon non-toxic inert gas general ventilation
(Ar) displaces oxygen in atmosphere
carbon dioxide non-toxic combustion by local exhaust
product
(CO2) displaces oxygen in atmosphere aux. air supply
carbon displaces oxygen in atmosphere combustion by local exhaust
monoxide product
attaches to blood and prevents aux. air supply
(CO) oxygen being absorbed, may
lead to coma and death
helium non-toxic inert gas general ventilation

(He) displaces oxygen in atmosphere
nitrogen nitrogen is non-toxic but will inert gas general ventilation
displace oxygen in atmosphere
nitrogen oxides can cause
respiratory problems action of arc on
atmospheric gas
nitrogen dioxide is toxic
oxygen supports combustion, can cause oxidising gas general ventilation
burning to skin, throat and lung
(O2) lining
ozone irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory arc welding zone local exhaust
system problems or failure,
(O3) headache, bronchitis, fatigue
phosgene highly toxic, severe irritant chlorinated isolation box,
to eyes, respiratory system hydrocarbons fresh air supply
(COCI2) problems or failure exposed to UV
phosphine severe irritant to eyes, phosphate paint isolation box,
respiratory and digestive exposed to UV fresh air supply
(PH3) system, fits, headache, coma
stubine damage to blood and then vital cutting brass/ isolation box,
organs (brain), may be fatal bronze alloys fresh air supply

Ventilation
Toxics Effect Fume source
recommended
calcium irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory welding flux local exhaust
carbonate system
fluorides irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory hydrogen-controlled local exhaust
system rods, welding fluxes
bone damage
titanium oxide irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory welding flux local exhaust
system
Ventilation
Solvents Effect Fume source
recommended
alcohols blindness methanol-based local exhaust
cleaner
skin irritant
brain and liver damage
basic irritant to skin white spirits local exhaust
hydrocarbons kerosene etc
brain damage
TCEs irritant to eyes, skin, respiratory welding flux local exhaust
system
Table 2.1 – Toxicity of fumes; metals, toxics and solvents
An isolation box is a sealed chamber into which the job is placed. Access is via
gloves built into the wall of the chamber.
Control of fumes
To ensure that the concentration of fumes and exposure to fumes are within safe limits,
various controls can be applied.
zz Substitution
Where practicable, a less dangerous material, consumable, process or procedure
can be substituted.
zz Limiting the period of exposure
Limiting the time any one welder is exposed to excessive fume concentration
is not the most desirable method, but in some cases may be the only practical
solution.

zz Work methods
Good housekeeping and work practices can avoid the unnecessary generation of
fume and exposure to it; for example, removing surface contaminants from parent
material prior to welding or cutting. It should be noted that certain degreasing
agents such as the chlorinated hydrocarbons decompose under heat and
ultraviolet radiation to give off toxic fumes.
zz Ventilation
This is the most common method of control and can be achieved by various
means.
Types of ventilation
zz Natural ventilation
In the greater majority of workshops and open sites, the natural flow of air is
sufficient to disperse fume concentrations.
Fig 2.2 – Natural ventilation
zz General ventilation
This method is often used where the workshop does not have adequate natural
ventilation. Fumes rise and are dispersed into the atmosphere, generally through
ceiling exhaust fans.
Fig 2.3 – General ventilation

zz Local exhaust ventilation

This method collects the fume at its source and directs it away from the work
area. The suction inlet should be as close as possible to the source of the
fume. There are various types of local exhaust systems, each offering certain
advantages and suited to certain applications.
Fig 2.4 – Dedicated welding booth
zz Local dispersion ventilation

In some cases, suitable ventilation can be obtained locally by fans which deflect
and disperse the fumes away from the welder.
Fig 2.5 – Local dispersion ventilation
Personal respiratory protection

In special situations where general or local ventilation systems are not effective or
convenient in reducing fume levels, personal respiratory protection by one of the
following methods (complying with AS/NZS 1716) is required.
zz Hose mask respiration method, which is a full-face piece fitted with a length
of relatively large bore air hose, drawing from a clean source by the normal
breathing action of the wearer.
zz Airline respiration which may comprise a full-face piece, half-face piece, hood or
helmet type. Clean air is supplied at a suitable pressure from a remote source.
zz Self-contained breathing apparatus using a cylinder of compressed air. This
equipment is not dependent on an air compress which may be subject to failure,
and is recommended for use in confined spaces.
zz Dust respirator which may consist of a full-face, or half-face mask, fitted with the
correct filter cartridge.

BOC Limited ©2006

Fig 2.6 – Personal respirators
These provide protection only against fume particles and not against gases.
Radiation
Types of radiation
Three types of radiation are emitted by the arc welding processes: visible radiation,
infra-red radiation and ultraviolet radiation. Low levels of these radiation types are also
emitted from the flame and materials in gas welding and cutting.
Visible radiation
Exposure to high intensity visible radiation may result in ‘dazzle’, with temporary loss of
vision and fatigue. There may be permanent damage to the eyes over the long-term.
Infra-red radiation
Infra-red radiation acts in the same manner as exposure to surface heat, producing
burns. Permanent damage is unlikely unless exposure is severe, but the heat adds to
discomfort. Repeated exposure to infra-red radiation and burns can cause skin cancers
and damage the unprotected structure of the eye, such as the iris, the lens and the
retina. In severe cases of repeated exposure to luminous infra-red, eye cataracts can
develop.

Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is the most common and powerful radiation hazard in welding.
This radiation type attacks the subsurface layers of exposed skin and eyes.
Brief ultraviolet radiation exposure to unprotected skin can produce inflammation
symptoms similar to sunburn. Longer exposure times or more intense radiation levels
can produce severe burns and blistering skin that may require hospitalisation and/or
result in permanent damage to the skin.
The eye is particularly sensitive to UV rays and even brief exposure to unprotected
eyes can result in a condition known as ‘arc eye’ or ‘welding flash’. This is accompanied
by pain, watering of eyes, and photophobia (intolerance to light).
Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light can cause permanent damage to eyes and
exposed skin in the form of impaired vision, cataracts and damaged skin or skin cancer.
The symptoms of radiation burns or ‘arc eye’ develop over time and sometimes do not
appear until several hours after the exposure. These symptoms may last several days
in severe cases but generally subside, leaving no permanent or residual damage.
The amount of ultraviolet radiation emitted from the arc depends on several factors
such as the welding process type, the type of electrode, the amperage and the arc
length.
Welding processes such as gas tungsten arc and gas metal arc welding in particular,
emit powerful ultraviolet radiation because of their high current densities and open arc
characteristics.
The GMAW and GTAW welding processes therefore require the welder to take greater
care and precautions against exposure to radiation. The use of a welding lens one shade
darker than those recommended for MMAW is also recommended (refer to Table 2.2).
Protection from radiation

Personal protection
Protection is needed for both the eyes and skin. For arc welding, a suitable welding
helmet or face shield, fitted with the recommended filter lens for the job in hand, is
necessary.
Recommended filters for manual metal arc welding are given in Table 2.2.
Recommended filters for MMAW

AS/NZS 1338.1:1992
Amperage
Shade No.
Up to 100 8
100−200 10
200−300 11
300−400 12
Over 400 13
Table 2.2 – Recommended filters for MMAW as per AS/NZS 1338.1:1992

Oxy-acetylene or fuel gas welding, heating and cutting flames give off infra-red and
ultraviolet rays. Although the rays are not as concentrated as those of the arc, they
have a similar effect on the eyes over a long period of time.
As with arc welding, the oxy-welding processes require operators to protect their eyes
from damage that can be caused by injurious rays, sparks and flying scale.
For gas welding and cutting, the use of protective goggles fitted with the recommended
filter is essential.
The correct type and shade of lens must be used at all times: refer to Table 2.3.
Recommended filters for OAW

AS/NZS
Description of operation Type of work 1338.1: 1992
Shade No.
Oxy-cutting and gouging, flame descaling, silver

brazing, fusion welding zinc die cast, braze light and general cutting 4
welding light gauge copper pipe and steel sheet
Fusion welding of copper and its alloys, nickel

and alloys, medium thickness steel plate
general 5
Braze welding of heavy steel, cold cast iron,
hard facing
Fusion welding heavy steel, heavy and hot cast
iron heavy work 6
Braze welding hot cast iron and cast steel
Table 2.3 – Recommended filters for OAW as per AS/NZS 1338.1:1992
General welding safety

All personnel working with or near welders should wear safety spectacles complying
with the requirements of AS/NZS 1336. Safety spectacles fitted with glass lenses not
less than 3 mm thick, or plastic lenses not less than 2 mm thick (incorporating a shade
filter of up to 2.5), are highly desirable to give protection from stray welding flashes.
In order to protect the skin from radiation, it is essential that suitable clothing is worn
to cover all areas that could be exposed to radiation. Woollen materials have much
greater resistance to ultraviolet radiation than synthetic and plain cotton materials,
which can rapidly deteriorate or rot when exposed to strong ultraviolet radiation.
Leather aprons, sleeves, jackets and gloves are usually required in welding processes
where strong radiation is emitted (refer to Fig 2.7).
It is most important to realise that all three radiation types can be reflected from shiny
surfaces – such as the underside of galvanised roofs, plates, or painted screens.

Where reflection is likely, for example in welding on highly reflective metals such as
aluminium or stainless steel, protection for the eyes and skin against indirect radiation
is required.
All welding processes require the operator to protect him/herself from the radiated heat
and rays associated with the process. Perhaps the most efficient way of doing this is by
the wearing of protective clothing. The use of all protective clothing is dictated by the
nature of the work and the comfort of the operator.
Ideally, dress for the operator should consist of the following items.
Fig 2.7 – Dressed for safety
Always take care to check clothing for frayed edges, torn areas and open pockets
where sparks can lodge and start burning. Work clothes should also be free of oil or
grease. This may be difficult in some workshops, but a spare pair of clean overalls
could be left at work specifically for welding operations.

Personal safety for oxy-fuel gas operators
zz Be neat and clean about your work.
zz Keep your equipment in good condition.
zz Wear your eye protection when using a blowpipe. It protects your eyes from
sparks, from flying slag, and from the strong light and harmful rays from the
flame. It also helps you to see your work better.
zz Wear the proper gloves, apron, shoes, and any other protective clothing provided.
zz Watch out for sparks landing on your sleeves, cuffs and open pockets.
zz Never use oxygen to dust clothing or work.
zz Never use matches to light a blowpipe. Use a flint lighter or pilot light.
zz Clear all inflammable material at least 10 m away from where you are welding or
cutting.
zz Keep flame, sparks and hot metal away from cylinders and tubing.
zz When working on any metal giving off poisonous fumes, use proper ventilation or
wear a suitable respirator.
Protection of others
Adequate protection should be provided for all personnel within about 12 m of an
open arc or gas flame. Suitable screens, either fixed or portable, are desirable. These
screens and surrounding walls or partitions should have a matt finish and dull colours
in order to reduce reflection.
Fire and explosion

Flame cutting and welding operations are a major cause of industrial explosions and
fires. Each year losses can occur amounting to several million dollars, and loss of
life or severe injury resulting from explosions or fire. The safety requirements depend
largely upon the processes being used and the location of the work being carried out.
Protection against fire and explosion should comply with statutory regulations covering
prevention and comply with the requirements of AS 1674.
Sources of fire
Even though the temperature of the arc or flame of welding or cutting is more than
sufficient to cause combustion of many materials, a direct flame or electric arc is rarely
the cause of an actual fire. Any materials such as wood, wood-based products, paper,
synthetic materials, oil and grease soaked materials with a low ignition temperature
that are in the immediate vicinity of any cutting or welding operations will certainly
easily ignite. However, ignition will most likely occur by contact with hot metal sparks,
electrode stubs and spatter.
Any type of flammable or combustible materials should be cleared away from any
welding or cutting areas for a distance of at least 10 m, as hot particles lodged amongst
them may produce smouldering and fire at a later stage.
When considering the area affected by cutting and welding sparks, account should
be taken of the process and the job situation. Cutting and gouging can produce
high velocity particles travelling long distances, and hot particles falling from a high
workstation will travel further than normal, as illustrated in Fig 2.8.

7m
5m
2.5m
To 20m
3.5m - 5.9m
4.2m - 7.8m
5.8m - 10.2m
Adapted with the permission of Welding Technology Institute of Australia.
Fig 2.8 – Typical travel distances for hot or molten metal particles in cutting
Fire prevention
zz Don’t let rubbish pile up in your work area. Remove it as it comes in.
zz Throw oily, greasy, or paint-stained rags into special bins and remove them as
soon as possible.
zz Keep areas around stored timber or other combustible material free from weeds
and scrub.
zz Store all flammable liquids and explosives in isolated areas and do not smoke
near them. Use only non-sparking tools to open the containers of these materials.
zz Don’t let material that can burn stay in the near vicinity of welding and flame
cutting operations.
zz Don’t walk or wheel materials over flexible electric cables. You could accidentally
cut the wire, causing sparking and a fire.
Causes of explosion
The risk of explosion is always present when welding or cutting, as these processes
may project hot sparks into an atmosphere containing flammable gases, liquids
or solids. Non-volatile oils or solids (which do not produce flammable gases at
atmospheric temperatures) may produce flammable or explosive gases when exposed
to heat and oxygen from welding or cutting. Drums, fuel tanks and other containers
pose a particular hazard to the safety of the welding operator, and no cutting or welding
should be carried out on them until all precautions have been carried out and the job
has been made safe.

Fire and explosion become greater hazards in situations where flammable gases and
liquids are present. In the ordinary workshop, welders should be aware of normal fire
precautions.
Prevention of fire and explosion

zz Maintain clean and tidy work areas, free from accumulations of combustible
materials.
zz Check that work introduced for cutting or welding does not constitute a fire or
explosion hazard.
zz Ensure that screens, welding aids and building fittings are not constructed from
flammable materials.
zz Ensure that personal clothing is sound and made from the most suitable
materials.
zz Store flammable substances and gases in a safe area or separate building.
zz Be aware of fire extinguisher locations and how to operate each type.
zz Avoid oxygen enrichment of clothing or work space, as may be caused by leaking
oxygen valves.
Burns
Because welding and cutting is associated with intense heat, the welder is always in
danger of receiving painful burns.
Burns are classified in terms of their extent and depth. The extent of a burn is
described by calculating the burned area as a percentage of total skin area.
Depth of a burn is described by degree.
zz A ‘superficial burn’ produces reddening of the skin (1st degree).
zz An ‘intermediate burn’ produces blistering (2nd degree).
zz A ‘severe burn’ extends below the surface of the skin and causes injury to
underlying tissues (3rd degree).
In welding and cutting operations, burns result from:

zz ultraviolet and infra-red radiation
zz contact with slag, sparks and hot particles
zz contact with hot work or heat radiated from work
zz electrical leakage, in particular, leakage from high frequency devices
zz fire and explosions.
Protection from burns

zz Use tongs to handle hot metal and mark ‘hot’ work.
zz Make provision for disposal of hot metal and electrode stubs.
zz Wear all necessary protective clothing.
zz Protective clothing must be non-flammable and free from oil, grease, tears and
fraying.

Noise
In the metal fabrication and welding industry, noise of all types has been a constant
problem. Noise occurs at various frequencies (tones) and intensity. Noise is measured
in terms of sound pressure levels in decibels – dB (A).
Hazardous noise is any excessive continuous noise that inhibits normal conversation.
Excessive noise that is either high in level or continuous over a long period can result
in permanent damage to hearing. Use noise control methods and wear personal
hearing protection.
Special hazards
There are special work situations which present increased hazards to the safety and
health of the welding operator. These are:
zz confined spaces
zz hazardous locations
zz working on tanks and containers.
Confined spaces
Working in confined spaces usually entails difficult entry/exit and/or cramped
conditions. The workplace is often poorly ventilated and the welder is often completely
surrounded by a conductor which forms part of the welding circuit. Under these
circumstances, the welding operator is at increased risk from the following.
A build-up of fumes
The possibility of a build-up of dangerous fumes in a confined space due to the use
of welding processes in restricted air movement must be allowed for and adequate
ventilation must be provided.
zz Exhaust fans must be used.
zz Additional supplementary air supply may be required.
Electric shock
The possibility of an electric shock is greater because the welder can easily make
contact with the job and awkward and enclosed workplaces often lead to higher levels
of perspiration.
zz The welder should keep themselves dry as possible and use all necessary
protective clothing to prevent electrocution.
zz An all-insulated electrode holder shall be used.
zz High-frequency attachments shall not be used.
zz Portable electric lamps exceeding 32 V supply shall not be used. Electronic
leakage breaker (ELB) devices are acceptable.
zz Provision must be made close to the work for power to be switched off by an
assistant when:
{{ the welder is not prepared for welding
{{ the electrode is being changed
{{ the welder leaves the job.

Confined space regulations
The following regulations are specified as mandatory when working in a confined
space.
zz Environment atmosphere tested permit to work must be obtained.
zz Adequate ventilation must be provided.
zz A lifeline must be attached.
zz A semi-skilled operator who is trained in rescue and resuscitation must be
stationed at the manhole to monitor the workspace at all times, to adjust
oxy-acetylene gear and the welding machine whilst continually observing the
welder.
zz All leads and hoses are to be kept clear of the floor, dampness and falling metal
sparks. Circular vessels must be prevented from rolling.
zz General tidiness and care is essential, equipment should not be allowed to
contact hot work or sharp objects.
zz Oxy-cutting equipment should not be left inside the confined space when not in
use, and it should always be lit by the assistant outside and then passed to the
welder.
zz Oxygen should never be used for dusting down or any purpose other than the
oxy-flame.
Mats for thermal and Local exhaust

electrical insulation ventilation
(high frequency
requires special
insulation)
To exhaust
ventilation
system
Fully insulated
electrode holder Main switch
Observer
within reach
of observer
Dry wooden
form work
Work
terminal
Dog and Electrode

wedge terminal
Fig 2.9 – Precautions for cutting or welding in confined spaces

Hazardous locations
Although many workplaces may be described as hazardous, a ‘hazardous location’ is
defined as an area where any flammable liquids, solids, dusts, fibres or gases may be
present so as to pose a fire or explosion hazard.
Hazardous locations may be classified into four main groups (some examples are
provided below).
1. Typical locations in which flammable or combustible liquids are manufactured,
used, handled or stored, or where vapours may be present. For example:
zz refineries, fuel stores
zz dry cleaning plants
zz spray painting premises
zz varnish and paint manufacturing plants.
2. Typical locations in which combustible dust is thrown into suspension in the air
and quantities may be sufficient to produce explosive mixtures. For example:
zz sections of flour mills
zz grain elevators
zz coal pulverising plant.
3. Typical locations in which easily ignitable fibres are produced, handled, used or
stored. For example:
zz cotton or cotton seed mills
zz wood working plant
zz sections of clothing factories.
4. Any location or part of a ship.
Cutting or welding in or near hazardous locations

If at all possible, the work shall be removed from the hazardous location and carried
out in a safe location.
Cutting or welding in/or adjacent to hazardous locations shall not take place until the
following conditions have been established.
zz It is impractical to move the work to a safe area.
zz The production of any hazardous or explosive substance has ceased or been
excluded from the precise location.
zz The location has been tested and found to be free from flammable substances.
zz A hot-work permit has been obtained (see Appendix 2).
zz Authorisation has been obtained from the responsible officer.

In general terms, the welder’s responsibility with respect to hazardous locations can be
expressed as follows.
zz Always examine the possibility of removing the work to a safe area.
zz Always examine work areas for possible hazards.
zz Seek authorisation before proceeding with cutting or welding whenever any doubt
exists.
zz Work must be carried out in accordance with the provisions of the hot-work
permit.
zz Be aware of the location of any firefighting equipment.
zz Be vigilant in the provision and maintenance of any safety screens, doors or
barriers required to ensure safety.
zz Be vigilant in the possible entrapment or catching of any sparks, offcuts or
electrode butts as provided for in the safety arrangements.
zz Always check behind walls, partitions, bulkheads etc, to ensure safety in
adjoining areas.
A fire watch must be maintained for a minimum of one hour after any cutting and
welding operations have ceased.
Working on tanks and containers

Responsibility for work
When approaching a job on tanks or containers, the welder should display the same
caution as when working in hazardous locations. If there is any possibility that the
container may have held petrol, oil or any volatile liquid, special precautions are
necessary.
Sight and smell are not reliable indicators of the presence of flammable gases, as
some substances may only release these gases when heated. Doubtful cases should
be referred to a qualified person for testing, and subsequent work carried out by
experienced welders.
Recommended practice
Where steam is available, this may be used to remove materials which are easily
volatile. Washing with strong soda solution or detergents will remove heavier oils.
Chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents must not be used for cleaning prior to welding.

Even after thorough cleansing, the container should (whenever possible) be filled with
water before any cutting or welding operation is performed. In practically every case, it
will be found possible to place the container in such a position that it can be filled with
water to within a short distance from the point where cutting or welding is to be done.
In doing this, however, care must be taken to ensure that there is a vent or opening to
provide for the release of heated air from the container. Where it is not possible to fill
the container with water, carbon dioxide or nitrogen may be used for added protection.
If possible, periodic examination of the air contents of the vessel should be made by
means of a detector of combustible gases, where such an instrument is available.
Pressure regulator
Small free space with opening
Carbon dioxide
cylinder
Open pipe Welding
point Open pipe
Air exit
Welding 1 - 2cm
point
1 - 2cm
Container Container
Full of water Entry of carbon dioxide

Full of water
Fig 2.10 – Preparation of tanks for welding
Radiography
Radiographic examination of welds using x-rays or gamma rays to penetrate welded
joints and project onto film is now fairly common practice. Often this quality assurance
function has to be carried out in the workshop at various project stages.
The ionizing radiation emitted from either the x-ray or gamma ray source units is
invisible and can be extremely harmful to any part of the human body. Strict control
measures must be followed whenever these operations are to be carried out, to prevent
any person being exposed to harmful radiation.
All staff must be made aware of the danger involved and the safety procedures that
should be followed. The following precautions should be observed.
zz Whenever practical, radiographic testing should be carried out when most staff
are not in the immediate area (eg overnight).
zz Equipment or exposure containers must be secured and kept locked at all times.
zz Radiographic equipment must not be tampered with or operated by unauthorised
personnel.

zz Operators of radiographic equipment must be licensed and authorised by NATA
or similar.
zz The radiographic operations or the work area should be isolated by barriers
designed to exclude any unauthorised personnel. Warning signs should be
erected around the restricted area.
Figure 2.11 has been removed. It was reproduced from Figure E1 in

Appendix E on page 70 of AS 2243:4:1998.
Fig 2.11 – Ionizing radiation warning symbol showing proportions

(black symbol on yellow background)
Any personnel working in the area must wear film badges or dosimeters that are to be
monitored on a regular basis.
Gas cylinders
Oxygen cylinders
An oxygen cylinder is a hollow container of sufficient wall thickness and strength to
withstand much more than the filling pressure (safety factor). Into this container a
cylinder valve is screwed, to which a regulator may be attached. Oxygen cylinders are
painted black and have right-hand threads.
Oxygen gas is compressed and forced into the cylinder to produce a pressure to a
maximum of 17 5000 kPa at 15 °C. One size of cylinder (G) commonly used will hold
in excess of 8.9 m3 (8900 litres) of gas under pressure. Because oxygen cylinders are
therefore very dangerous, they are fitted with bursting discs that are designed to vent
off any excessive increases in cylinder pressure.

Porous
material
Oxygen
cylinder
Acetylene
cylinder
Fig 2.12 – Oxygen and acetylene cylinders
Acetylene cylinders
An acetylene cylinder is rather different from an oxygen cylinder. The cylinder is not
hollow, because acetylene is extremely unstable when compressed in a free area. The
cylinder is filled with a porous material saturated with liquid acetone.
The outside shell of the container is not required to be very strong, as the pressures
involved are not very high. Fusible plugs that melt at 100 °C are provided in acetylene
cylinders to vent off acetylene should any overheating occur (increased temperature
would increase pressure).
Acetylene cylinders are painted claret and have left-hand threads.
Liquefied petroleum gas cylinders (LPG)

LPG cylinders are hollow containers of the required mechanical strength in which the
gas is stored under pressure sufficient to maintain the gas in its liquid form. This is
a valuable feature of the gas, for it is possible to store more fuel in liquid form than
is possible in gaseous form. LPG in liquid form occupies only 1/270th of the space it
occupies as a gas.
The pressure in the container depends upon the type of gas and the temperature. For
propane, the pressure varies from 650 kPa at 25 °C to 1180 at 38 °C.
LPG cylinders are fitted with a pressure relief valve to vent off gas, should any
overheating occur.
LPG cylinders are painted silver/aluminium and have left-hand threads.

Cylinder safety and handling

General safety
zz Keep all empty or full cylinders in separated (eg fuel gas, oxidising gas, inert gas)
locked and secure storage areas, away from radiators, furnaces, other sources of
heat and electrical circuits and direct rays of the sun.
zz Close valves of empty cylinders.
zz Never tamper with or alter cylinder numbers, marking or colour coding.
zz Never try to refill a cylinder or try to mix gases in a cylinder.
zz Never use a cylinder or its contents for other than its intended purpose.
zz Keep oil and grease away from cylinders. Keep them clean!
zz Make sure cylinders are upright and secure and protect cylinder valves from
bumps, falls, falling objects and from weather.
zz Never allow anyone to strike an arc or tap any electric arc against any cylinder.
zz Never draw oxygen or acetylene from cylinders except through properly attached
pressure regulators.
zz If valves cannot be opened by hand, do not use a hammer or wrench, notify the
supplier.
zz Never use cylinders as supports or rollers.
zz Always remove regulators before moving cylinders, be sure valves are tightly
closed before removing regulator.
zz Open all cylinder valves slowly. Never open a cylinder valve more than 1½ (one
and a half) turns.
Oxygen cylinders
zz Always call oxygen ‘oxygen’ not ‘air’.
zz Never use oxygen in pneumatic tools, oil pre-heating burners, blowing out pipes
or tanks, or anywhere as a substitute for compressed air or other gases.
zz Any hydrocarbon (oil, paint, grease etc) can form an explosive compound
when subjected to oxygen under pressure. Never use oil on oxygen/fuel gas
equipment.
Acetylene cylinders
zz Always call acetylene ‘acetylene’ not ‘gas’.
zz Always keep acetylene cylinders upright when in use to avoid loss of acetone.
zz If an acetylene cylinder valve leaks from or around the spindle, close the valve
and tighten the glands. If this fails, or if the fusible plug is leaking, remove the
cylinder to the open air, far away from possible sources of ignition. Tag the
cylinder properly to explain the trouble and notify the supplier immediately.
zz If the acetylene cylinder is on fire or seriously heated, either accidentally or
through severe flashbacks, if possible:
1. shut valve
2. take the cylinder into the open air
3. cool with copious supply of water.

If an acetylene cylinder is on fire, and cooling is being applied to allow the fire to burn,
call fire authorities and evacuate all personnel. Any gas leak that cannot be shut off is
more dangerous, because there is a high risk of explosion.
Cylinder colours
Type of gas Colour of cylinders Used for

acetylene claret cutting and welding
air dark admiralty grey with powder cutting
black neck
argon peacock blue GTAW and GMAW aluminium welding
carbon dioxide peacock blue with GMAW steel welding
with 5% or more argon French grey neck
carbon dioxide French grey (green-grey) GMAW steel welding
LPG aluminium cutting and heating
hydrogen signal red cutting under water
oxygen black cutting and welding
nitrogen dark admiralty grey powder cutting
helium middle brown GMAW aluminium welding
Table 2.4 – Colour code for identification of industrial compressed gas cylinders
Labels affixed to the shoulder identify the gas contents of cylinders (Fig 2.13). The
properties of the gases contained in cylinders can be determined by the colour of the
identification label, ie:
red − flammable gas
yellow − oxidising gas
green − inert gas
red and white − poisonous gas.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 Gas name and grade

United Nations numbering system for
2 safe handling, transport and storage
3 Dangerous Goods Classiﬁcation

4 BOC gas code and cylinder size
Contents of cylinder at standard
5 temperature and pressure
(15°C@101.3kPa)
Nominal ﬁlling pressure at standard
6 conditions (for permanent gas)
7 Caution – indicated major hazards*

8 General safety information
*
BOC Limited ©2006 *Always refer to Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
Fig 2.13 – Example of cylinder identification

Working on scaffolds
Welders working at height should be aware of the special hazards involved; such as
falling from height, working with heat or hot material, sparks and spatter and the risk of
electrocution and fire. Special safety precautions are required and welders should have
sufficient knowledge of scaffold construction and use to enable them to work safely at
height.
Because of the increased danger, it is recommended that any person welding or cutting
at height should have an assistant and should not be asked to work alone. Any welding
or cutting being carried out above hand-held height (1.8 m) should be carried out on
platforms or scaffolding erected specifically for the purpose. Working from temporary
supports such as ladders, trestles or old oil drums is not permitted.
For welding and cutting operations, the immediate area under and around any
scaffolding should be isolated with barriers and warning signs. Attention should be
taken to ensure that sparks and spatter do not fall or travel onto combustible material
below. Stub ends and offcuts should be caught in a steel container rather than be
allowed to fall.
According to AS/NZS 4576 – Guidelines for scaffolding and AS/NZS 1576.1 –
Scaffolding – General requirements, anyone working at a height above 2 m must be
provided with suitable platforms or scaffolding. Platforms or scaffolding are subject to
regulations and should only be erected by suitably trained or qualified personnel.
Fig 2.14 – Mobile scaffolding

The use of mobile platforms of up to 4 m height is allowed, provided they comply with
the guidelines given below.
zz Where a person or object can fall more than 2 m, the scaffold must be fenced.
Typical fencing should consist of handrails/guard rails and these should be set at
900–1100 mm in height with a mid rail at 400–600 mm. Kick boards of 150 mm
height are to be fitted at platform level.
zz Where a person is working up to 4 m and cannot fall, or cause objects to fall, no
qualifications are required to erect scaffolding but the scaffold must be erected to
manufacturers’ specifications and the base must be firm and secure.
zz Where a person or object can fall more than 4 m, the scaffold must be erected by
a person holding the basic level of scaffolding certificate of competency.
zz Scaffolding erected for working at heights above 8 m must be erected and
maintained by a ticketed scaffolder.
Any scaffolding must have suitable safe access/egress. A ladder is suitable, provided it
is set at the recommended height-to-base distance ratio of 4:1 and is securely attached
to the scaffold.
Whenever a person can fall over 2 m, the use of a fall arrest system is recommended.
Equipment or heavy tools that can fall over two metres should be secured using
lanyards and small items and tools should be kept in carry bags designed for the
purpose.
The use of fibre or nylon ropes is not permitted near any cutting or welding.
Is the supporting surface hard and A soft or uneven supporting surface will
flat? cause instability and may lead to the collapse
of the scaffold.
Is the area of operation free of floor It may be necessary to clearly limit the
penetrations, powerlines and other operational area of a mobile scaffold by
hazards? erecting barricades or implementing other
forms of control in order to isolate the
scaffold from hazards.
Are the castor wheel locks in working A mobile scaffold should not be left
order? unattended or worked from while the castors
are in a free-running condition. Castors with
inoperative or missing wheel locks should be
replaced.
Table 2.5 – Checklist for lightweight aluminium mobile scaffolds
Any toxic material that is used in a workshop must be accompanied by a Material

Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), and these should be held in a secure but accessible
location. A sample MSDS for chromium, which is a common alloying material, is shown
following.

Material safety data sheet (MSDS) for CHROMIUM
1 PRODUCT IDENTIFICATION
PRODUCT NAME: CHROMIUM
FORMULA: CR
FORMULA WT: 52.00
CAS NO.: 7440-47-3
NIOSH/RTECS NO.: CB4200000
PRODUCT CODES: 4961
EFFECTIVE: 09/10/86
REVISION #03
PRECAUTIONARY LABELLING: BAKER SAF-T-DATA™ SYSTEM
HEALTH - 0 NONE
FLAMMABILITY - 0 NONE
REACTIVITY - 0 NONE
CONTACT - 0 NONE
HAZARD RATINGS ARE 0 TO 4 (0 = NO HAZARD; 4 = EXTREME HAZARD).
LABORATORY PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
SAFETY GLASSES; LAB COAT
PRECAUTIONARY LABEL STATEMENTS
DURING USE AVOID CONTACT WITH EYES, SKIN, CLOTHING. WASH THOROUGHLY
AFTER HANDLING. WHEN NOT IN USE KEEP IN TIGHTLY CLOSED CONTAINER.
SAF-T-DATA™ STORAGE COLOUR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE)
2 HAZARDOUS COMPONENTS
COMPONENT % CAS NO.
CHROMIUM 90-100 7440-47-3

3 PHYSICAL DATA
BOILING POINT: 2200 °C (3992 °F) VAPOUR PRESSURE (MM HG): N/A
MELTING POINT: 1900 °C (3452 °F) VAPOUR DENSITY (AIR=1): N/A
SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 7.14 EVAPORATION RATE: N/A

(H2O = 1) (BUTYL ACETATE = 1)
SOLUBILITY (H2O): NEGLIGIBLE (LESS THAN 0.1%)

% VOLATILES BY VOLUME: 0
APPEARANCE AND ODOUR: STEEL GREY TO SILVER PELLETS.
4 FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARD DATA
FLASH POINT (CLOSED CUP) N/A
FLAMMABLE LIMITS: UPPER - N/A % LOWER - N/A %
FIRE EXTINGUISHING MEDIA

USE WATER SPRAY, ALCOHOL FOAM, DRY CHEMICAL OR CARBON DIOXIDE.
SPECIAL FIREFIGHTING PROCEDURES
FIREFIGHTERS SHOULD WEAR PROPER PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT AND SELF-

CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS WITH FULL FACE PIECE OPERATED IN POSITIVE
PRESSURE MODE. MOVE CONTAINERS FROM FIRE AREA IF IT CAN BE DONE WITHOUT
RISK. USE WATER TO KEEP FIRE-EXPOSED CONTAINERS COOL.
UNUSUAL FIRE & EXPLOSION HAZARDS
CAN BE AN EXPLOSION HAZARD, ESPECIALLY WHEN HEATED.
5 HEALTH HAZARD DATA
NOTE: WHILE THE SPECIFIC COMPOUNDS CANNOT BE IDENTIFIED, THERE IS

EVIDENCE THAT CERTAIN CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS CAUSE CANCER IN HUMANS
AND EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS. CHROMIUM IS WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN AIR, WATER,
SOIL AND FOOD. TRIVALENT CHROMIUM MAY BE AN ESSENTIAL TRACE INGREDIENT
IN THE HUMAN DIET. ALL CHROMIUM COMPOUNDS ARE REGULATED BY THE EPA,
BUT NO SPECIFIC DATA IS AVAILABLE TO LINK TRIVALENT CHROMIUM TO CANCER.
PRUDENT JUDGEMENT DICTATES THAT EXPOSURE SHOULD BE MINIMISED AS MUCH
AS POSSIBLE.
(SEE IARC MONOGRAPH ON EVALUATION OF CARCINOGENIC RISK OF CHEMICALS

TO HUMANS, VOLUME 23 LYON, FRANCE IARC, 1980, PP. 205-323).
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE (TLV/TWA): 0.5 MG/M3 (PPM)
PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL): 1 MG/M3 (PPM)
CARCINOGENICITY: NTP: YES IARC: YES Z LIST: NO OSHA REG: NO

EFFECTS OF OVER EXPOSURE
CONTACT WITH SKIN OR EYES MAY CAUSE SEVERE IRRITATION OR BURNS.
DUST MAY ULCERATE MUCOUS MEMBRANES. EXCESSIVE INHALATION OF DUST

IS IRRITATING AND MAY BE SEVERELY DAMAGING TO RESPIRATORY PASSAGES
AND/OR LUNGS. INGESTION MAY RESULT IN SEVERE INTESTINAL IRRITATION WITH
BURNS TO MOUTH.
NOTE: PRODUCT IS A SOLID MASS; HOWEVER, WARNINGS ARE BASED ON

INHALATION DUST, MIST OR FUME EMISSIONS THAT ARE POSSIBLE DURING
MANUFACTURING OR CHEMICAL REACTIONS.
TARGET ORGANS
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
MEDICAL CONDITIONS GENERALLY AGGRAVATED BY EXPOSURE NONE IDENTIFIED
ROUTES OF ENTRY
INGESTION, INHALATION
EMERGENCY AND FIRST AID PROCEDURES
INGESTION: IF SWALLOWED AND THE PERSON IS CONSCIOUS, IMMEDIATELY GIVE

LARGE AMOUNTS OF WATER. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION.
INHALATION: IF A PERSON BREATHES IN LARGE AMOUNTS, MOVE THE EXPOSED

PERSON TO FRESH AIR. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION.
EYE CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY FLUSH WITH PLENTY OF WATER FOR AT LEAST

15 MINUTES. GET MEDICAL ATTENTION.
SKIN CONTACT: IMMEDIATELY WASH WITH PLENTY OF SOAP AND WATER FOR AT
LEAST 15 MINUTES.
6 REACTIVITY DATA
STABILITY: STABLE
HAZARDOUS POLYMERISATION: WILL NOT OCCUR
CONDITIONS TO AVOID: FLAME
INCOMPATIBLES: CARBONATES, STRONG BASES,
MINERAL ACIDS
7 SPILL AND DISPOSAL PROCEDURES
STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF A SPILL OR DISCHARGE
WEAR SUITABLE PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. CAREFULLY SWEEP UP AND REMOVE.
DISPOSAL PROCEDURE
DISPOSE IN ACCORDANCE WITH ALL APPLICABLE FEDERAL, STATE AND LOCAL

ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS.
EPA HAZARDOUS WASTE NUMBER: D007 (EP TOXIC WASTE)

8 PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
VENTILATION: USE ADEQUATE GENERAL OR LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION

TO KEEP FUME OR DUST LEVELS AS LOW AS POSSIBLE.
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION: A RESPIRATOR WITH DUST/MIST FILTER IS

RECOMMENDED. IF AIRBORNE CONCENTRATION EXCEEDS TLV, A SELF-CONTAINED
BREATHING APPARATUS IS ADVISED.
EYE/SKIN PROTECTION: SAFETY GLASSES WITH SIDE SHIELDS, PROPER GLOVES

ARE RECOMMENDED.
9 STORAGE AND HANDLING PRECAUTIONS
SAF-T-DATA™ STORAGE COLOUR CODE: ORANGE (GENERAL STORAGE)
SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS
KEEP CONTAINER TIGHTLY CLOSED. SUITABLE FOR ANY GENERAL CHEMICAL

STORAGE AREA.
10 TRANSPORTATION DATA AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
DOMESTIC (DOT)
PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHROMIUM
HAZARD CLASS ORM-E
LABELS NONE
REPORTABLE QUANTITY 1 LBS
INTERNATIONAL (IMO)
PROPER SHIPPING NAME CHEMICALS, NOS (NON-REGULATED)
Reference: West Virginia Toxics Release Inventory Database Search

www.gis.wvdep.org/tir/cheminfo/msds452.text

First aid for welders

Basic objectives
In the event that a person is injured or suddenly becomes ill, efficient first aid should
be carried out as quickly as possible, preferably by trained first aid officers. This action,
if taken before medical help is available and often at a critical stage, can save lives,
reduce the severity or worsening of the injury and limit discomfort.
Essential emergency action

zz Ensure that there is no danger to the patient or rescuer.
zz Get the casualty out of any danger zone, without endangering anyone.
zz Give first aid to the casualty.
For all but minor injury, arrange for medical assistance. If there is little risk in moving
the casualty, arrange for transport (and for care during transport) to a physician,
hospital or nurse. If there is any risk of further injury posed by moving the patient,
he/she should not be moved and qualified medical help should be sought.
First aid for some common welder injuries

Welding flash (arc eye)
This is eye injury caused by exposure to infra-red or ultraviolet rays.
zz In mild cases, irrigate or flush the eyes, add eye-drops and shade the eyes.
zz In severe cases, loosely pad both eyes and get the casualty quickly to a doctor.
Particles in the eyes

zz Cover BOTH eyes of the victim and take the patient as quickly as possible to a
doctor.
zz In the case of chemical burns (eg from acids, alkalis or similar liquids), remove
the chemicals from the eyes by washing at once with large amounts of running
water and flush continuously for up to 20 minutes.
zz Seek urgent medical advice.
Burns – to hands and body

Minor burns
Minor burns should be immediately cooled under cold running water, then covered with
sterile dressing material. Avoid the use of ointment or powder as these may interfere
with any subsequent medical treatment.
Major burns
Since urgent action is essential, cool the area with running water, cover and get the
casualty to hospital as quickly as possible. Keep the casualty covered with a light
blanket or other suitable material. Care must be taken to ensure that dressings,
blankets etc. will not stick to the wound.

Electric shocks
Electric shock usually does not kill at once, but may stun the victim and stop his or her
breathing. Delay in rescue and resuscitation may be fatal.
Rescue
Immediately switch off the electricity where practicable and then pull or push the patient
clear. If the electricity cannot be switched off immediately, remember that the patient
is electrified until released and take precautions against receiving electrical shock
yourself. The patient must be pulled or pushed away from the conductor using any type
of dry insulating material, such as wood, rope, clothing, rubber or plastic.
Do not use metal or anything moist. In some cases, it may be easier to remove
the conductor from the patient. Where necessary, take care that the patient does not
sustain injury by falling.
Resuscitation
After rescue, if the patient is not breathing, commence artificial respiration immediately
and continue without interruption for hours if necessary. When assistance is
available, send for a doctor and an ambulance.
Artificial respiration and cardiac massage

The need for artificial respiration is evident if the patient is not breathing, and must
begin immediately. At the same time, a check on the patient’s carotid pulse will
establish the need for cardiac massage. If no pulse can be felt, cardiac massage
should proceed – together with artificial respiration.
Severe bleeding
Apply direct pressure to the wound by placing a large dressing over the wound and
holding it in position with a firm bandage. If the dressing becomes saturated with blood,
do not remove it, but apply another. This will aid clotting. In an emergency, if a dressing
is not readily available, firmly press the sides of the wound together with the fingers or
hand. Elevate the injured part to decrease the blood flow to the wound. Seek medical
attention immediately.
Fractures
Do not move the patient, but immobilise the person and the fractured limb by use of
pillows, blankets or other suitable materials. Bleeding should be controlled if present
and the patient kept warm until qualified medical help arrives.
Inhalation of toxic or intensively irritating gas or fumes

Remove the casualty out of the danger zone at once and into fresh air. Place the
casualty in a comfortable position and keep him or her warm. The casually should be
taken to (or seen by) a physician as quickly as possible. Where it is at all possible, the
gas or fume involved should be identified to assist the physician with treatment.

Further information on subjects discussed in this chapter can be gained by consulting
the following:
zz WTIA Technical note 7 – Health and safety in welding
zz AS 1319 – Safety signs for the occupational environment
zz AS/NZS 1336 – Recommended practices for occupational eye protection
zz AS/NZS 1337 – Eye protectors for industrial applications
zz AS/NZS 1338 – Filters for eye protectors
zz AS 1470 – Health and safety at work – Principles and practices
zz AS 1674 – Safety in welding & allied processes – Fire precautions
zz AS 1674 – Safety in welding & allied processes – Electrical
zz AS/NZS 1715 – Selection, use and maintenance of respiratory protective devices
zz AS/NZS 1716 – Respiratory protective devices
zz AS/NZS 2210 – Occupational protective footwear
zz AS 2613 – Safety devices for gas cylinders
zz AS/NZS 2865 – Safe working in a confined space.

Chapter 3 – Codes and regulations
Introduction
The previous section on safety makes reference to various standards or codes related
to safety in the workplace. Standards or codes and specifications are often used to lay
down minimum specifications or performance requirements for goods or service.
Standards and specifications related to welding or fabrication are used to control the
quality of the finished product, methods of manufacture and standards of workmanship
in the fabrication and many other industries.
This standardisation of work methods makes for greater efficiency and uniformity.
Without the use of standards and codes, designers, engineers and fabricators would
apply their own ideas as to how the work was to be designed and constructed and
inspection procedures would be difficult to carry out. Without some sort of work code or
standard being specified, the customer would not be able to define or verify the quality
of the finished product by other than visual means. In metal fabrication and welding
in particular, this could encourage sub-standard work. Contractors may be tempted to
under-quote and cut corners to get the job completed on schedule.
Most code books in the welding industry are a book of rules and standard procedures
laid down for carrying out work in a safe, organised and efficient manner.
Codes or standards are a recommendation of a minimum set of rules, or

specifications that should be followed. They are not law or enforceable unless they
are specified or adopted by a third party.
Typical third parties may be simply an internal QA/QC section. The client will often
specify the adoption and use of codes or standards in the purchasing contract. External
parties may be government or other bodies, sections or departments
Typical government departments that may become involved include:
zz WorkSafe WA
zz utility bodies such as the electricity, gas and water departments
zz minerals or mines departments
zz road, rail or water transport departments
zz building or construction departments
• local shires or councils.


zz Who produces standards
{{ application of standards
{{ Australian Standard®
titles and types of certificates
zz Acts, regulations, codes of practice and guidance notes
{{ occupational safety and health laws.

Who produces standards?

Standards may be produced by:
zz standards organisations whose sole or major function is to produce standards, for
example:
{{ Standards Association of Australia (SAA)
{{ British Standards (BS)
{{ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
zz insurance companies, for example:

{{ Lloyds of London
{{ Det Norske Veritas (DNV).
Additionally, the customer may develop a set of specifications of their own. This is
common for larger projects using specific processes such as manufacturing plant, gas
processing plants or fuel refineries. For example, the American Petroleum Institute
(API) issues standards for use in the petroleum industry.
Advantages of the use of codes include:

zz standardisation and uniformity of product
zz uniform reference for engineers, supervisors, welders
zz simplifies inspection procedures
zz ensures a minimum standard of the finished product
zz protects the customer from inferior workmanship
zz removes the onus from the welder or foreperson
zz ensures public safety and safe working conditions and practices
zz a good reference
zz available in times of dispute
zz lowers costs.
Problems associated with the use of code books include:

zz expensive
zz new clauses are frequently needed
zz become outdated
zz terminology is sometimes difficult for the average tradesperson
zz not always readily available
zz reference to other codes is frequently needed
zz sometimes applied badly.

Application of standards
Correct application of standards is an essential factor in their use. To this end, probably
the most important clause in any standard is the ‘scope clause’. The scope clause is
usually the first clause of any standard and as the name suggests, states the scope
of the code, ie it states exactly to what the code is to be applied. For example, the
following extract from a scope clause is taken from AS/NZS 2980 – Qualification of
welders for fusion welding of steels.
1.1 SCOPE. This standard defines the qualification test of welders for the welding
of steels to the requirements of a welding procedure specification. It provides a
set of technical rules for a systematic qualification test of the welder and enables
such qualifications to be uniformly accepted independently of the type of product,
location and examiner/examining body.
This standard does not deal with the certification of welders, this subject being
covered by AS/NZS 1796.
Further to this, some codes will also include an ‘application clause’ which gives further
guidance in the use of the standard. The following extract from an application clause is
also taken from AS 2980.
1.2 APPLICATION. The qualification tests prescribed in this Standard are intended to
provide a method to qualify welders for the welding of steel structures; however,
they may also be suitable for the qualification of welders for other applications,
by agreement between the principal and the fabricator. These tests are not
intended to be used as a guide for welding during actual construction. The latter
should be performed in accordance with the requirements of a welding procedure
specification (WPS) produced for the purpose.
Section 2 deals specifically with qualifications for welders using hand held
equipment, while Section 3 deals with qualifications for welders using non-hand
held equipment.
Where a welder fails the specified tests, their performance can be used as a basis for
establishing the value to be gained by further training.
When reading the scope clause, it is important to note the limitations that apply to the
application of the code. For example, the scope clause of AS/NZS 1554.1 states that
‘the code is “limited” to the welding of steel parent metal with a specified minimum yield
strength not exceeding 500 MPa.’
Anything outside this, or outside of the other limitations stated, is clearly outside the
scope of this code and another code should be applied.
‘Should’ and ‘shall’
zz The words ‘should’ and ‘shall’ are frequently used throughout standards.
zz Where the word ‘shall’ is used, it indicates that the statement is mandatory.
zz Where the word ‘should’ is used, it indicates a recommendation.

Australian Standard®
Standards Australia is the body responsible for producing Australian Standard®
documents.
Australian standards are easily recognised by their cover. The cover is usually yellow in
colour (sometimes blue when they are joint Australia/New Zealand, or joint
Australia/ISO Standards).
The cover always contains:
zz the Standard number and edition
zz the words ‘Australian Standard®’
zz the title
zz the Standards Australia logo.
The following example is of the cover of AS 1228—2006.
Fig 3.1 – Typical cover of an Australian Standard® document

Common standards for fabrication

This section looks at the various codes or standards that may apply to the fabrication
and erection of steel buildings.
A building is not just fabricated and erected as per somebody’s idea. Although it may
be up to one person to come up with the shape and size, certain rules and guidelines
are given that the building must adhere to.
The guidelines are usually presented or referred to as the ‘codes and specifications’.
The fabricator is required to manufacture the building in relation to these guidelines.
Some of the main codes that relate to building and fabrication or construction that a
fabricator has to be aware of are provided here. A brief description of some of the main
relevant points of these codes that you should study is provided.
Remember, there are a lot of codes or standards that are used in the metal fabrication
industry.
For example
AS/NZS 1336, AS3678, AS1554, AS 4100, AS1210, AS/NZS 4854, AS/NZS 4855.
Five of the most commonly applied codes used in the fabrication industry in Australia are:
• AS 4100 – Steel structures
• AS/NZS 1554.1 – Structural steel welding – Welding of steel structures
• AS 1210 – Pressure vessels
• AS 1796 – Certification of welders and welding supervisors
• AS/NZS 2980 – Qualification of arc welders for welding of steels.
Students should make use of college library or class resource sets (if provided) to
become familiar with these codes.
AS 4100 – Steel structures

This covers the minimum requirements for design, fabrication, erection and
modification of steelwork in structures. The code applies to buildings, structures and
cranes constructed from steel.
Section 1
Covers scope, terms and definitions.
Section 2
The material used in construction must comply with the requirements of the structural
steel codes AS/NZS 3678, AS/NZS 3679, AS1163, AS/NZS 1594, AS/NZS 3679.1 and
AS/NZS 3679.2, or their equivalent.
Bolts, nuts and washers must also conform to the specified standards.
All welds should be performed in accordance with the recommendations of
AS/NZS 1554.

This text has been removed. It was reproduced from Section 3.1 Design:
3.1.1 ‘Aim’ and 3.1.2 ‘Requirements’ of AS 4100-1998.
Section 14
Relates to fabrication and recommends methods for cutting and welding should comply
with AS/NZS1554.1. Methods of holing are described and most holes other than those
used on base plates should be bolt diameter plus two millimetres. Flame-cut holes are
not permitted. Bolting standards and methods are defined and joint types can be either
bolt bearing or friction grip type. General workmanship is defined.
Section 15
Covers erection procedures such as delivery, storage and handling, straightness and
alignment, joint assembly and tensioning methods.
The tolerances for location of anchor or holding down bolts and grouting are also
covered.
AS/NZS 1554.1 – Structural steel welding

This specifies materials of construction, weld preparations and weld qualities,
qualification of welding procedures and welding personnel and fabrication and
inspection requirements for welds related to the fusion welding of steelwork in
structures made up of combinations of steel plate, sheet or sections, including hollow
sections and built-up sections, or castings and forgings.
Section 1
Covers scope, terms and definitions.
An important aspect of section one is the welding processes allowable such as:
zz manual metal-arc welding (MMAW)
zz submerged arc welding (SAW)
zz gas metal-arc welding (GMAW or MIG), including pulsed mode
zz gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW or TIG)
zz flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
zz electroslag (including consumable guide) welding (ESW)
zz electrogas welding (EGW).

The standard is limited to the welding of steel parent material with a specified
minimum yield strength not exceeding 500 MPa. The Standard applies to the welding
of steelwork in structures complying with AS 3990, AS 4100, AS/NZS 4600 or
NZS 3404.1. Where welded joints in these structures are governed by dynamic loading
conditions, the Standard applies only to those welded joints that comply with the fatigue
provisions of AS 3990, AS 4100 or NZS 3404.1, as limited by Item (ii) below, or the
directly equivalent fatigue provisions of other application Standards.
Welded joints complying with the above requirements are those that are —
(i) not subject to fatigue conditions; or
(ii) subject to fatigue conditions, where—
(A) the stress range in the welded joint complies with the permissible stress
range of stress categories C, D, E or F of AS 3990, or weld categories lower
than or equal to detail category 112 of AS 4100 or NZS 3404.1; or
(B) the stress range in the welded joint is not more than 80% of the permissible
stress range of stress category B of AS 3990.
Arc stud welding is dealt with in AS/NZS 1554.2.
In addition to the abovementioned structures, AS/NZS 1554.1 applies to the welding

of cranes, hoists and other dynamically loaded structures; the welding of road and
pedestrian bridges; and the welding of steelwork in applications other than structural.
The Standard does not apply to the welding of structures by the following processes:
zz oxy-acetylene welding (OAW)
zz resistance welding (RW)
zz friction welding (FW)
zz thermit welding (TW).
It also does not apply to the welding of pressure vessels and pressure piping, or railway
bridges. The Standard does not cover the design of welded connections or permissible
stresses in welds, nor the production, rectification, or repair of castings.
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from 1.6 ‘Weld categories’
on page 7 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.

This text has been removed. It was reproduced from 1.6 ‘Weld categories’
on page 7 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.
The major differences between these two joint types are the allowable levels of
imperfection and thereby, two levels of inspection. This is reflected in Table 7.2 of the
Standard and Appendix F of the Standard.
Section 2
Specifies permitted materials and these are mainly low carbon/manganese structural
steels. These may have a minimum yield strength up to but not exceeding 500 MPa.
See AS/NZS 3678 and AS/NZS 3679.1.
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from Section 2, 2.1
‘Parent material’ on page 9 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.

This text has been removed. It was reproduced from Section 2, 2.3.1
‘Electrodes and filler wires’ on page 9 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.
Section 3
Describes recommended welded connections such as butt, fillet welds, plug and slot
welds. Terms and definitions and parts of butt and fillet welds are also shown in this
section.
There is a distinction made between ‘complete penetration butt welds’ and ‘incomplete
penetration butt welds’.
Note the design throat thickness allowance for the various types of weld and
configurations.
Section 4
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from Section 4, 4.2
‘Methods for qualifying a welding procedure’ on pages 20 and 21
of AS/NZS 1554.1.2004.
Table 5.12.2 explains how a welder may qualify for various welds when welding on
selected text pieces, eg 6G pipe test.

Section 5
Describes the level of workmanship allowable for aspects such as thermal cutting,
edge preparation, assembly and alignment. Pre-heat and interpass temperature
recommendations are made based on carbon equivalent, joint configuration and heat
input. There are details for tacking, control of distortion and weld repairs.
A brief summary is as follows.
All surfaces to be welded shall be clean, smooth and free from imperfections and
foreign matter. Plates to be butt welded shall not be out of alignment by more than 10%
of the plate thickness, or 3 mm, whichever is the lesser. Where the separation of plates
forming a fillet weld is 1.5 mm or greater, the size of the fillet weld shall be increased by
the amount of the separation. The separation between plates to be butt welded and any
backing material shall not exceed 1.5 mm. Where pre-heating is required, the plates
shall be brought to the pre-heat temperature prior to tacking. The joint must be brought
to temperature for a minimum distance on each side of the joint at least equal to the
plate thickness, with a minimum distance of 75 mm.
Welding processes requiring an external gas shield shall not be carried out in a draft
or wind greater than 10 km/h, unless suitably protected. The minimum length of tack
welds shall be not less than four times the thickness of the thicker part, or 40 mm,
whichever is the lesser. The width of the weld face shall be the largest dimension of the
weld, ie exceed both the depth and the width.
This graphic has been removed. It was reproduced from Figure 6.6 on
page 55 of AS/NZS1554.1:2004.
Fig 3.2 – Depth to width ratio
Peening may be carried out, except on the root run or surface layer of the weld. Where
correction of distortion by flame heating is carried out, the maximum temperature of
steels shall not exceed 600 °C.
Any grinding shall blend smoothly into the surface of the parent metal without abrupt
changes in contour. The depth of any grinding shall not extend below the surface of the
parent metal by more than:
zz 0.5 mm for material less than 10 mm thick
zz for material 10 mm and over in thickness – 0.07 times the nominal thickness, or
3 mm, whichever is the lesser.

Temporary welds and attachments shall not be allowed on the tension flanges of
beams and girders etc. Stray arc strikes are to be avoided. Slag shall be cleaned from
all welds and the welds shall not be painted until inspection has been completed.
Where welds are to be dressed flush, the surfaces shall be finished so as to:
a) not reduce the thickness of the thinner base metal or weld metal by more than
0.8 mm, or 5% of thickness, whichever is lesser; or
b) not leave reinforcement greater than 0.8 mm.
Section 6
Covers the quality of welds. Note the different various levels of imperfections allowable
for the GP and SP categories.
Section 7
Describes the methods of weld inspection that are to be used once welding is
completed. Note that all completed welds must be visually inspected.
Other methods of weld inspection that may be used to supplement visual are:
zz dye penetrant inspection
zz magnetic particle inspection
zz ultrasonic inspection
zz radiographic inspection.
AS 1210 – Pressure vessels

This Standard sets out requirements for the materials, design, construction, testing,
inspection, certification and installation of unfired pressure vessels constructed in
ferrous or non-ferrous metals by welding, brazing, casting or forging and include the
application of non-integral fittings required for safe and proper functioning of an unfired
pressure vessel.
The purpose of this Standard is to establish uniform safe requirements for the
materials, design, construction, testing, inspection, certification and installation of
unfired pressure vessels.
Users are advised that pressure vessels must comply with the requirements of the
Inspecting Authority in the State or Territory where the vessel is to be installed or
used. However this Standard is usually used as the basis for the requirements for
vessels in all States and Territories of the Commonwealth.
AS 1210 applies to unfired pressure vessels only. Boilers are covered by other codes.

Class of vessel
Pressure vessels under AS 1210 are designated as:
zz class 1
zz class 2A or 2B
zz class 3.
The class into which the vessel will fall depends on many factors such as:
zz volume
zz working pressure
zz location
zz nature of contents
zz operation and maintenance.
Examples of vessels under AS 1210 are:

zz air receivers
zz heat exchangers
zz transport vessels for hazardous materials
zz cryogenic vessels
zz vessels containing lethal materials.
Qualification of welding personnel

General – Each welder shall have a ‘specific welder qualification’ in accordance with
Clause 5.2.1 of the Standard to show they are qualified to make those welds they will
be required to make on the vessel, in accordance with AS/NZS 3992:1998.
Methods of qualification
(a) Welding a test piece which simulates the production weld and examining and
testing the test piece in accordance with Clause 9.5.
Where the option in Clause 9.5.1(a) is taken to approve a welder by
non‑destructive examination methods, the parent material for the test piece may
be from Group A1 or A2 materials welded using the pre-heat and consumables
of the required welding procedure. This option is only permitted for the parent
material specification listing in Table 9.1.
(b) Presentation of documentary evidence of having satisfactorily welded a
production joint which has complied with the appropriate requirements of the
pressure equipment Standard for radiographic or ultrasonic testing within the
previous six months.
(c) Presentation of documentary evidence of having welded the test piece of a
qualified welding procedure within the last six months.
(d) Holding an appropriate certificate specified in AS 1796 (for Australia), or the
NZIW Welding Supervisor’s Certificate or the NZIW Certificate in Welding
Engineering (for New Zealand) which shall qualify the welder within the range
covered by that certificate provided that welder has made production welds
complying with this Standard within the previous six months.

(e) Part of the first production weld or a complete pipe weld carried out by a welder
to an approved welding procedure is shown by either radiographic or ultrasonic
examination to comply with the pressure equipment Standard.
(f) The length of weld examined in a production weld or test piece shall be at least
300 mm, or the circumference of a pipe weld, whichever is less.
Welders qualified in accordance with the above are permitted to undertake production
welding within the limits of the essential variables listed in Table 9.1 using welding
procedures documented in accordance with the requirements of this Standard.
Extent of approval of welder qualification

A welder qualified to an approved welding procedure in accordance with any method as
laid down in Clause 9.2 shall be requalified when the essential variables of additional
production welds exceed the requirements laid down in Table 9.1 for the items as listed.
AS 1796 Certification of welders and welding supervisors

This Standard specifies the requirements necessary for the granting of certificates
to persons engaged in the operation of various welding processes used in the
manufacture of pressure equipment such as boilers, pressure vessels and associated
piping as defined in AS/NZS 1200, as well as other applications requiring a prescribed
standard in the theory and practice of welding. Certification in welding is related
primarily to basic welding techniques and processes and not to the parent metal of the
joint.
Welder certification should not be confused with welder qualification. The requirements
for welder qualifications are specified in the appropriate application Standards.
Welder certification
Certifies the ability of a welder to weld to a particular standard using a particular
process. Welder certification is portable and stays with the welder under AS 1796.
A welder’s certificate shall remain valid indefinitely, provided that the examining
authority does not cancel the certificate because either:
a) there is evidence of serious deterioration in the quality of the welder’s work, or
b) the welder is incapable of maintaining the necessary standard.
Welder qualification
Welder qualification qualifies a welder to carry out a given welding procedure, ie to
weld a given joint type in a given position using given process and consumables.
Welder qualification does not attest to a welder having attained a certain level of skill as
does certification. Welder qualification is not portable and will usually lapse if the welder
has not carried out the welding procedure in the last six months.
Titles and types of certificates
The titles and types of AS 1796 certificates shall be as follows.
zz Certificate No 1 Manual metal-arc welding (MMAW) of butt welds in carbon steel
plate and carbon steel pipe over 600 mm outside diameter (single V welded from
both sides).
zz Certificate No1E Manual metal-arc welding (MMAW) of butt welds in carbon
steel plate and carbon steel pipe over 270 mm outside diameter (single V welded
from one side only).

zz Certificate No 2 Manual metal-arc welding (MMAW) of butt welds in carbon steel
pipe (single V welded from one side only).
zz Certificate No 3 Manual metal-arc welding (MMAW) of butt welds using
hydrogen-controlled electrodes in alloy steel plate and alloy steel pipe over
600 mm outside diameter (single V welded from both sides).
zz Certificate No 3E Manual metal-arc welding (MMAW) of butt welds using
hydrogen-controlled electrodes in alloy steel plate and alloy steel pipe over
270 mm outside diameter (single V welded from one side only).
zz Certificate No 4 Manual metal-arc welding (MMAW) of butt welds using
hydrogen-controlled electrodes in alloy steel pipe (single V welded from one side
only).
zz Certificate No 5 Gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW) root run and manual
metal-arc welding (MMAW) of butt welds using hydrogen-controlled electrodes
in alloy steel pipe (single V welded from one side only).
zz Certificate No 6 Gas welding (GW) (single V welded from one side only).
zz Certificate No 7 Gas tungsten-arc welding (GTAW) (single V welded from one
side only).
zz Certificate No 8G Gas metal-arc welding (GMAW) of plate and pipe.
zz Certificate No 8F Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) of plate and pipe.
zz Certificate No 9 Automatic welding.
zz Certificate No 10 Welding supervisor.
The suffix ‘E’ indicates that a candidate elected to make a full penetration
single-sided butt weld on plate.
Test pieces
The test pieces for the qualification tests are either pipe and/or plate, depending
upon the certificate being examined. All details of test pieces including number, types,
size and preparation details are given in Section 2 of the code, as are details of
consumables and general conduct of the test.
Assessment
Upon completion, the test pieces are examined visually and those which pass visual
examination undergo further radiographic or destructive examination to determine
compliance with code requirements.
To gain certification to AS 1796, a candidate must:
• meet the pre-examination requirements
• pass a theory examination according to the syllabus set out in AS 1796
• pass one of the practical tests.

AS/NZS 2980 – Qualification of arc welders for welding of steels

This Standard specifies requirements for qualification tests which are specially devised
to determine the ability of a welder, using consumable electrode arc welding processes,
to produce sound welds in steels.
This Standard does not deal with the certification of welders, this subject being covered
by AS 1796.
Application
The qualification tests prescribed in this Standard are not intended to be used as
a guide for welding during actual construction. The latter should be performed in
accordance with the requirements of a procedure specification produced for the
purpose.
Section 2 deals specifically with qualifications for welders using hand-held equipment,
while Section 3 deals with qualifications for welders using non-hand-held equipment.
Where a welder fails the specified tests, their performance can be used as a basis for
establishing the value to be gained by further training.
Qualification of a welder to AS/NZS 2980 gives reasonable assurance that the operator
can carry out the range of joints qualified by conduct of the test. Tests under this
Standard apply to carbon steel plate and pipe.
Acceptance criteria
Test welds are made, visually examined and destructively tested according to the
criteria set out in Appendix A of the Standard. Alternatively, radiographic examination
may be carried out.
Period of effectiveness
The welder’s qualification as specified in this Standard shall be considered as
remaining in effect indefinitely unless:
(a) there is some specific reason to question a welder’s ability; or
(b) the welder changes employer.

Acts, regulations, codes of practice and guidance

notes
The previous chapter on safety makes reference to some rules and regulations related
to cutting and welding in hazardous locations, working in confined space and with
scaffolding.
There are a number of Acts (or laws) and types of legislation used to govern
occupational safety and health practice and rules in Western Australia.
In addition to the broad duties established by an Act, the legislation is supported by a
further tier of statute, commonly referred to as regulations, together with a lower tier of
non-statutory codes of practice and guidance notes.
An Act is declared by government after debate in the parliament. Once an Act appears
in the government gazette, it becomes law and can be enforced by various authorities.
Sometimes severe penalties such as heavy fines or imprisonment can be applied to
anyone or any corporation who fail to abide with the provisions within an Act.
Typical Acts that may be applied to the fabrication and welding industry are:
zz Occupational Safety and Health Act
zz Factories and Shops Act
zz Construction and Safety Act
zz Machinery and Safety Act.
Regulations are support documents or laws or rules that help to clarify or redefine
certain parts of an Act. Regulations are easier to make and change and they can be
used by authorities to help to enforce the laws.
Occupational Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations
The Occupational Safety and Health Regulations (1996) have the effect of spelling out
specific requirements of the legislation.
Regulations may prescribe minimum standards and have a general application, or they
may define specific requirements related to a particular hazard or particular type of
work. They may also allow the licensing or granting of approvals and certificates etc.
If a regulation exists about a risk, you must comply with the regulation before any code
of practice or guidance note.
If an Australian Standard®, or part of a Standard is referred to in a regulation, the
Standard or relevant part of the Standard must be complied with.
If there is no regulation about a risk but there is a code of practice or guidance note,
you must either do what the code of practice or guidance note says, or adopt and
follow another way that gives the same level of protection against the risk.
Codes of practice are documents that provide guidelines and help towards the
practical application of laws or rules.
Typical codes of practice mentioned in this text may be:
zz safe working on roofs
zz manual handling
zz noise control.

A code of practice is defined in the Act as a document prepared for the purpose of
providing practical advice on preventative strategies and a practical means of achieving
any code, standard, rule, provision or specification relating to occupational safety and
health in Western Australia.
A code of practice may contain explanatory information. The preventative strategies
outlined do not represent the only acceptable means of achieving a certain standard.
A code of practice does not have the same legal force as a regulation and is not
sufficient reason, of itself, for prosecution under the Act.
If there is no regulation or code of practice about the risk, you must choose an
appropriate way and take reasonable precautions and exercise proper diligence to
ensure you meet your obligations.
Codes of practice should be followed, unless there is another solution which achieves
the same or better result and can be used to support prosecution for non-compliance.
Guidance notes provide helpful and useful information. Typical guidance notes
mentioned in this text may be:
zz general duty of care
zz election of safety and health representatives
zz notification of accidents
zz resolution of safety and health issues in the workplace.
Occupational safety and health laws

Western Australia has occupational safety, health and welfare legislation that shifts the
responsibility for making each workplace safe back to employers and employees.
Safety and health in Western Australian workplaces is regulated by the Occupational
Safety and Health Act 1984 and the Occupational Safety and Health Regulations 1996,
supported by codes of practice and guidance notes.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act 1984 provides for the promotion,
co-ordination, administration and enforcement of occupational safety and health in
Western Australia.
The Act places certain duties on employers, employees, self-employed people,
manufacturers, designers, importers and suppliers. It also places emphasis on the
prevention of accidents and injury.
Under the Act, there are three types of instruments to help you meet your workplace
safety and health obligations – regulations, Australian Standards® and codes of
practice.
WorkSafe is the government department solely responsible for OSH matters in

Western Australia. WorkSafe may also specify the mandatory adoption of codes or
standards.

Objectives of the Health, Safety and Welfare Act 1986
zz To promote and secure safety, health and welfare at work.
zz To assist persons to work against hazards.
zz To assist in securing safe and hygienic work environments.
zz To reduce or eliminate and control the hazards at work.
zz To foster co-operation and consultation.
zz To provide policies and laws related to occupational safety, health and welfare.
zz To provide education and awareness of matters related to OSH.
Responsibilities and duties of employers

All employers have a general duty of care and are expected to ensure that employees
are not exposed to hazards while they are working.
In order to make the workplace safe, every employer needs to:
zz provide and maintain workplaces, plant and systems of work that do not expose
employees to hazards
zz provide information and training and supervision so that employees are not
exposed to hazards
zz consult and cooperate with OSH representatives
zz provide adequate personal protective equipment
zz make arrangements for the safe use and handling of dangerous substances
zz report all accidents.
Responsibilities and duties of employees

All employees are expected to cooperate with their employers, observe safety and
health provisions and to take care to protect themselves and others from injury.
In order to make the workplace safe, every employee needs to:
zz look after themselves at work and ensure the workplace is safe and healthy.
Be careful!
zz co-operate with employer
zz follow instructions
zz use protective equipment issued by the company
zz not be affected by drugs or such at work
zz attend safety education and training sessions
zz report to supervisor (instructor) any workplace hazards or injury.
Consultation between employers/employees

The OSH Act requires open communication and consultation between employers and
employees in the workplace and a speedy resolution of issues and disputes.

Safety and health representatives/committees

Safety and health committees should be made up of safety and health representatives
elected for the purpose by the employees and persons nominated by the employer.
Safety and health representatives should liaise between the employer and employees.
They should keep informed on safety and health matters and attend committee
meetings. They should need to inspect the workplace and report hazards to the
employer and investigate any accidents.
Further information on subjects discussed in this chapter can be gained by consulting
the following:
zz WTIA Technical Note 7 – ‘Safety and health in welding’
zz AS 1101.3 – Graphical symbols for general engineering
zz AS/NZS 1554.1:2004
Structural steel welding – Welding of steel structures
zz AS/NZS 1554.2:2003
Structural steel welding – Stud welding (steel studs to steel)
zz AS/NZS 1554.3:2002
Structural steel welding – Welding of reinforcing steel
zz AS/NZS 1554.4:2004
Structural steel welding – Welding of high strength quenched and tempered
steels
zz AS/NZS 1554.5:2004
Structural steel welding – Welding of steel structures subject to high levels of
fatigue loading
zz AS/NZS 1554.6:1994
Structural steel welding – Welding stainless steels for structural purposes
zz AS/NZS 1554.7:2006
Structural steel welding – Welding of sheet steel structures
zz AS 1210 – Unfired pressure vessels
zz AS 1228 – Pressure equipment – Boilers
zz AS 1796 – Certification of welders and welding supervisors
zz AS 2214 – Certification of welding supervisors
zz AS/NZS 2980 – Qualification of welders for fusion welding of steels
zz AS 2812 – Welding, brazing and cutting of metals – Glossary of terms
zz AS 4100 – Steel structures
zz AS/NZS 4854 – Welding consumables – Covered electrodes for manual metal
arc welding of stainless and heat-resisting steels – Classification
arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels – Classification
arc welding of creep-resisting steels – Classification
arc welding of high-strength steels – Classification.

Chapter 4–Welding terms and symbols
Introduction
AS 2812:2005 Welding, brazing and cutting metals – Glossary of terms sets out
and defines basic terms that may be used for describing various welding processes
and principles. The information contained herein is a guide to interpretation of these
terms and is by no means exhaustive in covering all the information contained in the
code. The purpose of this code is to try to standardise terms and thus help to avoid
confusion.
zz Common welding processes
zz Types of welds
zz Welding symbols
{{ basic symbols
{{ supplementary symbols
{{ location of symbols.

Chapter 4 – Welding terms and symbols
Common welding processes

The common welding processes are defined as follows:
zz OAW oxy-acetylene welding
zz EGW electrogas welding
zz ESW electroslag welding including consumable guide
zz FCAW flux-cored arc welding
(C or M) (C indicates carbon dioxide shielding, M indicates mixed gas
shielding)
zz FCAW flux-cored arc welding
(N) (N indicates no gas shield)
zz GMAW gas metal arc welding
zz GTAW gas tungsten arc welding
zz MMAW manual metal arc welding
zz SAW submerged arc welding.

Types of welds
Welds may be any one of four basic types, however welds may also be combined to
produce compound welds.
F fillet joint
B butt joint
C corner joint
T T joint
pad weld (surfacing)
plug and/or slot weld
1 flat weld (position)
2 horizontal weld
3 vertical weld
4 overhead weld
As the standards are reviewed, changes are made that can result in some standards
being ‘out of date’ in terms of ‘position’. Examples are AS 1796, AS/NZS 1554.1 and
AS/NZS 2980, which refers to the terms used in Fig 4.2 and Table 1 from AS 3545 –
Welding positions.

1.F 2.F
Throat of weld vertical Vertical plate Axis of weld

horizontal
Horizontal
Axis of plate
weld
horizontal
3.F 4.F
Axis of weld vertical Axis of weld

horizontal
Horizontal
plate
Vertical
Vertical plate
plate
Fig 4.1 – (a) Fillet weld terms

1G 2G 3G 4G
Plates and Plates

axis of pipe Plates and horizontal
horizontal axis of pipe Plates vertical
vertical axis of weld
vertical
Pipe shall be
rolled while 5G 6G
welding
Test 45o
Test position Pipe shall not be
position
horizontal turned or rolled while
flat
welding
Fig 4.1 – (b) Butt weld terms
• The flat position is also referred to as the downhand position.

• The welding position ‘VERTICAL’ can be ‘VERTICAL UP’ and ‘VERTICAL
DOWN’ and hence application codes make no distinction between the two.
• A fillet weld where one plate is in the flat position and one plate is in the vertical
position, is commonly referred to as an H/V (horizontal/vertical) fillet.

These graphics have been removed. They were redrawn from Figure 6
on page 8 of AS 3545.
Fig 4.1 – (c) Examples of butt and fillet welds as per AS 3545
Plug and slot welds and pad welds are not commonly used in general fabrication and
will not be considered in depth in this text.

Fillet welds
Definition – A fillet weld is a weld approximately triangular in cross-section, lying
external to the planes of the parts being joined.
The parts of a fillet weld (Fig 4.2) are as follows.
zz Parent metal – the parts to be joined.
zz Root – where the parts to be joined are in the closest proximity.
zz Face – the exposed surface of the weld.
zz Toe – where the weld face meets the parent metal.
zz Depth of fusion – the degree to which the weld penetrates the parent metal.
zz Leg length – the distance from the root to the toe.
zz Actual throat thickness – the distance from the root to the weld face measured
through the centre of the weld.
zz Design throat thickness – the distance from the root to the hypotenuse of a
triangle lying wholly within the weld (used for design calculations).
zz Reinforcement – the distance between the design throat thickness and the actual
throat thickness.
Penetration
Reinforcement
Toe
Design throat
thickness
Root
Leg length
Parent material
Fig 4.2 – Parts of a fillet weld

Fillet weld configuration

The weld configuration relates to the relationship of the plates to be joined. The joint
types may be made in various positions, eg flat, vertical etc.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 4.3 – Fillet weld configurations (a) T fillet, (b) corner fillet and (c) lap fillet
Butt welds
A butt weld is a weld lying internal to the planes of the parts being joined. The
terminology that applies to a fillet weld applies equally to butt welds, the major
difference being design throat thickness which in a full penetration butt weld is equal to
the plate thickness.
Butt welds can be either a ‘C’ complete penetration butt weld where fusion exists
through the full thickness of the joint, or a ‘P’ part (incomplete) penetration butt weld
where the depth of the weld is less than the thickness of the plates joined.
At this stage it is only intended to discuss complete penetration butt welds and even
here the types of butt welds referred to will be the more common types. Additional
information can be gained by referring to AS/NZS 1554.1.
Graphic Terminology Description

Weld root the portion of the weld where
the parts to be joined are in
the closest proximity to each
Weld root
other
Weld root
Root face that portion of the prepared

edge of a part to be joined by
a butt weld that has not been
bevelled. This unbevelled
section will support the first
Root face run of weld metal deposited in
the groove

Graphic Terminology Description

Root gap the separation between parts
to be joined by a butt weld.
The gap is for the purpose of
ensuring, as far as possible,
complete fusion or penetration
through the full thickness of
metal
Root gap
Angle of bevel the angle of the prepared

Angle of edge of a component bevelled
bevel for welding
Included angle the angle between the fusion

Included faces of components prepared
angle for welding
Throat thickness the distance from the root

to the weld face measured
Throat through the centre of the weld
thickness
Design throat in a full penetration butt weld

thickness the design throat thickness is
Design equal to the thickness of the
throat thinner part joined
thickness
Reinforcement reinforcement in a butt weld

Reinforcement is the term given to the metal
lying outside of the planes of
the parts being joined
Reinforcement
Fig 4.4 – Parts of a butt weld

Welding symbols
Introduction
Designers, engineers and workshop personnel need to have a system that transfers
or displays the information in a clear and precise manner to avoid confusion over
information or details related to the welding of steel structures.
AS 1101.3 – Graphical symbols for general engineering part 3 – welding and
non-destructive examination – This code describes symbols which provide the
means of placing complete welding information on drawings. Part 3 covers the details
and application of symbols related to various welding processes and non-destructive
examination.
The purpose of these symbols is to provide a means of placing complete and uniform
welding information on drawings. The information contained herein is a guide to
interpretation of these symbols and is by no means exhaustive in covering all the
information contained in the code. In fact, coverage will be limited to the more common
of the symbols for butt and fillet welds.
The code makes a distinction between a welding symbol and a weld symbol:
zz a welding symbol is a method that is used to present welding information on a
drawing
zz a weld symbol indicates or is a representative of the type of weld.
Elements of a welding symbol

Welding symbols are made up of eight basic elements, all of which may or may not
be used on any given welding symbol. Every welding symbol will have at least three
elements:
zz a reference line
zz an arrow
zz either a basic symbol or design throat thickness.
These are the minimum required to make up a welding symbol.
Extra detail for welding symbols

zz The reference line (drawn horizontally) is the base for the symbol, around/on
which the other elements are placed.
zz The arrow (at either end going up, down or cranked) indicates what the symbol
refers to.
zz The basic weld symbol (indicates the type of weld required).
zz Dimensions and other data (provide information about the size, number and
spacing of welds).
zz Supplementary symbols are used in conjunction with the basic symbols and
provide information about the weld to be made (eg the weld is to be made on
site).
zz Finish symbols describe the method of finishing welds other than by cleaning.

zz A tail is placed on the arrow when reference is made to a process, procedure
or specification. This reference is placed within the tail of the arrow. Where no
reference is used, the tail may be omitted.
zz Specification, process, or other references may be given.
These elements are placed as shown in Fig 4.5 to make the welding symbol.
page 8 of AS 1101.3-2005.
Fig 4.5 – Standard location of elements of a welding symbol

Notes related to Fig 4.5

1. Notes related to the other side of the joint will appear on the top of the line.
2. Actual welded length must include any allowance for starting and stopping of the
weld.
3. The tail should be omitted when information is not required.
4. Size, weld symbol, length of weld and spacing must read in that order from left to
right along the reference line. Neither orientation of reference line nor location of
the arrow alters this rule.
5. Where the basic symbol has a perpendicular leg (fillet, level, or ‘U’), the
perpendicular is always placed to the left.
6. Arrow side and other side welds are made the same size unless otherwise
dimensioned.
7. Symbols only apply between abrupt changes in direction of welding unless
governed by the ‘weld all round’ symbol or otherwise dimensioned.
Basic symbols
The type of weld is shown by the basic symbol as indicated in the table (Fig 4.7).
The symbols for fillet, single and double bevel, single and double-J butt welds have
a vertical line in their formation and this vertical line is always shown to the left of the
symbol.
Elements of a non-destructive examination symbol

The non-destructive examination of welds can also be indicated by a system of
symbols.
Fig 4.6 shows the standard method by which this information is shown.

page 99 of AS 1101.3-2005..
Fig 4.6 – Standard location of elements of non-destructive tests

Symbols maintain their basic shape irrespective of root face, root gap or the number of
runs required.
Basic weld symbols are shown in the following.
These tables have been removed. They were reproduced from Figure
2.1 on page 7 of AS 1101.3-2005.
Fig 4.7 – Basic weld symbols
Supplementary symbols
page 7 of AS 1101.3-2005.
Fig 4.8 – Supplementary symbols

Backing material
Permanent and temporary backing material is distinguished by the notation placed
within the backing symbol (see Fig 4.9).
page 59 of AS 1101.3-2005.
Fig 4.9 – Joint with backing
Finishing symbols
Finishing symbols are used in conjunction with contour symbols to indicate the contour
and method of weld finishing. Finishing symbols are as follows.
C chipping
G grinding
M machining
R rolling
P peening
Contour symbols may be used without finishing symbols.
page 59 of AS 1101.3-2005.
Fig 4.10 – Flush contour by mechanical means

Process symbols
Where the use of a definite welding process is required, this is indicated by placing a
process symbol in the tail of the arrow. Some common process symbols are as follows.
FG flame gouging FCAW flux-cored arc welding

GMAW gas metal arc welding MMAW manual metal arc welding
OAW oxy-acetylene welding PAC plasma arc cutting
SAW submerged RSW resistance spot welding
Examples of the use of process symbols are shown below.
page 59 of AS 1101.3-2005.
Fig 4.11 – Process indication
Location of symbols
The basic symbol is placed on the reference line, its position depending upon where
the weld is to be made (see Figs 4.12 (a), (b) and (c)).
This graphic has been removed.

It was reproduced from AS 1101.3-2005.
Fig 4.12 – Location of symbols (a), (b) and (c)

The weld all-round symbol is placed at the

junction of the arrow and the reference line.
Fig 4.13 – Weld all-round symbol
The flag of the site weld symbol always points

away from the arrow.
Fig 4.14 – Flag of the site weld
Welds where complete penetration from one CP

side is required must be indicated by placing
the symbol on the reference line opposite the
basic symbol, or alternatively by placing the
letters CP in the tail of the arrow.
Fig 4.15 – Complete penetration
The backing run symbol is placed on the

reference line opposite the basic symbol.
Fig 4.16 – The backing run symbol
M
The backing material symbol is placed on the
reference line opposite the basic symbol.
Fig 4.17 – The backing material symbol
Where compound welds are required, one

symbol for each weld must be shown. The first
operation shall be on the reference line, each
sequential operation is placed progressively
outward.
Fig 4.18 – Compound weld symbol

Cranked arrow
Where it is required that one member of a joint is to have preparation applied, eg a
bevel, the arrow must point to that part with a definite crank (see Fig 4.19).
page 26 of AS 1101.1-2005.
Fig 4.19 – Crank in arrow symbol
Multiple reference lines

The code makes provision for the use of multiple reference lines. Additional reference
lines may be used in the following ways.
a) To indicate a sequence of operations. The first operation is shown on the
reference line nearest the arrow. Subsequent operations are shown sequentially
on other reference lines (see Fig 4.20).
page 27 of AS 1101.1-2005.
Fig 4.20 – Indication of sequence of operation

b) To show data supplementary to welding symbol information included on the
reference line nearest the arrow (see Fig 4.21).
page 27 of AS 1101.1-2005.
Fig 4.21 – Multiple reference lines
c) To show supplementary symbols relating to a particular operation (see Fig 4.22).
page 28 of AS 1101.1-2005.
Fig 4.22 – Supplementary symbols

Size and spacing data

Irrespective of which way the arrow is pointing, the sequence of data from left to right is
always as follows.
Design throat thickness Length of weld

Depth of preparation Pitch (c/c spacing)
or size of welds
S (D) V L - P
Basic symbol
Fig 4.23 – Data sequenced
This sequence will appear either above or below the reference line, depending on
whether the weld is to be made on the other side or the arrow side of the joint.
Where required, the following symbols are placed in the following order either side of
the reference line.
Finish symbol
F Contour symbol
Preparation angle
A Root gap
R
V Basic symbol
Fig 4.24 – Symbol sequence
This sequence is reversed for welds to be made on the arrow side of the joint.

Extent of welding denoted by symbols
Except where the weld all-round symbol is used, symbols apply between abrupt
changes in the direction of welding, or to the extent of dimension lines or hatching (see
Fig 4.25).
Weld
Fillet weld
this side
(a) Desired weld (b) Symbol
6 10
120 100 120
(c) Dimension/hatching
Fig 4.25 – (a), (b) and (c) Extent of welding
Intermittent fillet welds

zz The length of a weld is shown immediately to the right of the basic symbol.
zz The pitch of intermittent fillet welds is shown immediately to the right of the
length, the two being separated by a dash.
zz For chain intermittent fillet welds, the fillet symbol shall be shown on both sides of
the reference line, the two placed opposite each other.
zz For staggered intermittent fillet welds, the fillet symbol is placed on both sides of
the reference line, but the two are staggered as shown in Fig 4.26.
zz If required by actual length of the joint, a weld’s increment length should be
altered so that the weld terminates at the end of the joint.

8
6
6 4
4
Fillet and single bevel
010
4 4
4
4
TO BE SITE WELDED
Single bevel fillet over

site weld all around
Double bevel with backing run
8
3
6
8
3
8
BOTH SITE WELDED
Backing run

CL weld
C
L weld
C
L weld 100
100
See note
50–100
50
50
50
Symbol
(a)
50 50 50
50–125
See note
50–125
125 125
C
L weld C
L weld C
L weld
Symbol
(b)
75 75 75 75
70–250
See note
70–250
125 125
250
C
L weld C
L weld L weld C
C L weld
Symbol
(c)
Fig 4.26 – (a) Intermittent, (b) intermittent chain and (c) intermittent staggered chain

8
6
6 4
4
Fillet and single bevel
010
4 4
4
4
TO BE SITE WELDED
Single bevel fillet over

site weld all around
Double bevel with backing run
8
3
6
8
3
8
BOTH SITE WELDED
Backing run
Fig 4.27 – Welding symbol examples

Chapter 5 – Welding plain carbon steel
Introduction
zz What is steel?
zz Classification and availability of plain carbon steels
zz Properties of metals
{{ mechanical propertiesw
zz Mechanical tests
{{ tensile testing
{{ impact tests
{{ hardness tests
{{ fatigue tests.

What is steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, in which the carbon content is within the range of
0.05−1.7%.
Elements in steel
The approximate composition of mild steel is as follows:
zz iron (Fe)
zz carbon (C) 0.1–0.3%
zz phosphorous (Ph) 0.05% max
zz silicon (Si) 0.35% max
zz sulphur (S) 0.06% max
zz manganese (Mn) 0.8–1.0% max.
Iron
Pure iron is a metal that is magnetic and has mechanical properties similar to those of
copper. The tensile strength of iron is 139 MPa, which means pure iron is too weak and
too soft for most engineering and structural applications.
Iron in its pure form is not readily available in nature. Its raw form of iron oxide (ore)
is processed in a blast furnace. The oxides are reduced by the heat produced by
combustion of a fuel which is typically coke. Other impurities are removed by adding
limestone (which acts as a fluxing agent) and the blast furnace lining itself.
Carbon
Carbon has the greatest effect of any element when alloyed with iron. Adding carbon to
pure iron or increasing the carbon content of low carbon steel will:
zz increase tensile strength
zz increase hardness
zz increase hardenability
zz increase toughness
zz decrease ductility
zz decrease malleability
zz decrease weldability
zz lower the melting point.
Even small amounts of carbon will bring about significant improvements in the
mechanical and physical properties of steel.
Once the carbon content of steel exceeds 0.3%, the steel becomes ‘hardenable’,
ie it has the ability to be hardened by heat treatment. Heat treatment is an important
process and can be used to bring about significant changes in the mechanical
properties of steels. For example, a high carbon steel in the soft state may be cut
with a hacksaw, but following heat treatment it may be so hard that the only practical
method of cutting is by grinding.

Apart from carbon, which is used to control the mechanical properties of steel, the other
elements present are either impurities such as sulphur or phosphorus, or are added for
such functions as de-oxidation or grain refinement. Complete removal of phosphorous
and sulphur during the manufacture of steel is expensive and unnecessary, provided
the level of each is below the above maximum percentages. The effect of these
elements on plain carbon steel is as follows.
Phosphorous
Phosphorous forms iron phosphates, which cause cold shortness (a lack of ductility at
normal temperatures). Phosphorous must be kept below 0.05%.
Silicon
Silicon is used mainly as a de-oxidiser in the steelmaking process. Silicon has no
significant effect on improving the mechanical properties of steel. In excessive
amounts, it tends to cause grain boundary weakness.
Sulphur
Sulphur causes hot shortness in steel. In plain carbon steels, sulphur is kept below
0.06%. Sulphur has been used as an alloy in free machining steels, however the
modern trend is to use lead to improve machinability in steels.
Manganese
Although carbon/manganese steels (1.0–1.8% Mn) make use of manganese to improve
hardness and tensile strength, lower amounts of manganese (0.8–1.0% Mn) are used
in mild steels:
zz as a grain refiner
zz as a de-oxidiser
zz to counteract the effect of sulphur in promoting hot shortness.
Groups of steels
Steels may be divided into two main groups, as follows.
zz Plain carbon steels – Where the element used to improve mechanical
properties is carbon.
zz Alloy steels – Where elements other than carbon are used to improve
mechanical properties.
Alloy steels will be discussed in a later chapter of this text.
Plain carbon steels

Plain carbon steels are divided into three groups, which are:
zz low carbon steel
zz medium carbon steel
zz high carbon steel.

Low carbon steel

Low carbon steel is an iron/carbon alloy where the percentage of carbon is within
the range of 0.05–0.30%. Low carbon steel is non-hardenable by heat treatment and
therefore is essentially unaffected by welding. This makes low carbon steel the ideal
choice for general fabrication purposes where high strength is not a prime requirement,
but ease of fabrication and welding are.
Medium carbon steel

Medium carbon steel contains carbon in the range of 0.30–0.50%. Medium carbon
steels are hardenable and exhibit improved mechanical properties over low carbon
steel when they are heat treated.
High carbon steel

High carbon steel contains carbon in the range of 0.50–1.70%. High carbon steels are
generally selected for use where hardness is a prime requirement and components
made from this material are usually heat treated during manufacture.
Once these alloys exceed 1.70% carbon, they cease being called steels and are
referred to as ‘cast irons’.
It should be noted at this point that although plain carbon steels are economical
to produce and are the most widely used, the progressive loss of ductility that
accompanies increases in carbon content precludes the use of plain carbon steels
for some applications. Medium and high carbon steels are commonly used where
hardness is a prime requirement of the finished product. Using mainly carbon to
provide this hardness results in a loss of ductility and toughness. Consequently, where
toughness is a prime requirement, the use of alloy steels is preferred.
Low carbon steels are ideally weldable, however in the hardenable medium and high
carbon steels, increasing carbon content leads to a progressive loss of weldability.
Careful consideration must be given to welding procedures when these steels are
used. Typical uses for carbon steels are shown in Table 5.1.

Carbon class Carbon range % Typical uses
Low (dead mild) 0.05–0.15 Chain, nails, rivets, wire, pressing steels
(mild) 0.15–0.30 Structural sections and plates
Medium 0.30–0.50 Axles, gears, drop forgings, con-rods, shafts
High 0.50–0.60 Crankshafts, scraper blades

0.60–0.75 Car springs, anvils, bandsaws
0.75–0.90 Chisels, punches
0.90–1.00 Knives, shear blades, springs
1.00–1.10 Milling cutters, dies, taps
1.10–1.20 Lathe and woodworking tools
1.20–1.30 Files, reamers
1.30–1.40 Dies for wire drawing
1.40–1.50 Metal cutting saws
Machine base
Cast irons Above 1.70
Castings
Table 5.1 – Uses of carbon steels
The difference between the C% and the CE is due to micro-additions of other

elements. The WR grades are micro-alloyed with other elements; principally
chromium, nickel and copper. Grade 200 is available only in plate, strip and
floorplate up to 12 mm thick.

Classification and availability of plain carbon steels

Plain carbon steels, are manufactured in Australia by OneSteel Pty Ltd as:
zz plate and slab (to AS/NZS 3678)
zz structural steel sections (to AS/NZS 3679)
zz coil, strip and sheet (to AS/NZS 1594).
Low carbon steels are classified by yield strength. These low strength steels exhibit a
noticeable yield point. When the yield point is reached they may continue to deform for
a short time, with no increase in load. This is in contrast to higher strength steels, which
exhibit no noticeable yield point. High strength steels are classified according to their
ultimate tensile strength.
Classification system
Steels classified by yield strength are covered under AS/NZS 3678 and AS/NZS 3679
and are specified by Australian Standard® number, nominal minimum yield stress
(eg 250/350 MPa), a treatment type suffix (/1 OR /2) and an optional ‘WR’ prefix where
appropriate for weather-resistant (weathering) steels.
eg AS/NZS 3678 – 250
AS/NZS 3679 – WR 350/1
Additional to this, where the material must possess specified minimum impact
properties a suffix such as ‘L’ is used. ‘L’ indicates that the material has been low
temperature impact tested. Additionally, the suffix ‘L’ is followed by a number, which
indicates the temperature at which the test is conducted, at or below 0 ºC.
eg WR 350/1 L0 – indicates that an impact test has been conducted at 0 ºC.
350 L15 – indicates that a low temperature impact test has been conducted
at -15 ºC.
The grades of steel plates available under AS/NZS 3678/3679 are given in Table 5.2.
This table has been removed. It was reproduced from Table 1 on page 9
of AS/NZS 3678:1996 and Table 1 on page 12 of AS/NZS 3679.1:1996.
Table 5.2 – Steel grades to AS/NZS 3678 and AS/NZS 3679

Weldability of plain carbon steels

Weldability refers to the ease with which metals can be welded. Weldability is
determined by three major factors, which are:
zz the quality required for the finished weld
zz the ease of making the weld using a given weld process
zz cost factors.
Welding low carbon steels

Low carbon steel is considered to be easily welded as it is simple and easy to weld.
Because the material is not hardenable, a sound weld usually results.
As the material thickness or carbon content (or equivalent) increases, however,
hardenability and welding problems increase. Consequently weldability decreases in
medium and high carbon steels or thicker sections. This is the result of the potential
formation of martensite, a brittle constituent in the grain structure, which forms when
steel containing more than 0.3% carbon (or equivalent) is cooled rapidly from elevated
temperatures.
In low carbon steels, there is insufficient carbon present for martensite to be formed by
rapid cooling and therefore the cooling rate is not significant in this regard.
However, rapid cooling of the weld promotes the formation of undesirable crystal
structures with a resultant loss of ductility and also increases shrinkage stresses.
Pre-heating may be necessary on thick sections to reduce these tendencies.
Summary
zz Low carbon steels are relatively ductile and are easily welded using any welding
process and appropriate filler material.
zz Pre-heating is normally unnecessary, except to reduce shrinkage stresses in thick
sections.
zz Rapid quenching (eg water quenching) should be avoided, as a loss of ductility
may result.
Welding medium carbon steels

As the carbon content of the steel is increased, so is the likelihood of the formation of
undesirable martensite. This means that medium carbon steels can present problems
related to hardenability and loss of ductility when welding. The cooling rate must
be slow enough to prevent the formation of martensite. This may be achieved by
the application of pre-heat to prevent the rapid chilling of the weld zone due to heat
conduction to the surrounding mass of parent metal. Alternatively, the welding variables
may be manipulated to ensure that the cooling rate of the weldment is slow enough to
prevent significant martensite formation.

The effect of dilution and pick up

Dilution is the extent to which deposited weld metal is diluted by molten parent metal
during welding. Weld metal is composed of a mixture of the filler material used and the
parent metal melted by fusion.
Carbon or alloy pick-up in the weld metal from the fused base metal can result in
reduced ductility of the weld metal, which in turn will increase the possibility of cracking.
The amount of dilution on pick-up is obviously influenced by the degree of penetration.
Therefore, care should be taken to avoid excessive fusion into the parent metal. This
can be achieved by restricting the welding amperage to that which is necessary to
provide good fusion. Dilution is not a problem where the carbon content is reasonably
low and on medium carbon steels this is usually within safe limits, but in high carbon
steels dilution needs careful control.
Summary
Medium carbon steels present the possibility of cracking in the weld itself or the
heat-affected zone, due to martensite formation.
Pre-heating will be required depending on the cooling rate of the weldment and
the heat input from welding. The higher the carbon content, the higher the pre-heat
temperature.
The use of hydrogen-controlled electrodes and/or processes is highly advisable.
Consideration should be given to the amount of penetration and fusion into the parent
metal, with the aim of minimising dilution and pick-up.
Rapid cooling of the weld zone is to be avoided.
Welding high carbon steels
In high carbon steels, martensite will form readily, even at relatively slow cooling rates.
This reduces the weldability of high carbon steels. The use of a weld procedure and
close control of the heat input must be exercised. In weldments which have been heat
treated during manufacture, annealing may be required prior to repair welding being
carried out.
All sources of hydrogen must be removed from the welding process as this may
cause/contribute to underbead cracking in the heat-affected zone, adjacent to the weld.
The high strength weld metal will be less ductile and joint restraint must be minimised
to prevent cracking in the weld or the adjacent base metal.
Summary
zz High carbon steels are extremely hardenable and slow cooling must be ensured.
zz Good fit-up must be assured.
zz All sources of hydrogen must be removed. Clean workpieces and
hydrogen-controlled consumables are essential.
zz Joint restraint and shrinkage stresses must be minimised.
zz Pre-heat is usually applied and in some cases is followed by post-heating.
Further post-weld heat treatment may be required.
zz The use of a nickel alloy filler may be advisable.

Properties of metals
Knowledge of a material’s properties will greatly assist the tradesperson in many ways.
It is important to be able to select the most suitable material for a particular application
and the correct methods to be employed in using a given material, eg the correct
welding method. A general knowledge of materials can be built up by recognising the
individual characteristics or properties of each one.
The properties of metals can be divided into two groups:
zz physical
zz mechanical.
Physical properties
The physical properties of materials are those properties that are not directly related
to strength and may generally be determined by methods which do not destroy the
material under investigation. Among the more common physical properties are:
zz colour
zz mass
zz grain structure
zz heat and electrical conductivity
zz corrosion resistance
zz magnetism.
Colour
Many materials can be identified by their characteristic colour, eg rusty steel, bright
aluminium and dull copper. However, care must be taken as some metals are similar in
colour or may exhibit differences when scratched, polished or fractured. For example;
steel may be blue when new due to mill scale, silvery when wire-brushed, or may be
brown from rust.
Mass
An obvious example of mass is the comparison of components made from lead being a
heavy metal and aluminium being a light metal. The mass of a material is an important
consideration in modern construction, where every attempt is made to reduce mass
and yet obtain maximum structural strength. In metal fabrication, where materials are
often purchased according to a tonne rate, the less material that is used the lower the
costs.
Grain structure
All metals have differing grain structures. It is sometimes possible to identify fractured
metal by examining the grain structure exhibited on the face of the fracture. Cast
and malleable iron are good examples. Cast iron has a coarse dull grey appearance,
whereas malleable iron has a finer structure. Malleable cast iron also can be further
classified as ‘white heart’ or ‘black heart’, the former having a silvery grain structure and
the latter a dark centre surrounded by a thin silvery border. The term ‘homogeneous’
grain structure means that the grain or fibre patterns are the same throughout the piece
of material.

Heat and electrical conductivity

Metals that conduct heat well are also good conductors of electricity. Copper and
aluminium are good conductors and so need more heat to counteract the loss when
heat is conducted away from the weld area. On the other hand, stainless steel is a poor
conductor because heat is accumulated and retained at the weld area without much
loss. This also contributes to local overheating and distortion.
A copper work lead should be used in preference to using strips of mild steel when
an extension to the welder’s work lead is unavoidable. Mild steel is not as good a
conductor and causes more resistance in the circuit, making the machine less efficient.
Corrosion resistance
The corrosion resistance of metals varies with the chemical composition and service
conditions or environment in which it is placed. Temperature, moisture, air and other
factors influence the selection of the most suitable material for a particular service.
Metals such as copper, zinc and aluminium greatly resist natural corrosive attack. Mild
steel is painted or protected by zinc rich coatings (eg galvanising) to keep corrosion to
a minimum and so retaining its design strength. By alloying iron with high amounts of
chromium, the material can become ‘stainless’.
Magnetism
Most ferrous material is magnetic and may be identified by holding a magnet near
it. However, care should be taken as there are exceptions where some metals may
confuse the unwary. Austenitic stainless steel (a ferrous metal) is non-magnetic.
Carbon steels can be non-magnetic when heated and some non-ferrous alloys
containing aluminium, nickel and cobalt are very magnetic although they contain no
iron. It is therefore wise to use magnetism as only one of a number of tests to assist in
identifying a metal.
Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties in a metal are those properties that can be observed when
various loads or stresses are placed on it. The mechanical properties of metals have
great influence on their selection for use whether for strength or ability, to be formed to
shape or processed using commercially available methods.
Tenacity
This is a measure of a metal’s ability to withstand a smoothly applied load or direct pull
before it breaks. The ultimate tensile strength of a metal is usually found by testing to
enable safe working limits to be established for construction work. A wire rope is a good
example of the tenacity of steel.
Ductility
A ductile material is one that can be permanently deformed, pulled, bent and drawn
without failure. The deformation of a flat steel sheet into a motor car bonnet or guard is
an example of the ductile nature of steel.
Brittleness
Some metals show practically no permanent distortion before failure. In other words,
they fail suddenly without warning. Brittleness therefore indicates lack of ductility.
Ordinary cast iron, a brittle metal, has a low resistance to shock.

Toughness
A tough metal is one that can withstand considerable stress (slowly or suddenly
applied) continuously or often applied and that will deform before failure.
Hardness
Hardness is usually defined as the resistance a metal has to forcible penetration
by another metal. A hard metal resists scratching or wear. It takes a combination of
hardness and toughness to withstand heavy pounding.
Malleability
A material can be defined as malleable when it can be formed or worked by cold
forging or hammering. Gold is the best example of a material that can be cold worked
into very thin sections without hardening.

Mechanical tests
The quality of steel is usually established on the basis of tensile properties and
hardness. Other tests, however, are used in finding the strength of steel under
compression, shear or torsion loading. Furthermore, specimens of steel may be
subjected to suddenly applied loads as in impact testing, or to many repetitions of
loading as in fatigue testing. The information gained from mechanical testing is of
immense value to the engineer, metallurgist, technician or tradesperson.
Mechanical testing may be classified as follows:
zz tensile testing
zz impact testing
zz hardness testing
zz fatigue testing.
A brief summary of these terms is included here. For a more detailed description of
these tests, refer to chapter 7.
Tensile testing
Tensile testing is used to measure the elastic limit, yield point, ultimate tensile strength,
percentage of elongation and the percentage of reduction of area.
In this type of test, a specially shaped sample of the metal is subjected to a steadily
increasing load and is pulled until fracture occurs.
Explanation of terms in tensile testing
Tensile test
Strictly speaking, this term covers any test figures obtained by a tensile or pulling
machine.
Elastic limit
Is expressed as the load, usually in MPa, at which the test piece ceases to behave
like an elastic product, returning to its original dimensions upon release from load.
Beyond this load, the steel commences to stress and deform permanently. In practical
use a part stressed beyond this point will be damaged and in addition to having lost its
accurate shape will be more easily damaged further by repeated working stresses.
Yield point
Is the point at which the natural resistance of the steel breaks down so that it deforms
rapidly without a load increase. Once this point is reached, small additions to the load
cause rapidly increasing deformation until actual breakage occurs. The yield point is
close to the elastic limit and as it is a noticeable point in the test, it is usually taken as
the elastic limit in commercial testing.

Ultimate tensile stress
Is the greatest pulling force that a test piece can withstand without actual breakage.
This is usually expressed in MPa. Ultimate tensile stress is sometimes referred to as
‘the breaking strain’, but this is not correct. The ultimate tensile stress figures given are
based upon the actual force, divided by the sectional area of the test piece.
Elongation
This is the total amount by which the test piece increases in length before actual
breaking under tensile test. It is usually measured over an initial length and resultant
length and expressed as a percentage of their respective lengths. It is important that
the original length be stated when per cent elongation figures are given.
Reduction of area
Unless it is extremely brittle, a test piece pulls out thin before it breaks. The reduction
of area expresses the difference between the area of the fracture and the original
cross-sectional area of the test piece as a percentage. It is a valuable indication of the
ductility of the material. Both the elongation and the reduction of area are an indication
of the ductility of the steel.
Impact testing
To determine the notch brittleness of a material and its ability to withstand impact at
any temperature, or suddenly applied loads, impact tests are performed on specimens
prepared with a notch of precise width, depth and shape.
The two main types of impact tests are the Charpy and the Izod test. The impact test is
performed by a weighted pendulum striking the notch specimen from the material being
tested. The energy absorbed in breaking the specimen is recorded on a direct reading
indicator. The tougher the material, the greater the amount of energy absorbed in
fracturing it and the smaller will be the extent of swing of the hammer after it has been
fractured.
Hardness testing
The hardness of a material is an important property in itself, but measurement of
hardness will also provide a useful indicator with respect to tensile strength, ductility
and impact resistance. In general, the harder of the two metals of similar composition
has a higher tensile strength, lower ductility and more resistance to abrasive wear. High
hardness also indicates low impact strength.
Different types of hardness test are used, not all of which involve penetration of the
material surface by a ball or point. These tests are the:
zz Brinell test
zz Rockwell test
zz Vickers hardness test.

Fatigue testing
A knowledge of tensile properties makes possible the design and fabrication of a
structure that will support a steady load pulling in one direction. These properties,
however, do not indicate the strength a metal will have if used in a structure where
the load is applied first in one direction and then in another. When the load alternates
like this, in a cycle, at one moment the force is tension and at another compression.
Alternating stresses are present in such components as axles, connecting rods,
transmission shafts, boiler drums and pressurised storage tanks. The stresses in these
components may alternate between high tension and low tension, or between tension
and compression.
Metals will fail at a lower stress under a changing load than if the load were steady.
Failure under a changing load is called ‘fatigue failure’.
Fatigue failure is invariably triggered off by some surface imperfections such as
inclusions near or on the surface, undercut, overlap, excessive build up, or even
grinding marks. Failures start at the surface as tiny cracks which spread into the metal
until failure occurs.
Fatigue tests are made by subjecting a test specimen to varying loads. Tests may be
made by:
zz bending the specimen alternately in one direction and then the other
zz applying and removing tensile loads
• making a cycle of tension and compression by rotating a loaded specimen.

Chapter 6 – Heat treatment
Introduction
zz Grain structure
zz The structure of steel
zz Phases in steel
{{ time temperature transformation
{{ essential features of the iron/carbon diagram
{{ the effect of heating and cooling
{{ recrystallisation
zz Effects of welding on the grain structure

{{ grain growth
{{ heat treatment.

Grain structure
Steel, like all metals, is composed of grains. Each of these grains is in fact a crystal
of the metal or metal alloy. The size, composition and structure of these grains and
the strength of the bond between the grains, determine the physical and mechanical
properties of the metal.
A metal that is composed of grains which are soft and weak will itself be soft and weak.
A metal that is composed of grains which are hard and brittle will itself tend to be hard
and brittle.
Additionally, metals which are composed of grains that are large in size will generally
display poor mechanical properties, particularly in terms of malleability and ductility.
Grains form at elevated temperatures. Consequently the grain structure of a material
can be changed by heat treatment and also by the heating/cooling cycle of welding.
Control over changes in grain structure is important. Firstly it enables us to produce
desirable properties in the metals we use and secondly to prevent the formation of
undesirable grain structures due to welding.
Ideally, metals will have a grain structure which:
zz is fine and regular in shape
zz is of suitable composition and internal structure
zz has few impurities at the grain boundaries and good bond strength.
The mechanisms involved in the formation of grains in pure iron are described below.
zz As pure molten iron cools, the temperature of the metal falls until the solidification
temperature of around 1500 °C is reached.
zz At various points throughout the metal and generally on the outside at the cooling
surface where the solidification temperature has been reached, nuclei (or seed
crystals) begin to form in the molten metal as atoms cease to have the energy
needed to move freely (remain fluid).
zz The crystals continue to form where the temperature has fallen to the
solidification temperature. The seed crystals attract additional atoms into the
structure in a definite arrangement (according to temperature) and begin to grow
away from the cooling source. These structures are known as dendrites. These
dendrites will continue to grow in a certain direction. As growth of these dendrites
continues, secondary arms begin to grow at right angles to the first and arms
grow in a third direction, at right angles to the second and so on in six directions
along each axis at right angles to each other until their growth is restricted by
their neighbours. From this point, continuing growth is internal and will continue
until there are no more free atoms to take up or the space between the arms of
the dendrites is packed tight and a solid grain is formed (Fig 6.1).

Solidification
Heat flow
Dendrite Plane sections
Liquid Boundary
Fig 6.1 – Growth from a nucleus
zz If the temperature of the cooling metal falls rapidly to the solidification

temperature, a large number of seed crystals will form. This means that less
overall dendritic growth can occur before the dendrites meet their neighbours and
a fine grain structure will result.
zz If cooling to the solidification temperature is slow and/or uneven, the points at
which seed crystals form will be fewer and considerable growth of the dendrites
will occur, resulting in a coarse grain structure.
A good illustration of this is in the solidification of a metal ingot. Keep in mind that the
outer section of the ingot will fall to the solidification temperature first, due to the chilling
effect of the mould into which the metal is poured.
This rapid cooling will give rise to the formation of many nuclei or seed crystals and a
polycrystalline layer of a new form developing upon the inner boundaries of the chilled
crystals.
The direction of growth will now be predominantly inwards towards the centre of the
casting, ie in the opposite direction to which the extraction of heat is taking place.
The crystals formed are extremely elongated, having their lateral growth greatly
reduced owing to early contact being made with adjacent crystals growing in the same
direction. Such crystals are known as columnar crystals and may often be found in
some types of weld metal deposits.

The continuation of heat loss from the mass of molten metal will reduce the internal
temperature so that simultaneous freeing of the remaining molten metal will now take
place. Hence a third type of crystal will begin to form.
These crystals in the centre zone of the metal do not show any preference to
directional growth because they are able to grow in any direction and are therefore
said to be equi-axed. They are much larger in size than the surface layer of chilled
crystals, due to a slower rate of cooling.
The sectional view of the cast iron ingot (Fig 6.2) clearly shows the crystal structure of
the cast pure metal.
Chilled crystals
Equi-axed crystals
Columnar crystals
Fig 6.2 – Grain formation in a cast iron ingot
During cooling from the molten state, the temperature will fall until the solidification
temperature is reached. However the temperature will not fall below this point until
solidification is complete. Once solidification is complete, the temperature will once
again begin to fall. The graph shown in Fig 6.3 shows temperature plotted against time
during the cooling of a molten metal.
Liquid phase
Nucleus forming
in liquid
Dendrites growing
in liquid
Temperature
Solid phase Solid grains

formed
Time
Fig 6.3 – Time/temperature graph for solidification

Pure iron is allotropic in nature, this means it can have different atomic structures
according to temperature. Pure iron will form into a body centred cubic (bcc)
arrangement on solidification and then has a face centre cubic (fcc) arrangement from
around 1400 °C down to 910 °C. It then becomes body centred cubic (bcc) again below
910 °C. This means the iron crystals will have various atomic structures according to
temperature.
Adding carbon (or other additional elements) to pure iron alters the change point
temperatures and the mechanisms involved. This has a complicating effect on the
basic structures within the metal.
The structure of steel

Steel is an alloy of iron, carbon, manganese and silicon. Pure iron is also known as
ferrite. Ferrite is soft, weak and ductile. When a small percentage of carbon such as
0.3% (as in mild steel) is added to molten iron, all of the carbon will dissolve into the
iron. When slowly cooled, the iron crystals of the solidifying metal crystals will reject the
carbon as they cool and try to revert to pure iron. The solidification temperature and
structures will also be altered because of the effect of the carbon.
At around 1550 °C the atomic structure will form up into metal crystals in a bcc
arrangement until there are no more free atoms. The carbon will be forced into the
outer extremities of each metal crystal as either free carbon or carbon chemically
combined with iron (iron carbide). Around 1400 °C the crystals begin to transform into
an fcc arrangement which can absorb all of the carbon within its structure (up to a
maximum of 1.7%).
At about 920 °C the metal crystal structure will again rearrange back into a bcc
arrangement. Most of the new iron (ferrite) crystals will now reject the carbon again
and the grain boundaries will become saturated with carbon. At 723 °C the remaining
crystals will be forced to lock up the carbon within their structure. They do this by
forming a chemical compound known as iron carbide. Iron carbide is also known as
cementite which can be hard, strong and brittle.
The number of cementite crystals which form is therefore dependent upon the overall
amount of carbon that is added to the iron. The iron carbide crystals occur as a layered
structure within the grains of ferrite. The metal grains which have this layered structure
are known as pearlite. In mild steel the structure of iron/iron carbide is supported by
the ductile ferrite grains. This combination of both hard and ductile material within each
grain results in a tough, strong material being formed (Fig 6.4).

Term Definition
ferrite a constituent of carbon steels; pure iron; magnetic and
soft
cementite the iron carbide constituent of steel and cast iron; very
hard and brittle
pearlite lamellar structure resembling mother of pearl;
a compound of iron and carbon occurring in steel as a
result of transformation of austenite into aggregations of
ferrite and iron carbide
tensile strength pertaining to forces on a body that tend to stretch, or
elongate, the body
eutectoid steel a steel that contains 0.83% carbon (the eutectic point);
a carbon steel with 0.83% carbon is pure pearlite
austenite a phase of steel in which the metal is in a solid solution;
austenite is stable only above 1333 °F in plain carbon
steels
Ferrite Cementite
Fig 6.4 – Pearlite
In low carbon steel, the grains are predominantly ferrite. As the percentage of carbon
is increased, the number of ferrite grains decreases and the number of pearlite grains
increases, until at 0.83% carbon the steel is composed entirely of pearlite and is said to
be ‘fully pearlitic’.
When the carbon content exceeds 0.83%, the additional iron carbide which forms
cannot be taken in to the grains. It resides at the grain boundaries and is known as
‘free cementite’. This brittle constituent at the grain boundaries results in decreasing
toughness of the steel as more free cementite is formed. Fig 6.5 summarises the
changes to the grain structure which occur with increasing carbon content and shows
the accompanying properties and uses.

Tensile strength (MPa) Low carbon Medium High carbon steel
Structural sections &

plate, drop forgings
Springs, shears, tools
Dies, drills, taps,

milling cutters
Brinell hardness
Saws, razors, files
Coil, nails, wire
drop forgings,
% Elongation
Axles, gears,
wire rope
0.900 30 300
h
n gt
s tre
s ile
T en
ss
0.600 ar dne 20 200
r i n ell h
B
(% D
El uc
on til
0.300 ga ity 10 100
tio
n )
0.100 Cementite
0.80
0.60 Ferrite
0.40 Pearlite
0.20
0.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Carbon % 0.83
A B C D E
Fig 6.5 – The relationship between carbon content, microstructure, mechanical

properties and uses of plain carbon steels in the normalised condition

a) Pure iron is composed wholly of ferrite and is soft, ductile and weak.
b) 0.3% C (low carbon steel) is composed of approximately 25% pearlite distributed
evenly in a matrix of ferrite. The pearlite increases the tensile strength and
hardness but there is a loss of ductility.
c) 0.6% C (high carbon steel) is composed of approximately 60% pearlite. There is
a further increase in strength and hardness but a notable decrease in the ductility.
Because of this, welding is more difficult for the material is brittle and tends to
crack.
d) 0.83% C (eutectoid steel) is composed wholly of pearlite and is even more brittle
and therefore difficult to weld unless close attention is paid to heat input and
cooling rate.
e) 1.1% C (hypereutectoid steel) is composed mainly of pearlite but with cementite
forming at the grain boundaries. These steels are extremely hard and can only be
welded after the steel is heat treated to soften it.
1.7% C is the limit for steels. More cementite is present around the pearlite, thus the
steel is extremely hard and brittle.
Phases in steel
Steel can also be seen to be allotropic in nature, ie the patterns into which the atoms
of the material arrange themselves (the atomic structure) is changeable and may exist
in more than one form depending on carbon content, temperature achieved, time at
temperature and cooling rate.
This change in structure results in differing properties in the metal; eg steel at ambient
temperatures is magnetic. If the steel is heated to a high temperature, the atomic
structure changes and the steel becomes non-magnetic. It becomes magnetic again
just prior to the melting temperature being reached.
Changes of this type are referred to as ‘phase changes’. Metallurgists make use of
these phase changes to obtain desirable properties in many metals.
The two structures present in low carbon steels at ambient temperatures are ferrite and
pearlite.
Other phases of steel which are important are as follows.
Austenite – When carbon steel is heated above the lower critical temperature (or
transformation range), the ferrite/pearlite structure is dissolved into a constituent known
as austenite. This transformation to austenite occurs while the steel is in the solid
state. The carbon is dissolved evenly throughout the austenite and the ferrite/pearlite
structure is no longer present. Austenite is non-magnetic.
In plain carbon steels, austenite can only exist at elevated temperatures above
723 °C. In some steels, austenite can exist at ambient temperatures. The two most
common examples of such steels are ‘austenitic stainless steel’ and ‘austenitic
manganese steel’. In these steels, the grain structure is predominantly austenite. Due
to the fact that austenite is non-magnetic, these steels themselves are non-magnetic.
Because austenite can only exist in plain carbon steels at elevated temperatures,
as the steel cools it reverts back to a ferrite/pearlite structure or some other phase,
depending on carbon content and cooling rate.

Martensite – A hard, brittle constituent which forms in steels that are cooled rapidly
from elevated temperatures. For martensite to form, the steel must contain at least
0.3% carbon, ie steels containing less than 0.3% carbon are not hardenable by heat
treatment as martensite is not formed during cooling. Phase changes in steel as a
result of heat treatment are time/temperature transformations. That is, changes are a
result of time and changes in temperature.
If a hardenable steel in the austenite condition is allowed to cool slowly through the
transformation range, migration of the carbon will cause a return to the ferrite/pearlite
structure with which we are familiar. If the cooling rate is too rapid, there is insufficient
time for the transformation to ferrite/pearlite to occur. The carbon is then trapped in
a hard, needle-like structure within some of the grains. This structure is known as
martensite (Fig 6.6).
Fig 6.6 – Martensite
The higher the carbon content and the more rapid the cooling rate, the greater the
amount of martensite which will form within the ferrite/pearlite structure.
Martensite increases hardness and tensile strength in steels but also reduces ductility.
Steels containing large amounts of martensite are too brittle for most applications.
The steel is usually reheated to modify the internal structure of the needles within the
grains. Slightly decomposing the internal structure in this way will restore some ductility
to the steel.
Time temperature transformation

As previously mentioned, phase transformations are a product of time and changes in
temperature. The phase changes which occur in carbon steels can be identified on a
graph known as ‘the iron/carbon equilibrium diagram’.
A relatively simple version of this diagram showing the essential features when dealing
with plain carbon steels is given in Fig 6.7.

Austenite Cementite + austenite

UCT 910
925
860 Normalising
830 50–100 °C above UCT
Ferrite + 800
austenite 780 Annealing 30–50 °C above UCT
760
LCT 723 745 Hardening 40–50 °C above UCT
Stress relieving
75–125 °C below LCT
Temp °C
Ferrite + pearlite Pearlite + cementite

(hypo-eutectoid) (hyper-eutectoid)
.83
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2

Carbon content %
Fig 6.7 – Iron/carbon equilibrium diagram
Essential features of the iron/carbon diagram

Lower critical temperature (LCT)
The LCT is the point at which a phase change from the ferrite/pearlite structure of steel
begins to occur during heating. There is no change in the grain structure below this
point. The LCT for all carbon steels is 723 °C.
Upper critical temperature (UCT)

UCT is the temperature at which the phase change from ferrite/pearlite to austenite is
complete during the heating cycle. It is also the point at which austenite begins to form
some other phase (usually ferrite/pearlite) during the cooling cycle. The UCT varies,
depending on the carbon content of the steel. The UCT ranges from 910 °C for pure
iron, to 723 °C for steel containing 0.83% carbon, to approximately 1140 °C for the
steel limit of 1.7% carbon.
Eutectoid steel
Steel which contains 0.83% carbon has both an LCT and a UCT of 723 °C. Because
the carbon is evenly distributed throughout the metal, no time is required for the
migration of carbon, as is the case with other steels when they undergo phase
changes. The change to austenite is almost immediate.
Transformation zone
The range between the LCT and the UCT is known as the transformation zone. It is
between the LCT and the UCT that the transformation from one phase to another
occurs.
When steel is heated, a phase change from ferrite/pearlite to austenite begins to occur
at the LCT. When the UCT is reached, the change to austenite will be complete.
The phases within the transformation zone are:
zz ferrite and austenite for steels below 0.83% carbon (hypoeutectoid steels)
zz cementite and austenite for steels above 0.83% carbon (hypereutectoid steels).

The effect of heating and cooling

zz If a hypoeutectoid steel (containing less than 0.83% carbon) is heated, no change
in grain structure occurs until the LCT of 723 °C is reached, whereupon the
pearlite present transforms to austenite.
zz As the temperature continues to rise, the ferrite grains still present begin to
dissolve into the newly formed austenite, until at the UCT all the ferrite is
dissolved and the grain structure is entirely austenite.
zz During the cooling of steel from high temperatures, no change in the austenite
grain structure occurs until the UCT is reached. At this point, ferrite grains begin
to grow as the ferrite comes out of solution in the austenite. The ferrite grains
continue to form until the LCT is reached, at which point the remaining austenite
transforms to pearlite. These changes can be seen in Fig 6.8.
Heating Cooling
All
austenite
UCT
LCT
60% (723 C)
ferrite
40%
pearlite
Fig 6.8 – Phase changes in hypoeutectoid steel due to heating and cooling

Recrystallisation
The phase changes just described occur when steel is heated through the
transformation range and subsequently cooled.
It is unlikely however that the ferrite/pearlite structure upon cooling will be identical to
the ferrite/pearlite structure prior to heating. In most cases, the grain structure of the
steel prior to heating will be distorted due to stress or cold working. Alternatively the
grain size may be large due to the metal having undergone prolonged heating.
When steel passes through the transformation range during heating, new grains grow
from the grain boundaries at close and regular intervals. These new equi-axed crystals
will result in the formation of a fine grained austenite structure at the UCT. If the steel is
cooled from just above the UCT, it will transform to a ferrite/pearlite structure within the
new grains which have been formed being fine and regular in shape.
Summary
The phase changes in steel are summarised in Fig 6.9.
5
8 Solidification temperature
780
780 UCT
C
3
Temperature
723 LCT
6 7 10 11
Time
Fig 6.9 – Phase changes in steel

The following information explains the phase changes illustrated in Fig 6.9.
Point 1 Ferrite/pearlite structure in steel of approximately 0.4% C. Grain is

irregular due to cold working.
Point 2 Heating to just below the LCT – no change in grain structure.
Point 3 Within the transformation zone – grain structure is ferrite and austenite,
new grains growing out of old structure.
Point 4 Just above the UCT transformation is complete – the structure is
fine-grained austenite. If cooling from this point is slow, a fine-grained
ferrite/pearlite structure will result (Point 7). If cooling is rapid, a
fine-grained ferrite/pearlite/martensite structure will result (Point 6).
Point 5 Metal is liquid at high temperature. No grains are present.
Point 6/7 Phase changes in steel.
Point 8 Temperature falls to the solidification temperature – seed crystals form,
dendritic growth begins.
Point 9/10 Phase changes in steel.
Point 11 Phase changes in steel.
If the temperature continues to fall steadily from this point, the fine-grained austenite
structure will transform to a fine-grained ferrite/pearlite structure (Point 7) if cooling
through the transformation zone is slow. A fine-grained ferrite/pearlite/martensite
structure (Point 6) will result, if cooling through the transformation zone is rapid.
If cooling from just below the solidification temperature is slow, or if the steel is held at
high temperature for a prolonged period of time, grain growth will occur (Point 9).
Cooling of the steel (Point 9) will result in a coarse-grained ferrite/pearlite structure
being formed if cooling through the transformation range is slow (Point 11), or a
large-grained ferrite/pearlite/martensite structure if the cooling rate through the
transformation range is fast (Point 10).

Effects of welding on the grain structure

When a weld is made, the weld metal is melted and some of the adjacent parent metal
is heated above the lower critical temperature. As the weld metal solidifies and the heat
affected zone cools, new grains are forming in these areas.
Typically, grains in the weld metal tend to be columnar, as a result of solidification
progressing away from the cooler adjacent parent metal.
The metal in the heat-affected zone adjacent to the fusion line is heated to a high
temperature and is slow to cool. Consequently grain growth occurs, resulting in a
region of coarse grain structure immediately adjacent to the weld.
Metal that has been heated above the UCT will have undergone full transformation and
adjacent to the coarse-grained region, a fully transformed fine-grained region will result,
due to more rapid cooling as the distance from the weld increases.
The zone which has been heated to between the UCT and the LCT will undergo partial
transformation.
Adjacent to this will be parent metal which has not been heated to a temperature
high enough for any transformation to take place and therefore the grain structure will
remain unchanged. This can be seen in Fig 6.10.
Weld metal-columnar crystals
Fusion line
Coarse grain region
Grain refined region
Partial transformation region
Fig 6.10 – Changes in grain structure as a result of welding

Multi-pass welds
The first pass in a multi-pass weld forms a grain structure composed of columnar
crystals, similar to that of a single-pass weld. Providing the next pass is made whilst
there is still heat in the weld zone, the second pass has the effect of reheating and
recrystallising the first pass, thus causing a refinement of the grains. A third pass
refines the second pass and so on until the weld is completed. The weld reinforcement,
which is considered surplus, has a coarse grain structure, but the weld metal
considered for the effective strength is composed of refined grains, see Fig 6.11.
Single-pass weld
Multi-pass weld
Fig 6.11 – Grain refinement in multi-pass welds
The refinement of the grains achieved by multi-pass welds makes the weld metal
stronger and tougher. However, if the weld is allowed to cool between passes, then
only the surface of the previous run is refined.
Grain growth
Grain growth is the term used to describe the actual growth of some grains by the
absorption of adjacent grains (Fig 6.12).
Fig 6.12 – Grain growth
Grain growth and the resultant coarse-grained structure may be caused by:
zz slow cooling from the liquid to the solid state
zz maintaining the metal at a high temperature for an extended period of time
zz heating the metal to a temperature well above the recrystallisation temperature.

The effect of this grain growth upon the mechanical properties of the metal is reduced:
zz tensile strength
zz ductility
zz malleability
zz impact resistance
zz fatigue resistance.
Grain growth is caused by prolonged heating and slow cooling. It follows, therefore,
that because different welding processes have different heat inputs and cooling rates,
the effect of welding on the grain structure will vary depending on the nature of the
welding process used.
Examples of welding processes that produce coarse grain structures are:
zz electroslag welding
zz submerged arc welding
zz oxy-acetylene welding.
Each of the above processes has a high heat input and slow cooling rate.
Manual metal arc and gas metal arc processes tend to give a much more localised
heat and have faster cooling rates, therefore grain growth does not occur to the same
extent. In fact, grain refinement is common during multi-pass welds.
Steel that has suffered grain growth can be restored to its original structure by
reheating to just above its recrystallisation temperature and by controlling the cooling
rate.
Heat treatment
Heat treatment is the process of applying a controlled heating/cooling cycle to a metal
to bring about desirable changes in the properties of the material.
The commonly applied heat treatment processes are:
zz annealing
zz normalising
zz hardening
zz tempering.
In addition, heat treatment processes peculiar to welding are:

zz pre-heat
zz post-heat
zz concurrent heating
zz stress relieving.

Annealing
Annealing involves heating to above the UCT (50–70 °C above for steel), holding
at temperature to ensure complete and even heating throughout, followed by slow
controlled cooling. Cooling is usually in the furnace, but can be in a lime bin or under
thermal blankets. The slow cooling allows full transformation of the grain to take place
(new grain structure is formed).
Annealing gives maximum softness to a metal and improves ductility, but may produce
coarse grains. Some tensile strength is also lost, but residual stress is relieved.
Annealing is commonly carried out prior to cold working or prior to repair welding of
hardened steels.
Holding time is variable, but never less than one hour per 25 mm of thickness. A
heating/cooling temperature curve for annealing is given in Fig 6.13.
UCT
LCT
Temperature
Heating Holding Furnace cool
Time
Fig 6.13 – Time/temperature curve for annealing
Normalising
Normalising involves heating to above the UCT (50–70 °C above – as for annealing).
Normally, steel is ‘soaked’ for one hour per 25 mm of thickness – to ensure a uniform
temperature. Cooling is then in still air (usually just outside the furnace). The purpose
of normalising is to restore a fine and regular grain structure to the metal as a means of
improving mechanical properties.
A time/temperature curve for normalising can be seen in Fig 6.14.

UCT
Temperature
LCT
Heating Holding Air cool
Time
Fig 6.14 – Time/temperature curve for normalising
Normalising yields a finer-grained, slightly harder (because of distribution of pearlite)

and stronger steel.
This process of re-crystallisation is commonly applied to weldments and plates during
manufacture, where mechanical properties are of prime importance.
Grain size after welding
Heat-affected zone Weld metal
Parent material
(rolled plate)
Grain size after normalising
Tough equal
grain structure
Fig 6.15 – The effect of normalising

Hardening
Hardening involves heating the steel to above the UCT (but slightly below that for
normalising or annealing). This temperature is maintained for a time to dissolve
the carbides fully in the austenite. The metal is then quenched rapidly in a suitable
quenching medium. The rapid cooling rate due to quenching results in martensite
formation in steels with carbon contents above 0.3%. Steel below 0.3% carbon is not
hardenable by heat treatment.
Quenching rate
The quicker the cooling rate, the greater the hardness which will result when a given
steel is quenched from a given temperature. Common quenching media in order (most
rapid first) are:
zz brine (salt water)
zz water
zz oil
zz air.
Tempering
Tempering is a common term for a low temperature process that relieves internal
stresses and improves ductility and toughness in steels. Tempering is normally
associated with hardening, as tempering usually follows hardening as a means of
reducing brittleness.
Temperatures of between 200 °C and 300 °C are used, followed by quenching in
a suitable medium such as oil or water. The higher the temperature from which
quenching is carried out, the softer and more ductile the component will become.
Tempering is carried out below the LCT. A typical time/temperature curve for
tempering is given in Fig 6.16.

UCT
Temperature
LCT
Heating Quench
Time
Fig 6.16 – Time/temperature curve for tempering
Temper colours
As a polished steel is heated, the oxide layer that forms on the surface will change
colour from a soft yellow at 220 °C through to a dark blue at 300 °C. Temper colours
are thus useful guides as to some form of tempering control in the workshop.
Temp °C Colour Temper and typical use

220 pale yellow (hard) scrapers, turning tools
230 straw dies, hammers
240 dark straw shears, drills for steel
250 light brown (med) knives, shears, punches
260 purple brown reamers, drills for wood
270 purple axes, hand tools
280 deep purple chisels, screw drivers
290 bright blue (soft) wood chisel
300 dark blue springs
Table 6.1 – Temper colours

Heat treatment processes peculiar to welding

Pre-heat
Pre-heat is the application of heat to a weldment prior to welding. The prime purpose
of pre-heating is to slow the cooling rate as a means of reducing the likelihood of
cracking. Pre-heating will also assist in the dispersion of hydrogen from the weld and
weld zone. Pre-heat is also employed as a means of distortion control and for drying
wet plates prior to welding – however these are relatively minor applications for
pre-heat.
Post-heat
Post-heat is the application of heat to a weldment after welding has been completed.
Post-heat is done to:
zz ensure an even temperature prior to cooling
zz slow the cooling rate.
Post-heat should not be seen as a replacement for pre-heat, as post-heat in itself will
not prevent rapid cooling through the transformation range.
Concurrent heating
Concurrent heating is the application of heat to the weldment during welding. This is
done essentially as a means of maintaining the interpass temperature between weld
runs.
Stress relief
Residual stresses in a metal from forming processes or welding can lead to failure of
the weldment – particularly if it is subjected to live (fatigue) type loading in service.
Stress relief involves heating the component to 75–125 °C below the LCT (usually
around 600 °C), holding for a minimum time of one hour per 25 mm of thickness,
followed by slow and uniform cooling in the furnace. Because heating is below the LCT
no re-crystallisation occurs, but residual stresses will be removed (Fig 6.17).
UCT
LCT
Temperature
Heating Quench
Time
Fig 6.17 – Time/temperature curve for stress relief

Methods of heating
zz Furnace – A furnace is the preferred method of heating where large components
are to be heat treated, or where close control of the heating/cooling cycle is
required. The evenness of temperature in furnaces is a decided advantage.
Furnaces can be fired with oil, gas or pulverised coal.
zz Heating coils/blankets, which can be wrapped around the job, are popular,
particularly for heating sections of a fabrication. These are heated by electrical
resistance and are ideal for heating butt welds in piping and for on-site
applications. Electric induction heating can also be used.
zz Gas heating blowpipes are best suited to heating small components, for site work
and for pre-heating and post-heating of welds.
Temperature measurement
The most commonly used temperature measuring devices are:
zz temperature sensitive crayons and paints
zz thermocouples
zz pyrometers.

Temperature sensitive crayons and paints

These crayons and paints are designed to measure a broad range of temperatures.
The job is marked with the crayon or paints and when the required temperature is
reached, the mark either melts or changes colour. Crayons come in sets, each crayon
sensitive to a particular temperature.
(a)
Temperature
sensitive crayon
Plate to be
140
pre-heated
Crayon mark
changes colour when
plate temperature
reaches 140 C
(b)
Unaffected crayon
marks mean that the
metal has not yet been
heated to the required
temperature
Colour change
indicates metal is at
required temperature
Fig 6.18 –Temperature sensitive crayons

Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar composition joined at the ends and
attached to a voltmeter. The wires are made from dissimilar metals which change
their potential voltage as the temperature changes. The scale of the voltmeter is
graduated in degrees of temperature, giving a direct temperature readout. For furnace
heat treatment, the thermocouple is commonly attached to a chart that will record the
temperature cycle and give a printed readout.
Porcelain insulators Connecting block
Hot junction
Lead wires
Instrument (a)
(b)
Photograph reproduced with permission, Furnace Technologies Pty Ltd
Fig 6.19 – Thermocouple units (a) older style, (b) digital readout

Optical pyrometers
An optical pyrometer is a temperature measuring device that employs the use of colour
comparison, either by chart or a wire through which electrical current is passed. The
chart or wire sits in line with an eyepiece, through which the item to be measured is
viewed. In the wire type, as the amount of current is increased, electrical resistance
causes the wire to glow more brightly. The chart or wire is then compared to the
surface colour of the object being measured. When they are the same colour, they are
at the same temperature. This method can only be used on steels which are below
approximately 800 °C, at which point the steel begins to glow red.
Optical pyrometers were once commonly used, but have now been superseded by
more modern devices.
Fig 6.20 – Optical pyrometer
Surface pyrometer
Electronic surface pyrometers are now relatively cheap and reliable. These pyrometers
can be used to conveniently measure the surface temperature of any material. The
electronic pyrometer makes use of liquid crystal technology, which is sensitive to heat
and light variations. When exposed to heat, by pointing the device at the surface of the
material, they display the temperature directly on a small screen.
Digital thermometer and non-contact thermometer

The use of non-contact thermometers with a larger sighting (refer Fig 6.22) or a digital
thermometer with probes (Fig 6.21) has introduced new technology into the industry.
Non-contact is by the use of a laser beam (8:1) distance, for a temperature range of
-50 °C to 550 °C. See Fig 6.22. Digital probe-types temperature range is -50 °C to
1300 °C.

Reproduced with the permission of Jaycar Electronics Pty Ltd
Fig 6.21 – Digital thermometer with probes
Reproduced with the permission of Jaycar Electronics Pty Ltd

Fig 6.22 – Laser beam digital thermometer

Chapter 7 – Weld testing
Introduction
Testing of welded joints is a routine part of the quality assurance process for welded
fabrications. Weld testing is carried out as part of the following.
zz Weld procedure qualification – to ensure that the welding procedure is capable
of delivering welds that are defect-free and have the required mechanical
properties.
zz Welder qualification/certification – to ensure that the welding operator is capable
of producing defect-free welds.
zz Prototype testing or product inspection – to ensure that the completed weldment
meets specifications and is fit for purpose.
There are few, if any welds which may be described as perfect. Virtually all welds have
some minor imperfection or discontinuity.
zz Weld defects
{{ cracks
{{ cavities
{{ inclusions
{{ incomplete fusion (lack of fusion)
{{ contour defects
{{ others (secondary discontinuities)
zz Product inspection
{{ visual inspection
{{ penetrant inspection
{{ ultra sonic testing
{{ radiographic testing
{{ pressure testing
{{ destructive testing.

Weld defects
A weld discontinuity becomes a defect when it exceeds accepted standards.
It must be kept in mind that every imperfection in a weld is not necessarily a defect.
Minor imperfections are known as ‘weld discontinuities’. These discontinuities
only become defects when they exceed limits imposed upon them by the code or
specification to which they are made. Australian Standard® codes, such as
AS/NZS1554.1 and AS 1796, specify the minimum acceptable standards for welds.
AS/NZS 1554 – Part 1 Welding of steel structures for example specifies two categories
of weld – GP CATEGORY (general purpose) and SP CATEGORY (structural purpose).
GP category welds are suitable for low stress applications and static loaded structures.
SP category welds are designed for dynamic loads and higher stress loadings,
therefore a better quality of weld is demanded. Section 6 of AS/NZS 1554 – Part 1 sets
out the allowable surface imperfections for each of these categories of welds. From
the extract of this table below, it can be seen that an ‘allowable imperfection’ in one
instance may be classified as a ‘weld defect’ on another.
This table has been removed. It was reproduced from page 61, Section
6, Part 1 of AS/NZS 1554.
Table 7.1 – Extract from AS/NZS 1554

Permissible levels of imperfections in butt and fillet welds, as determined by visual
magnetic particle and liquid penetrant examination of the weld zone, are as per
section 6 of AS/NZS 1554 Pt 1.
Weld quality is hard to define, but generally a quality weld is a weld that does what it
is designed to do (fit for purpose). Weld quality is relative to the application for which
the weldment is intended. Generally speaking, the requirement for ‘higher quality’ will
increase the cost of fabrication and this should be kept in mind when specifying or
working to quality requirements.
The most common discontinuity types and their likely location are described in six basic
categories, according to International Welding Institute (IWI) standards.
zz Class 100 Cracks
zz Class 200 Cavities
zz Class 300 Solid inclusions
zz Class 400 Incomplete fusion/lack of penetration
zz Class 500 Contour faults
zz Class 600 Others (secondary discontinuities):
{{ undercut
{{ excessive penetration
{{ stray arcing
{{ misalignment
{{ excessive spatter
{{ edge of plate melt off
{{ excessive penetration
{{ over roll/overlap
{{ underfill
{{ laminations/delaminations.
Cracks
Defined as a weld discontinuity produced either by stress, tearing of the metal in the
plastic condition (hot cracks), or by fracturing when cold (cold cracks).
Hot cracking
Hot cracks are common in materials with high coefficient of expansion and/or which
suffer from hot shortness. Hot cracking occurs at elevated temperatures soon after
solidification. This mode of cracking is common in aluminium and stainless steel,
longitudinal cracks and crater cracks being the most common examples.
Cold cracking
Most commonly occurs in the base metal adjacent to the fusion zone, particularly when
cooling rates are rapid. The most common example of this is underbead cracking in
hardenable steels.
Cracks may occur in the weld metal, or in the parent metal, fusion zone or HAZ.

Cracking is considered to be a serious weld fault and rarely is any amount of cracking
tolerated.
Most types of cracks are named according to their direction or location, such as:
zz longitudinal cracks generally occur along the axis of a weld
zz transverse cracks generally across a weld
zz crater cracks tend to occur in the weld crater at the start or finish of a weld
zz toe cracking occurs at the toe of the weld
zz underbead cracks occur under the weld shape.
Transverse crack
Longitudinal crack
Crater crack
Fig 7.1 – Crack types
Crater cracks
These come from hot shrinkage. The crater solidifies from all sides toward the centre,
leading to a high concentration of stress at the centre of the crater. If the metal lacks
ductility, or the hollow crater cannot accommodate the shrinkage, cracking may result.
Crater cracks may, under stress, propagate from the crater and lead to failure of the
weldment.
Underbead cracks
This defect occurs in the HAZ of welds in heavy rolled sections and appears as a crack
or tear running in the direction of rolling. One factor which most limits the weldability
of carbon and low alloy steels is the tendency toward underbead cracking when the
welding conditions are not right. As the name suggests, these cracks occur in the HAZ
of the weld bead. These cracks may appear at the plate surface as toe cracks, but are
commonly subsurface.

Incomplete penetration
Fig 7.2 – Lack of penetration
Underbead cracking mechanism

During welding, some hydrogen (a decomposition product of moisture from the air,
electrode coating, wire, flux, shielding gas, or the surface of the plates) can dissolve
into the molten weld metal and from there into the extremely hot (but not molten) base
metal. If cooling occurs slowly, the process reverses and the hydrogen has sufficient
time to escape through the weld into the air. But if the cooling is rapid, some hydrogen
may be trapped in the HAZ adjacent to the weld metal. The hydrogen is absorbed and
produces a condition of low ductility known as hydrogen embrittlement.
Rapid cooling of the base metal produces a hard, brittle HAZ which is unable to yield to
accommodate the shrinkage stresses and the stresses caused by the liberation of the
now insoluble hydrogen at the grain boundaries. This may result in cracking within the
narrow HAZ adjacent to the weld. If this mechanism is combined with either stress or
impurities in the parent metal, lamellar tearing may occur.
Lamellar
tear
Fig 7.3 – Lamellar tearing

Three major factors contribute to underbead cracking:

zz a hardenable parent metal
zz rapid cooling from elevated temperatures
zz the presence of hydrogen.
Hardenable parent metal

Underbead cracking seldom occurs in steels of low carbon content or low carbon
equivalent. Steels above 0.35% carbon content or carbon equivalent are hardenable.
The problem is most severe with materials such as the heat-treated construction
steels having tensile strengths of 680 MPa and higher. The chapters on special steels
include recommendations for welding these materials. Low grade structural steels do
not present a problem in this regard, as they have insufficient carbon for hardening to
occur.
Rapid cooling cracking

Rapid cooling of the weld zone caused by the quenching effect of the surrounding plate
can lead to a hard, brittle heat-affected zone which cannot accommodate the shrinkage
stresses placed upon it. The faster the cooling rate, the harder and more brittle the HAZ
will become.
Hydrogen induced cracking

Hydrogen which may be liberated in the weld zone due to moisture or other
contaminants is soluble in the microstructure of steels at elevated temperatures.
Because the gas is in solution, it occupies no space in the microstructure. As the metal
cools below the transformation range where the hydrogen is no longer soluble, bubbles
of the gas now form at the grain boundaries and exert pressure in the HAZ to cause
cracking.
Causes of cracking include:
zz the base metal is susceptible to cracking or of poor weldability
zz contaminated or dirty weldments
zz improper preparation of the weld joints
zz incorrect welding procedure
zz the weld joint is too rigid
zz undersized welds
zz unfilled craters
zz stray arcing
zz incompatible filler metal.
Effect – A crack may not cause any problems at all in a static loaded structure. In a
heavily loaded or dynamically loaded structure, any crack will probably become a start
point that will allow a crack to propagate along a weld and this will cause ultimate weld
failure.
Correction – Cracks should preferably be removed in their entirety; care must be taken
to ensure that no portion of the crack remains. Failure to do this may result in further
cracking occurring. Any re-welding of the joint should be undertaken using correct weld
procedures and consumables.

Cavities
Defined as a pore or group of gas pores in the weld metal. Porosity may be
conveniently differentiated according to size and distribution. A number of different
size-related terms are used:
zz gas pore – a cavity (usually spherical) formed by entrapped gas during the
solidification of molten metal
zz wormhole – an elongated or tubular cavity in the weld metal caused by
entrapped gas being forced away from the solidifying weld metal
zz cluster – a group of pores in close proximity to each other.
Gas pores Wormholes Cluster
Fig 7.4 – Porosity types
Causes are as follows.

zz parent metal composition – if the plate has excessive amounts of sulphur
and/or phosphorous, these will burn and produce gases in the weld region
zz parent metal contamination – any surface contaminants such as oil, grease,
paint or rust may cause porosity if present in excessive amounts
zz moisture – a major cause of porosity is moisture on the metal surface or in
welding consumables
zz excessive amperage – causing the electrode to overheat and a breakdown of
the flux coating
zz excessive arc length – reducing the effectiveness of the atmospheric shielding
zz condition of electrode coating – damp electrodes will cause porosity,
particularly at the beginning of a run, due to the vaporisation of moisture. Most
electrodes, (except the low hydrogen types) require some moisture for best
running characteristics, but this must be kept within certain limits
zz ineffective shielding gas – caused by blocked nozzle, wind, or wrong settings.
Effect – A cluster of pores may cause a loss of weld strength due to the loss of
cross-sectional area of weld metal. Isolated pores scattered throughout the weld
have little effect on weld strength. Surface porosity has a detrimental effect on weld
appearance. Clusters of porosity are considered to be more serious as they may
concentrate stress in dynamically loaded joints.
Correction – If porosity in a weld exceeds the limits set by the code, then affected
sections of weld must be removed and welded again, using correct preventative
measures.

Inclusions
Defined as metal oxides and other solid compounds which occur as irregular or
globular inclusions in the weld metal.
Not cleaned,
or incorrect
electrode
Narrow root gap Lack of penetration
due to slag inclusion
Fig 7.5 – Inclusions
Causes include:
zz low amperages – lack of arc force makes slag control difficult
zz incorrect electrode angles
zz undercut – slag may become trapped in undercut from previous runs
zz restricted joints – restricts electrode manipulation
zz surface contamination – rust or scale may become trapped in the weld
zz incorrect electrode – heavy or fluid slag may be unsuitable in some positions or
joint configurations
zz poor starting technique
zz lack of interim/interrun cleaning.
Effect – May cause a serious loss of cross-sectional area. Additionally, the irregular
shape and sharp corners/edges may propagate cracks.
Correction – Slag inclusions are removed when they exceed the allowable limits set
by the code. The best method is to gouge out affected areas (flame or arc), or they
may be chipped or ground. Thoroughly clean the preparation and re-weld. Inclusions
are usually in the form of slag inclusions, but may also be in the form of other metallic
inclusions such as tungsten from the GTAW process or silicon from GMAW wire.
Inclusions may occur at various points within the weld metal or at the weld
metal/parent metal boundary.

Incomplete fusion (lack of fusion)

This weld fault commonly occurs at the weld metal/parent metal boundary and between
the runs of a multi-run weld. Common occurrence is when narrow preparation angles
are used, the plate is of heavy section, the plate is dirty or scaled, or when the GMAW
process is used.
Fig 7.6 – Lack of fusion
Causes include:
zz amperage too low
zz electrodes – too small an electrode used on heavy, cold plate
zz electrode angles – heat of the arc not being directed into the parent metal
zz speed of travel – too fast, not allowing time for proper fusion
zz joint preparation – inadequate angles of bevel tend to stop correct electrode
manipulation, hence lack of fusion
zz cleanliness – any slag, scale, rust or other foreign material may prevent the
underlying metal from reaching fusion temperature.
Effect – Lack of fusion is difficult to detect and may cause a serious loss of weld zone
soundness. The fault may propagate cracks or cause failure of the joint.
Correction – Lack of fusion should be removed. The best method is to gouge out
affected areas (flame or arc). Thoroughly clean the preparation and re-weld using
correct weld procedures.

Contour defects
Fillet welds should have the correct leg size and weld profile that provides the correct
DTT (design throat thickness). Concave fillet weld profiles reduce the throat thickness
and this may lead to weld failure. Convex fillet weld shapes represent over-welding and
tend to set up a notch effect at the toes.
Butt welds should have a fully filled groove with a weld reinforcement within specified
limits. The transition at the toes should be smooth and of approximately 135° or
greater.
Notching
effect
Convex
Concave
Notching
effect
Fig 7.7 – Weld contour
Causes include:
zz welding speed too fast or too slow
zz too large or too small an electrode
zz incorrect electrode manipulation
zz incorrect electrode angles.
Effect – If the weld is too large or too convex, the extra weld metal causes increased
distortion. If the weld is too small or concave, the chilling effect of the parent metal will
cause embrittlement and cracking and/or the weld may not be of the specified size.
Correction
zz Too large a weld must be ground down to size and to the correct profile.
zz Too small a weld must be built up with extra metal.

Inadequate penetration (lack of penetration)

Occurs at the root of butt and fillet welds. On a butt weld radiograph, the defect shows
up at the centre of the weld as a straight line/lines.
Incomplete penetration
Fig 7.8 – Lack of root penetration
Causes include:
zz root face too large
zz gap too narrow
zz arc length too long
zz amperage too low
zz incorrect angle of electrode
zz joint included angle too narrow
zz incorrect electrode choice
zz travel speed incorrect.
Effect – This is two-fold: first, there is a reduction in the effective throat thickness of the
weld and second, a notch effect is produced due to the void in the root. It has the same
effect as putting a hacksaw cut along the root of the joint.
Correction – In butt welds that can be reached from the other side, the root is
completely ground out and a backing run is made – this is normal procedure for all
such welds, to ensure full penetration. When a butt weld is only accessible from one
side, defective parts must be completely removed and re-welded. One method used to
stop this occurring is to use backing plates or rings. In fillet welds, it is very difficult to
tell if full penetration has been obtained – these welds are difficult to x-ray. The welder
must depend on maintaining approved procedures.

Others (secondary discontinuities)

Undercut
Defined as a groove or channel in the parent metal occurring continuously or
intermittently along the toes or edge of a weld. Undercut is caused by the arc melting the
parent plate at the toes of the weld and not being filled with weld metal.
Causes – Undercut is usually caused by operator faults such as a long arc length, travel
speed too fast, or incorrect electrode angles. Excessive amperages or poor electrode
choice can exacerbate the problem. Other causes include:
zz high amperage
zz incorrect type of electrode – cellulose electrodes are very prone to undercut
zz joint preparation incorrect – not allowing the electrode to be manipulated correctly
zz incorrect angle of travel or approach
zz travel speed incorrect
zz insufficient pause at the edge of a weave.
Effect – Undercutting is not a very serious defect in statically loaded joints unless it
causes a substantial reduction in plate thickness, thereby reducing the strength of the
joint. In joints which are dynamically loaded, undercut is regarded as much more serious
and may ultimately cause failure due to the stress concentration produced. Undercut
of around 1 mm or 10% of the metal thickness may be allowed on some welded joints,
however it can cause stress concentration and notching. Additionally, the sharp corners
and/or edges may propagate cracks.
Correction – To rectify undercut, an extra run of weld is deposited in the undercut
groove. The operator must be very careful, however, in the manner that this repair is
carried out. Usually, the undercut groove is opened out in order to accommodate the
extra weld metal and reduce the risk of slag inclusions. Electrodes must be of sufficient
size to ensure good fusion, but small enough to deposit a bead that will conform with
requirements for weld contour.
Undercut
Undercut
Fig 7.9 – Undercut

Excessive penetration (burn through)
Defined as excess weld metal protruding through the root of a butt weld.
This occurs in butt welds only.
Causes – Excessive penetration is essentially the opposite of insufficient penetration,

as are causes such as:
zz root face too small
zz root gap too big
zz amperage too high
Fig 7.10 – Excessive penetration
Effect – This is two-fold: firstly, there is excessive reinforcement (or over-welding) on

one side of the joint; secondly, the excess metal has a notch effect on the joint. As with
insufficient penetration, this defect must be avoided in pipe work as it causes eddy
currents in the fluid. These can erode the pipe wall downstream, particularly if the fluid
is abrasive.
Correction – In butt welds which are accessible from both sides, the excess metal may
be ground off to the desired contour.
In butt welds accessible from one side only, the whole affected area may have to be
removed and re-welded. This may prove difficult, especially in pipes and the whole joint
may have to be removed.
Stray arcing
Defined as the damage on the parent metal resulting from the accidental striking of an
arc away from the weld.
Stress concentration
Fig 7.11 – Stray arcing

Causes – Most often, stray arcing is the result of operator error, but sometimes faulty
connections can have the same effect. This defect may possibly occur:
zz between the electrode and the work (most commonly)
zz between the electrode holder and the work
zz between the work and the work lead connection.
Effect – Small globules of metal are deposited on the plate surface and chill very
quickly, resulting in hard spots and pitting. On work that is subject to high working loads
and extremes in temperature, particularly in hardenable steels, these spots become
points of stress concentration and can result in cracking of the material leading to
ultimate failure.
Correction – Stray arcing has little effect on most mild steel joints; however, on highly
stressed joints and most alloy steels, this defect is undesirable. Prevention is the best
and sometimes the only acceptable method, but sometimes the area may be ground
smooth and in some cases stress relieved, or a weld placed over the affected area and
ground flush. When correcting by grinding, care should be taken to ensure that any
reduction of thickness is within allowable limits.
Misalignment
Misalignment occurs in the parent plate as a result of bad fit-up or weld metal
shrinkage.
Effective plate
thickness
Fig 7.12 – Misalignment
Excessive spatter
Defined as the metal particles expelled onto the surface of the parent metal or weld
during welding and not forming part of the weld.
Fig 7.13 – Excessive spatter

Causes include:
zz excessive amperage
zz incorrect type of electrode; cellulose electrodes are prone to cause spatter
zz too long an arc length
zz electrode angle too flat.
Effect – Besides detracting from the appearance of a weld, this defect is similar in
effect to stray arcing, in that chill spots and minor pitting in the surface of stainless steel
are caused.
Edge of plate melt-off

Defined as an imperfection in a welded joint due to a free edge of plate being melted
off. This defect only occurs on lap and outside corner joints.
Fig 7.14 – Edge of plate melt-off
Causes include:
zz high amperage
zz incorrect electrode size
zz incorrect type of electrode
zz incorrect angles of electrode
zz insufficient deposition time at the edge of a weave.
Effect – Reduces the effective plate thickness. In lap welds it reduces the effective leg
length and in corner welds it reduces the effective throat thickness.
Correction – Extra runs are placed in the joint to increase the throat or extend the leg
length of corner and lap joints respectively.
It is usually a requirement that a witness of the plate edge is left to ensure that
edge of plate melt-off has not occurred.

Over-roll or overlap
Defined as an imperfection at the toe of a weld caused by an overflow or spilling of
weld metal on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to the latter.
Over-roll
Fig 7.15 – Over-roll or overlap
Causes include:
zz insufficient heat – causing weld metal to lie on top of the parent metal
zz contaminated parent metal surfaces
zz incorrect electrode angles
Effect – Over-roll has an effect similar to undercut, in that it produces a concentration

of stress in the joint. The effective weld may be of inadequate size.
Correction – Where over-roll is to be rectified, the excess metal should be removed
by chipping or grinding. Care should be taken to ensure that the desired contour is
retained. Further runs should be deposited as necessary.
Underfill (incompletely filled groove)

Defined as a longitudinal continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a butt
weld due to insufficient deposition of weld metal. Underfill occurs in the weld metal of
butt joints and is the failure of the metal to completely fill the groove. This should not be
confused with undercut.
Underfill
Fig 7.16 – Underfill
Effect – Loss of strength due to loss of cross-sectional area. Creates a concentration

of stress due to irregular surface contour.
Correction – Deposit additional weld metal, ensuring that requirements for weld
contour are met.

Laminations and de-laminations
Laminations occur in the parent metal during manufacture, producing a possible
discontinuity in the through-thickness of the section. This discontinuity may
‘de-laminate’ (pull apart or open-up), due to shrinkage stresses or external load.
Load
Lamination opening
under load
Load
Fig 7.17 – De-lamination

Product inspection
Weld quality is hard to define, but generally a quality weld is one that does what it is
designed to do (fit for purpose). Weld quality is relative to the application for which
the weldment is intended. Generally speaking, the requirement for ‘higher quality’ will
increase the cost of fabrication and this should be kept in mind when specifying, or
working to quality requirements. It can also be reasonably assumed that if the welding
procedure is capable of delivering the required mechanical strength, then all welds
made using that procedure will possess the required mechanical strength, provided
that the welds are fault free.
Product inspection is usually carried out by simple visual methods. Where strength of
the weld is critical, or when a structure is to be subjected to high or dynamic loads, then
further inspection and testing methods may be required. For example, in the case of
pressure vessels proof tests are required on top of NDT testing.
Selection of a testing method

The testing procedure and associated costs form part of the overall cost of the product.
The procedure must be cost-effective if overall fabrication costs are to be contained.
In most cases, the type and extent of testing will be specified by the code to which the
weldment is constructed. It is important that the test method employed is capable of
disclosing the defects that are likely to occur. The method and extent of testing need
only ensure that welds comply with specifications. Overdoing the amount of testing
required will increase costs. As the method of testing becomes more sophisticated,
costs increase. Simple methods of testing should be applied first. It costs much less to
determine a weld non-compliance by visual examination than it does to determine that
non-compliance by radiographic examination.
If testing of welds is to be successful, it is essential that the testing technician knows:
zz what defects are likely to occur
zz the likely location of these defects within or adjacent to the weld
zz the test method/s which will best disclose these defects.
Non-destructive testing (NDT)

Non-destructive testing is carried out by various processes which do not destroy the
weldment. NDT is about examination to ensure freedom from defects, rather than to
determine mechanical properties.
Destructive testing (DT)

DT (or mechanical testing) involves the application of force as a means of determining
the mechanical properties of the welded joint. These tests, by their nature, usually
involve testing of the part to failure; thereby destroying the part being tested.
It can be seen therefore that destructive testing methods are usually not suitable as a
means of product inspection, as all the products produced would be destroyed during
testing. Destructive testing is usually applied to the proving of welding procedures,
or to the testing of production welded test plates. In some cases, however, finished
weldments may be selected at random from the production line and tested to failure as
a means of ensuring the integrity of the production process.

Non-destructive test methods
There are six NDT methods that we will examine. These are:
zz visual inspection
zz penetrant inspection
zz magnetic particle inspection
zz ultrasonic inspection
zz radiography
zz pressure testing.
Visual inspection
Visual inspection is the cheapest, the simplest and the most widely applied method of
inspection. Visual inspection can be used not only to examine the finished weld, but
unlike other inspection methods, it can be applied at all stages of the welding process.
Prior to welding – check the following

zz Parent metal defects – such as laminations, cracks, or surface irregularities.
zz Joint fit-up, including the edge preparation – angle of bevel, root face, root gap,
backing material (where required), alignment of parts and general fit-up of the
joint.
zz Joint cleanliness – is the joint as clean as required? Heavy scale, oxide film,
grease, paint and oil are all sources of weld defects.
zz Assembly – whether any special set up is required, such as jigging, bracing, or
cambering.
During welding – check the following

zz Electrodes – compatibility of the electrode type to the weld metal and joint
preparation. This includes a check on the welding current, size of electrode and
speed of deposition.
zz Root run – the appearance, penetration (if required) and any external defects will
give a good indication of weld quality.
zz Slag removal – ensure that all slag is completely removed after each run –
particularly watch the toes of the root run.
zz Inter-run – each run of weld metal is going to be part of the completed weld,
so check each run individually – one bad run may ruin the whole weld. It is
much easier to correct defects as they occur, than to wait until the weldment is
completed. Watch corners, weld junctions, craters and weld toes.
After welding – check the following

zz The final appearance of the weld and the presence of external defects such as
undercut, reinforcement, weld profile, craters, misalignment, porosity, cracks and
slag inclusions. The external appearance of a weld gives a good indication of its
quality.
zz Conformity – all welds should be checked against the drawings and/or
specifications to ensure that they meet the requirements laid down.

Aids to visual inspection are devices such as fillet gauges, calipers, other measuring
devices and a low powered (up to 10 x) magnifying glass.
The major limitation of visual inspection is that it will disclose only surface defects and
defects which are able to be seen by the naked eye, eg fine surface cracks may not
be readily apparent by visual inspection but may easily be detected by some other
method.
Penetrant inspection
Penetrant inspection is a test method for locating any defect open to the surface. It is
particularly advantageous for inspection of non-magnetic and non-ferrous materials
and is widely used on stainless steel, magnesium, aluminium, brass and other metals
of cast or welded construction.
Basically, two different methods are used: dye (usually red) penetrant and fluorescent
(visible under ‘black light’) penetrant.
Subvisible Visible
crack indication
Cleaned surface Penetrant dye applied Excess removed Developer applied
Fig 7.18 – Dye penetrant testing (20 x actual size)
Testing with dye penetrants

In this method, the penetrant (a suitable dye solution, usually red in colour) is drawn
by capillary action into any surface discontinuity. A developer with a chalky base is
then applied to the surface. This chemical dries on contact and is stained by the dye,
which rises to the surface again by capillary action. Pores or cracks are then revealed
as red dots or continuous red lines respectively. The spread of the dye indicates
fairly accurately the size of the flaw. An essential requirement in this method is the
pre-cleaning of the weldment so that the penetrant is not prevented from entering
the discontinuity. The penetrant can be applied either by spraying, painting or by
immersion, the ‘contact’ time varying from a few minutes to about an hour. The excess
penetrant is then removed, either by water in the case of water soluble penetrants,
or by wiping the surface with a rag soaked with solvent. Developer is then applied to
disclose any surface defect which may be present.
The steps involved in this method of inspection are to:
• thoroughly clean scale, grease etc from the surface
• apply the penetrant
• allow sufficient penetration time
• remove all excess penetrant from the surface
• apply the developer
• inspect.
Photographs courtesy of Ardrox Aerospace
Fig 7.19 – Dye penetrant equipment
Testing with fluorescent penetrants

Inspection with fluorescent penetrant is a variant of penetrant testing, in which
penetrant that fluoresces under black light is used. Penetrant is applied to the surface
to be inspected by dipping, spraying or brushing and a period of time from five minutes
upward is allowed for the penetrant to enter any small surface opening through
capillary action. Excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The surface is dried
and a developer is applied, ultimately to form a film of dry powder over the surface to
act as a ‘blotter’ and to draw the fluorescent penetrant back from the defects.
After processing, the surfaces are viewed while illuminated with high-intensity
ultraviolet lights (black lights) in a semi-darkened area. Any defect such as a fine crack
is easily recognised by the glowing, fluorescent line of penetrant.
Leak testing of welded containers is an additional important application of fluorescent
penetrant testing. Wherever such containers are of moderate wall thickness (up to
around 10 mm), it is only necessary to paint one surface, and after allowing sufficient
time, examine the other surface with a portable black light. Leaks such as pores or
cracks passing through the wall are indicated on the uncoated surface by the brilliant
fluorescence of the penetrant.
General advantages of the penetrant method

zz Relatively simple to operate
zz Can be used on non-magnetic materials
zz Provides convincing indications to the Inspector
zz No limitations as to size or shape
zz Adaptable to a production line method, either batch or continuous treatment
zz Particularly suited to the detection of surface cracks.

General limitations of the penetrant method

zz Will only disclose discontinuities open to the surface.
zz The surface of the material must be impervious to the penetrant (unsuitable for
sintered products).
zz Must not react with surface of the material.
zz Must not be temperature sensitive.
zz Unsuitable where penetrants may cause contamination.
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

If a bar magnet is placed beneath a sheet of paper and iron filings sprinkled onto it, the
filings will arrange themselves to show the lines of magnetic force flowing between the
north and south poles of the magnet (Fig 7.20).
Fig 7.20 – The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet
If the magnet is now broken in half, effectively making two magnets, it will be seen that
a concentration of filings now occurs as the lines of force come together (Fig 7.21).
Fig 7.21 – Concentration of iron filings where lines of force meet

Magnetic particle inspection makes use of this, to disclose surface imperfections in
magnetic metals. The method is particularly suited to finding surface cracks and other
surface defects in iron and steel components.
The work piece is ground clean and white background paint may be applied in some
cases. The part is magnetised by one of a number of methods. The most common
and simplest method used to generate a magnetic field is to apply an AC yoke to the
surface of the material. The AC yoke has a coil that produces a magnetic field and has
adjustable legs that connect the magnetic field to the surface. The AC yoke produces
longitudinal magnetic flux lines on the material surface. The other popular method is
to apply a high current flow directly to the material surface. The resultant current flow
produces circular magnetic flux lines on the surface of the material.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig 7.22 – Magnetic particle testing equipment

(a) magnetic coil, (b) permanent magnetic yolk and (c) magnetic yolk

The area to be inspected is then covered with fine magnetic particles, either as a dry
powder or in suspension in a liquid. This is commonly a light, kerosene-based liquid
known as magnetic ink.
Where the crack runs across the lines of magnetic force, the powder will congregate
and disclose the defect. If, however, the crack runs along the lines of magnetic force, it
is highly unlikely that any indication of the defect will be seen.
Once the crack runs at an angle greater than 50º to the magnetic flux, it will be visible.
It is common practice to test twice, the second test being carried out at right angles to
the first so as not to miss any defects that may be present.
Fig 7.23 (a) – Magnetic flux at 50º or greater to crack
Fig 7.23 (b) – Magnetic flux at less than 50º to crack
For most applications, weldments do not require demagnetisation after

magnetic-particle inspection. A strong magnetic field may, however, interfere with
subsequent machining or arc welding operations. Also, if the magnetised part is
to be used in structures such as an aircraft, it may affect sensitive instruments.
Demagnetisation, when required, is accomplished by drawing the part through a high
intensity AC field coil.

Ultrasonic testing
Audible sound has been used in the testing of material since ancient times. It is
possible, especially in the case of ceramics, to detect whether a flaw is present by
listening to the sound emitted when the specimen is tapped.
Very high frequency sounds known as ‘ultrasonic energy’ provide a method for the
non-destructive testing of materials. In many cases this may be used to advantage
instead of, or in association with, other methods of examination. In other cases it
provides a test method when none existed before.
Ultrasonic testing employs waves above the frequency limit of human audibility and
usually in the range 0.6 to 5 MHz. A pulse consisting of a number of these waves is
projected into the specimen under test. If a flaw exists in the specimen an echo is
reflected from it and from the type of echo the kind of flaw can be deduced.
The equipment comprises an electrical unit which generates the electrical oscillations,
a visual display unit on which pulse and echo can be seen and probes which introduce
the waves into the specimen and receive the echo. The electrical oscillations are
converted into ultrasonic waves in a transducer.
To transmit the ultrasonic waves through the metal, a good contact is required between
the probe and test plate, as the waves will not transmit if there is an air gap. For this
reason a thin oil or water film is spread over the test plate and the probe is slid over this
surface.
Oscilloscope screen
The near surface indication
Defect indication
The far
surface Coaxial
indication cable
Transducer
Oil film
Sound waves
reflected from
defect surface
Sound waves Defect

reflected
from far surface
Fig 7.24 – Ultrasonic equipment

Three types of probe are available.

zz A single probe which acts as both transmitter and receiver, the same
‘piezoelectric’ elements transmitting the pulse and receiving the echo. The design
of the probe is complicated in order to prevent reflections within the perspex
block confusing the echo.
zz The twin transmitter-receiver probe in which transmitter and receiver are mounted
together (either side by side or one in front of the other) are quite separate
electrically and ultrasonically, so that there is no trouble with interference from the
echo. This type is the most popular and most common.
zz The separate transmitter and receiver each used independently (two-handed
operation).
To make a ‘length scan’ of the weld, the transmitter-receiver unit is moved continuously
along a line parallel to the welded seam so that all points of the whole area of the
welded joint are covered by the scanning beam. Care must be exercised so that too
high a spread of the beam does not cause double echoes from a single flaw.
Initial
pulse
Flaw
indications
Fig 7.25 – Probe weave pattern
Some of the materials that can be inspected by this method are carbon and low alloy
steels, aluminium, brass, magnesium, monel, steel, stainless steel and other
non-porous metals. The dimensions of the work are usually not critical, suitable
techniques being available for the testing of plate stock as thin as 1.5 mm and larger
structures as long as 6 m. Defects can be indicated to the extent that they are actual
mechanical discontinuities such as cracks, laminations, voids, open welds and
segregations. Extremely small weld defects can be detected, regardless of thickness.

Impulse echo Specimen

apparatus under test
Defect
Crystal
transreceiver
Transmitted Back wall
Defect
Zero Line
Impulse Echo Echo
Fig 7.26 – Oscilloscope screen display
Radiographic testing
This inspection method relies on the ability of short-wave radiation, such as x-rays
or gamma rays, to penetrate thick, dense objects which will not transmit ordinary
light. This method is a most useful and widely applied non-destructive testing method
and many codes specify radiographic examination for all or some of the joints in a
weldment.
Radiography is expensive. It is necessary to visually inspect the weld prior to

radiography. If the weld fails the visual inspection, it is unnecessary to take a
radiograph.
General principle
When x-rays or gamma rays fall onto a metal, their passage is obstructed by the metal
and part of the radiation is absorbed. The extent of this absorption depends upon the
density and thickness of the weld. If a cavity such as a blowhole or crack exists in the
interior of a weld, the radiation beam will have less metal to pass through than in a
sound weld. Consequently, this region will absorb fewer rays.
If we record this variation in absorption on a sensitive film, it will produce an image that
will indicate the presence of the defect. This image is called a ‘radiograph’ (Fig 7.27).

Radiograph reproduced with the permission of Marine Inspection Services
Fig 7.27 – A weld radiograph
The radiation which passes through the specimen strikes the film behind. The radiation
exposes the film so that regions of lower weld density (which allow radiation to pass
through more readily) appear dark on the radiograph in comparison with regions
of higher weld density which absorb more of the radiation. Thus the defects or
discontinuities, being less dense than the base metal, will appear as darkened regions
on the radiograph.
X-rays
X-rays are produced in an electrical apparatus (see Fig 7.28) by placing a high voltage
(60 000 to 180 000 volts) across the ends of two terminals. These are called the
‘cathode’ (negative) and ‘anode’ (positive). They are contained in a vacuum tube and
the high voltage causes a stream of electrons to flow from the cathode to the anode.
When these electrons strike the anode, their high energy causes the anode to give off
heat plus short wave rays which are termed x-rays. These rays will penetrate metal.
Filament Target
(cathode) Cathode ray (anode)
tube
Power +
-
X-rays
Shielding
case
Workpiece
Lead Film
backing cassette
Fig 7.28 – Production of x-rays

X-ray tests
Cracks, slag, blowholes, lack of fusion and all internal defects can readily be detected
by x-ray testing. In general, the testing procedure consists of placing the x-ray tube on
one side of the piece being tested and the film on the other. The time of exposure may
range from a fraction of a minute to several minutes, depending on the power of the
tube and the thickness of the metal. The exposed film is then developed and examined
for defects in the weld.
Gamma rays
Gamma rays are given off by all radioactive materials. In the testing of welds, artificial
radioactive elements called ‘isotopes’ are generally used.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength and high
frequency and they can penetrate solid matter more readily than x-rays. Like x-rays,
they can create an image on a sensitised film.
In the gamma ray testing of welds, the isotopes generally in use are cobalt 60, iridium
192, caesium 137 and thulium 170. Using a radioactive isotope, radiographic pictures
or ‘gammagraphs’ similar to x-ray pictures can be taken without an electricity supply,
with great penetration and at lower cost. The small size of the isotope enables work
that is inaccessible to an x-ray unit to be examined.
Portable isotope Flexible tube

container
Exposed head
Coaxial cable to
control console
Fig 7.29 – Gamma testing equipment
The radiation source is housed in a small but heavy container, lined with lead to contain
the radiation. Requiring no external power and being easy to transport, it is well suited
for on-site and workshop use. When located on the central axis of a pipe or shell, a full
circumferential weld can frequently be radiographed in one exposure.

Radioactive isotope,
ie gamma ray source
Gamma rays
Defect
Film cassette
Developed film strip
Areas of greatest exposure
Fig 7.30 – Gamma radiography
Another application might consist of arranging several large weldments radially around
a capsule containing radium. The films, of course, would be placed on the side of the
weldment opposite to the radium. Gamma ray exposure times are usually longer than
x-ray exposures, but require no attention during exposures.
Radiographs made by gamma rays usually lack the sharpness and contrast that
characterises x-ray radiographs.
Safety precautions
The x-ray or gamma ray operator must be highly trained in the safe use of radiographic
equipment. Besides penetrating the human body, these rays have adverse effects on
certain parts of the body. Leukaemia, anaemia and sterility are the main dangers.
Factory regulations specify that personnel operating x-ray or gamma ray equipment
must either wear film badges or carry dosemeters. Film badges are supplied by a
special service which processes them after they have been worn for a specified time
and reports on the amount of radiation that the wearer has received. A Geiger counter
indicating the intensity of radiation is used to indicate the effectiveness of shielding and
the limits of the area in which it is safe for personnel to work.
Interpretation of radiographs
Experience is necessary to interpret radiographs correctly and to identify defects. The
defect will normally show up as a darker area within the general confines of the weld.
Porosity is usually smooth and usually regular in shape compared with trapped slag,
which is generally irregular in shape. The position of the defect within the weld area is
significant, as it indicates whether the fault is in the root, interpass, or on the surface of
the weld.
Straight lines occurring down the centre of a butt weld indicate that edges along the
root have not been fused. Wider and less clearly defined lines in a similar position
may indicate internal undercut or defects along the toes of the root run. Wider spaced
defects running parallel with the weld can usually be identified as interpass problems,
such as undercut, lack of fusion or slag entrapment at the toes of internal beads.

Contraction cracks will show clearly as sharp lines, but not necessarily straight or
parallel with the weld. Cracks usually appear slightly wavy. Radiography of butt welds
is a relatively simple process, however fillet welds are more difficult to radiograph and
special methods have to be adopted, often using more than one exposure taken from
different angles.
Pressure testing
Where absolute leak tightness of all joints is essential (such as in tanks, pressure
vessels and pipe lines), the soundness of the weld may be tested by the application
of internal pressure. Leaks are discovered by observation or by loss of pressure. The
pressure medium may be water, oil, air, or gas; each one of these having a definite field
of application. Oil, particularly when thin or hot, will frequently penetrate leaks that do
not show up with water under an equal pressure. Air will also leak out more readily than
water and hydrogen will escape where air will not.
Wherever possible when testing to high pressures, hydrostatic (rather than pneumatic)
testing should be used, as liquids are incompressible and will not result in a violent
explosion should the vessel fail. Pneumatic testing is usually restricted to low volume,
low pressure tests.
Non-destructive test methods are summarised in Table 7.2.

Advantages
detection of
Limitations
Equipment
Inspection
Remarks
required
Enables
method
Magnifying EXTERNAL Low cost. Applicable Should always

glass. DEFECTS: to surface be the primary
Can be defects only. method of
Weld size Cracks, applied while inspection,
gauge. porosity, work is in Provides no no matter
unfilled progress, permanent what other
Pocket rule. craters, slag permitting record. techniques
Straight edge. inclusions, correction of
VISUAL
are required.
warpage, faults.
Workmanship under
standards. welding, Gives
over-welding, indication
poorly formed of incorrect
beads, procedure.
misalignment,
improper
fit-up.
Commercial EXTERNAL Applicable to Only surface In thin-walled
kits, DEFECTS: magnetic and defects are vessels will
LIQUID PENETRANT
containing non-magnetic detectable. reveal leaks.

fluorescent Surface materials.
or dye cracks not Cannot Irrelevant
penetrants readily visible Easy to use. be used surface
and to the unaided effectively condition
eye. Low cost. on hot (smoke, slag)
developers.
assemblies. may give
Excellent for misleading
locating leaks indications.
in weldments.
Special EXTERNAL Simpler to Applicable Elongated

commercial DEFECTS: use than to ferro- defects
equipment. radio-graphic magnetic parallel to the
Surface inspection. materials only. magnetic field
Magnetic discontinuities
MAGNETIC PARTICLE
may not give

powders – dry – especially Relatively low Requires pattern. For
or wet form. surface cost method. skill in this reason
cracks. interpretation the field
Black light of indications
may be should be
and applied from
required recognition
for viewing two directions
of irrelevant at or near
fluorescent patterns.
penetrants. right angles to
Difficult to each other.
use on rough
surfaces.

Advantages
detection of
Limitations
Equipment
Inspection
Remarks
required
Enables
method
X-ray Cracks, When the Requires skill X-ray

equipment porosity, indications in choosing inspection
or gamma blowholes, are recorded angles of is required
radiation slag on film, gives exposure, by many
source. inclusions, a permanent operating codes and
incomplete record. equipment specifications.
Facilities for root and
processing penetration, interpreting Useful in
and qualification
RADIOGRAPHIC
undercutting, indication.
viewing of excessive of operators
radiographs. penetration. Requires and welding
safety procedures.
Virtually all precautions.
internal and Because of
external Not generally cost, its use
defects in suitable for should be
which there is fillet weld limited to
a reduction in inspection. those areas
the through- where other
thickness methods will
of the test not provide
specimen. the assurance
required.
Special INTERNAL Very sensitive Requires high Pulse-echo
commercial AND degree of skill equipment
equipment EXTERNAL Permits in interpreting is highly
either of the DEFECTS: probing pulse-echo developed
pulse-echo or of joints patterns. for weld
transmission Surface inaccessible inspection
type. and sub- to Permanent purposes.
surface flaws, radiography. record is
ULTRASONIC
Standard including not easily The

reference those too obtained. transmission-
pattern for small to be type
interpretation detected equipment
of RF or video by other simplifies
pattern. methods. pattern
interpretation
Especially where it is
for detecting applicable.
sub-surface
lamination-like
defects.
Water Water/air Low cost. Can only be Care should
pumps or air tightness applied in be applied
compressors. leaks through Sensitive. last stages of when carrying
PRESSURE
weldments in fabrication. out pneumatic

Pressure tanks, boilers, testing. All
gauges and etc. air must be
piping. excluded
when hydro-
static testing.
Table 7.2 – Summary of NDT methods

Destructive testing
Destructive testing can be divided into two areas.
zz laboratory-type mechanical tests to measure the properties of weld metal and the
heat-affected parent metal
zz workshop-type mechanical tests to prove weld metal acceptability and freedom
from significant defects.
Weld specimens for testing can be obtained as extensions of actual welded joints, as
separate but representative welds carried out either before or concurrently with actual
work, or from welded test plates.
Mechanical tests provide information about the ‘mechanical properties’ of a metal.
Mechanical testing machines are normally situated in a laboratory and operated by
specialist personnel. Consequently the welding operator is more concerned with
results than the actual tests. The welder should be aware of the tests available and the
properties being tested.
The properties which these tests will disclose are as follows.
zz Ductility – The ability of a material to be permanently deformed without failure,
ie to be bent or drawn. Brittleness is a term used to describe a lack of ductility.
zz Toughness – The ability of a metal to withstand shock loading. A tough metal has
a good resistance to impact.
zz Hardness – The resistance a metal has to forcible penetration by another
substance. A hard metal resists scratching or wear.
zz Malleability – The property of a metal that enables it to be rolled or hammered
into thinner sheets or shaped by forging. Most metals are more malleable when
hot.
zz Elasticity –The ability of a metal to stretch and then return to its original shape
and size when the forces causing it to stretch are released. Elasticity and ductility
must not be confused.
zz Tenacity (tensile strength) – The ability of a metal to resist a force that is acting
directly to pull it apart.
The mechanical properties of metals determine their suitability for different purposes.
High tensile properties are necessary for some uses, whereas hardness and wear
resistance are required for other applications. Tests are also used to measure the
effects of heat treatment or mechanical working to which the metal has been subjected,
thereby assisting in the control of manufacturing processes.
Laboratory type destructive tests

Four types of mechanical tests are commonly used to provide information on material
properties. These are:
zz tensile tests
zz hardness tests
zz impact tests
zz fatigue tests.

Tensile tests
In this type of test, a specially prepared sample of the metal is subjected to a steadily
increasing load acting to pull it apart and is stressed until failure occurs. During the test,
both the load and the increase in length are constantly noted and the results are plotted
on a graph (Fig 7.31).
Load Ultimate
kN tensile load
Yield Breaking
point load
Proportional
limit
Plastic range Necking Extension (mm)
Elastic
range
Fig 7.31 – Stress/strain diagram for tensile testing of low carbon steel
A tensile test will disclose information about the test specimen regarding its:
zz ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
zz yield strength
zz elasticity
zz ductility.
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

UTS is the greatest tensile force that a test piece can withstand prior to failure.
Yield strength
Some metals (particularly low carbon steels) exhibit a noticeable yield point during
tensile testing. When this point is reached, the metal will be seen to continue to stretch
with no increase in load. In some cases the load will even decrease. Not all metals
exhibit a noticeable yield point; for example, it is not evident in high strength steels.

Elasticity
When the load is first applied to a tensile test specimen, the increase in length is
directly proportional to the load. If this load is released, the test specimen will return to
its original length, provided that the elastic limit of the material has not been exceeded.
Once the elastic limit of the material is exceeded, permanent deformation will begin to
occur.
Ductility
Ductility will enable the metal to stretch prior to failure, due to the tensile force being
applied. Ductility is an important property as it enables metals to be bent or rolled
during fabrication and to withstand shrinkage forces due to welding.
The ductility of the metal is expressed as a percentage as this allows for direct
comparison between metals. This percentage can be calculated as either:
zz % elongation, or
zz % reduction of area.
Prior to tensile testing, the specimen is marked at two points and the distance between
them is noted as the ‘gauge length’.
Gauge
length
Cross
section Extension
Fig 7.32 – Tensile test specimens

Once the test piece has been stressed to failure, the two pieces are placed back
together and the increase in the gauge length is noted (see Fig 7.32). These two
distances are used to calculate ductility using one of the following formulas.
increase in length x 100

% elongation =
original length
decrease in cross-sectional area x 100

% reduction of area =
original cross-sectional area
Example 1
Consider a test piece of a gauge length of 50 mm which stretched 12 mm prior to
failure.
increase in length x 100
% elongation =
original length
= 12 x 100
50
= 24% elongation
Example 2
Consider a specimen whose original diameter was 10 mm, where this diameter was
reduced to 8 mm at the point of fracture.
Original area = � D2
4
= � x 10 x 10
4
= 79 mm2
� D2
Decreased area =
4
�x8x8
=
4
= 50 mm2
Reduction of area = 79 - 50 = 29 mm2
decrease in cross-sectional area x 100
% reduction of area =
original cross-sectional area
29 x 100
=
79
= 37% reduction of area

Hardness tests
The hardness of a material is an important property in itself, but measurement of
hardness will also provide a useful indicator with respect to tensile strength, ductility
and impact resistance. In general, the harder of two metals of similar composition has
the higher tensile strength, lower ductility and more resistance to abrasive wear. High
hardness also indicates low impact strength, although some steels when properly heat
treated have both high hardness and good impact strength.
To the welder, the hardness of the metal will give an indication of its weldability.
Generally the harder the metal, the lower its weldability. The hardness of a weld’s HAZ
is important as it can give a reliable indication of susceptibility to underbead cracking
and suitability of a welding procedure.
There are four main methods of hardness testing, three of which involve measuring the
resistance that a metal has to indentation.
Brinell hardness test

The Brinell test employs the use of a hardened steel ball of 10 mm diameter which
is pressed into the surface of the metal with a load of 3 000 kg. The diameter of the
impression is measured with a special microscope and the reading is converted by
consulting a table.
Soft iron is about 100 BHN and file-hard steel about 600 BHN.
Brinell readings are listed as BHN (Brinell Hardness Number).
Rockwell hardness tests

In the Rockwell method of hardness testing, the penetrator is smaller and the loads are
lighter than in the Brinell method.
When testing comparatively hard materials, a diamond cone is pressed into the metal
with a load of 150 kg. The depth of impression is indicated on a dial and the reading is
referred to the ‘Rockwell C’ scale of hardness.
To determine the hardness of softer metals the diamond is replaced by a steel ball of
1.5 mm diameter and a load of 100 kg. The reading is then given on the ‘Rockwell B’
scale.

Applied Rockwell
Weight
weight gauge
release lever
Penetrating
ball
Test sample
Adjustable
table
Fig 7.33 (a) – Hardness testing by the ‘Rockwell B’ method
Fig 7.33 (b) – Rockwell hardness tester

The Vickers hardness test consists of pressing the point of a square-based diamond
pyramid into the surface of a specimen with a predetermined load. The load is
maintained for a set period and then automatically released.
The surface impression appears as a dark square on a light background.
Measurements are taken across the diagonals of the impression by means of a special
measuring microscope and the actual hardness figure is then obtained by referring to a
chart, or calculated by the following formula.
load
DPN (Diamond Pyramid Number) = contact area of impression
Shore scleroscope hardness test
Another method of testing hardness is to use a Shore direct reading scleroscope.

This instrument consists of a small diamond-pointed hammer, weighing 2 grams,
which is allowed to fall freely from a height of 254 mm down a glass tube onto the test
specimen. The distance that the hammer rebounds after it contacts the specimen can
be read on the scale on the machine. The hardness of the metal as indicated by the
scale number will range from 0–140. The higher the number, the harder the metal. A
high carbon steel will indicate about 95 points on the scale.
Impact testing
Impact testing measures the toughness of a metal, ie its ability to withstand shock
loading.
It has been found that the ability of a material to withstand impact depends not only on
the velocity of the impact, but also on the temperature of the material and the presence
or otherwise of notches in the material. Certain steels become quite brittle at low
temperatures, as do the welds which join them. It may be necessary to carry out impact
tests at various temperatures to fully establish a metal’s suitability for use. Tests may
be carried out on parent metal, weld metal, or the weld HAZ.
In the impact test, a weighted pendulum swinging from a predetermined height strikes a
notched test specimen. The distance that the pendulum swings through after fracturing
the specimen is dependent on the amount of energy required to break the specimen.
This distance is recorded by a pointer, the energy absorbed being measured in Joules.
Common impact tests differ in the dimensions for the test piece and the way in which
each is supported. In the Izod test, the specimen is held vertically in a vice by one end
only. The hammer strikes the end protruding from the vice.
The Charpy test employs a specimen which is supported at both ends, lying in the
horizontal position. The sharp end of the hammer strikes the test piece in the centre.
Impact testing is illustrated in Fig 7.34.

Moving
pointer
Pendulum
Graduated
quadrant
Test
piece
Striking
knife edge
Anvil, vice or
support
Blo
w
Vice Blo
w Blo
w
Vice
Support Blo
w
Support
(a) Izod (b) Charpy
Fig 7.34 – Impact testing (a) Izod and (b) Charpy
Fatigue testing
A knowledge of the metal’s tensile properties makes possible the design and fabrication
of a structure that will support a steady load pulling in one direction. These properties,
however, do not indicate the strength a metal will have if used in a structure where
the load is applied first in one direction and then in another. When alternating load is
applied, the loading on the component alternates between compression and tension.
Alternating stresses are present in such components as axles, connecting rods,
transmission shafts, boiler drums and pressurised storage tanks.
Metals will fail at a lower stress under a changing load than if the load were steady.
Failure under a cyclic load is called ‘fatigue failure’.
Fatigue failure is invariably triggered off by some surface imperfection such as
inclusions near or on the surface, undercut, overlap, excessive build-up, or even
grinding marks. Failures start at the surface as tiny cracks which spread into the metal
until failure occurs.

Fatigue tests are made by subjecting a test specimen to varying loads. Tests may be
made by:
zz bending the specimen alternately in one direction and then the other
zz applying and removing tensile loads.
For practical purposes, 10 000 000 cycles is taken as the number of reversals which
a specimen must withstand to establish the endurance limit. It is considered that a
metal able to withstand a given stress for this number of cycles will continue to do so
indefinitely.
Practical type destructive tests

These can be easily carried out in most workshops as no sophisticated equipment is
required. Practical tests most commonly used to examine weld quality are:
zz bend tests
zz nick-break tests
zz fillet weld break tests
zz macro testing.
Bend testing
Bend tests will give an indication of the ductility of the metal, but bend tests are
primarily used to disclose defects such as lack of fusion or inclusions in the weld.
Tests may be free bend tests, where bending is free to occur at any point, or guided
bend tests where the location of the bend is closely controlled.
When bend testing weld specimens, three types of tests are used:
zz root bend test
zz face bend test
zz side bend test.
The tests are identified by stating the surface of the weld test specimen that is placed
in tension. For thinner plates, root and face bends are common. When welds in thick
plates are being tested, side bend tests are usually employed.

Test
piece
Weld Weld
face root
(a) (b)
Fig 7.35 – Bend testing (a) face bend, (b) root bend
Preparation of specimens and acceptance standards for bend testing

The preparation of specimens for bend testing and the position from which they are
cut must comply with the relevant code. Specimens are normally prepared as the full
thickness of the material with weld reinforcement removed. Cut edges are dressed
smooth and corners rounded slightly to a radius not exceeding 10% of material
thickness. The acceptance standards are also clearly defined in relevant codes;
AS 1796 may be referred to as an example.
Nick-break tests
The nick-break test is used to reveal the presence of internal defects such as
porosity, slag inclusions and lack of fusion. This test may also give an indication of the
toughness of the metal, as some distortion may take place prior to fracture.
In the nick-break test, the weld reinforcement is not removed and the specimen is
not dressed in any way. Saw cuts are made at both sides of the weld and the test
specimen is supported on edge and broken by pressing or by sharp blows. Fig 7.36
illustrates a typical nick-break specimen.
200 mm min
Direction of blow
2 mm 25 mm
min
Support Saw-cut Support
150 mm approx
Fig 7.36 – Nick-break testing

Fillet weld break tests

The fillet weld break test is used to reveal the presence of internal defects such as slag
inclusions, lack of root or sidewall fusion and porosity or wormholes.
The completed fillet weld test is located on a suitable flat surface, as shown in Fig 7.37
and fractured by steady loading or by blows.
Direction
of load
Fig 7.37 – Fillet break testing
Acceptance standards may be obtained by reference to the relevant code.
Macro examination
Both fillet and butt welded structures are macro tested to show the weld, the fusion
zone and surrounding area. A small cross section is removed from a competed weld
and polished using various grades of grit paper until its surface has a mirror finish. The
surface is then etched using an acid solution. This highlights:
zz the weld
zz the number of runs used to complete the joint
zz the level of penetration and fusion zone
zz the HAZ
zz any defects.
Different etching solutions are used for different metals. It is important that thermal
cutting processes are not used to cut the test specimen from the plate, as these will
recrystallise the metal adjacent to the cut, which when polished and etched will give
misleading information about the grain structure.

Surface dressed
smoothly before
polishing
Test piece
Polished surface
etched with acid
Highlighted
weld structure
Fig 7.38 – Macro testing

Chapter 8 – Weld preparation and set up
Introduction
zz Weld preparation and workmanship
{{ selection of joint type
{{ effective area
{{ preparation of plate edges for butt welds.

Weld preparation and workmanship

By definition (according to AS/NZS 1554.1) welds may be one of four basic types:
zz fillet weld
zz butt weld
zz pad weld (surfacing)
zz plug and slot weld.
Welds may be singular, or combined to produce compound welds.

Plug and slot welds and pad welds are not commonly used in general fabrication and
welding and will not be considered in this text.
Selection of joint type

The type of joint depends on three factors.
zz Intensity of loading – Butt welds are better able to transfer stress because of
the fact that stress lines act closer to the neutral axis when forces are essentially
static, as in buildings for example. Fillet welds tend to have indirect stress lines
and therefore may concentrate stress at the root or toes of the weld.
zz Ease of welding – Fillet welds are generally simpler to construct and fit-up and
require less operator skill.
zz Cost – Fillet welds are generally cheaper to produce as the cost of weld
preparation and fit-up for butt welds is often considerable.

Stress lines follow

a smooth line
through the weld –
less stress Stress Compression of
lines stress lines raises
stress here
Fig 8.1 (a) – Stress flow in fillet welds
Compression of
stress lines raises
Stress lines stress here (stress
Concentration point)
Stress lines follow

a smooth line
through the weld –
less stress
Fig 8.1 (b) – Stress flow in butt welds

Fillet welds
A fillet weld is a weld approximately triangular in cross-section lying external to the
planes of the parts being joined.
Throat Reinforcement
thickness Toe
Effective Leg length

throat ce
thickness ldfa
We
Parent metal
Heat affected Depth of
zone (HAZ) Leg length penetration
Root
Fig 8.2 – Parts of a fillet weld
zz Parent metal – the parts to be jointed.

zz Root – where the parts to be joined are in the closest proximity.
zz Face – the exposed surface of the weld.
zz Toe – where the weld face meets the parent metal.
zz Depth of fusion – the degree to which the weld penetrates the parent metal.
zz Leg length – the distance from the root to the toe.
zz Actual throat thickness – the distance from the root to the weld face, measured
through the centre of the weld.
zz Design throat thickness – the distance from the root to the hypotenuse of a
triangle lying wholly within the weld (used for design calculations).
zz Reinforcement – the distance between the design throat thickness and the actual
throat thickness.

Fillet weld configuration
The weld configuration relates to the relationship of the plates to be joined. The joint
types may be made in various positions, eg flat or vertical.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 8.3 – Fillet weld configurations (a) T joint, (b) outside corner
(c) lap or edge weld
Lap joints
The minimum overlap for parts carrying stress is five times the thickness of the thinner
part joined. Both ends of the lap require welding.
eg min lap on 2 x 6 mm plates = 5 x 6 mm = 30 mm
min lap on 5 plate lapped onto 8 mm plate 5 x 5 mm = 25 mm
Min. 5t
Fig 8.4 – Lap joint
Fillet weld profile

Three fillet profiles are possible.
Convex Mitre Concave
(a) (b) (c)
Fig 8.5 – Fillet weld profile (a) convex, (b) mitre (c) concave

Ideally, fillet welds will be slightly convex. It should be noted that concave fillet welds
require longer leg lengths to meet the requirements of nominal size.
Fillet weld size

The amount of fillet weld required to obtain the necessary strength may be specified in
one of two ways:
zz nominal size
zz effective area.
Nominal size
The nominal size of a fillet weld is the length of the leg of a triangle that can be
inscribed wholly within the cross section of the weld. Where a gap exists in the root of
the joint, a reduction in the nominal size may be made.
Fig 8.6 – Nominal size
Where the amount of weld required is specified on an engineering drawing by nominal

size, it will be specified by stating the length of weld of the required size; for example,
200 mm of 6 mm fillet or continuous 8 mm fillet.
The preferred sizes for fillet welds are: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 and 12 mm.
Design throat thickness

For stress calculations, the design throat thickness (DTT) is used.
The DTT of a fillet weld is the shortest distance from the root of the weld to the weld
face without reinforcement. The DTT is approximately 0.707% of the leg size.
For example, the DTT of a 10 mm fillet x 0.707 = 7 mm.

Reinforcement
DTT DTT
L S L S
90°
L S
L L
(a) Equal leg convex fillet (b) Equal leg concave fillet
DTT
DTT
L S L S
GAP
S1 S
L1 L
(c) Unequal leg fillet (d) Fillet weld with a gap

S & S1 = size
L & L1 = length Fig 8.7 – Design throat thickness (DTT)
DTT = design throat thickness
Effective length
The length of weld which is of the specified size (including end returns).
Effective area
The amount of weld required may also be expressed in terms of effective area.
The effective area of a weld is the effective length multiplied by the design throat
thickness (DTT).

Example 1
What is the effective area of 400 mm of 8 mm fillet weld?
DTT
EL
Fig 8.8 – Weld effective area
Design throat thickness = 0.7 x nominal size

= 0.7 X 8
= 5.6 mm
Effective area = Effective length x design throat thickness

400 X 5.6
2240 mm2

Example 2
A lifting lug requires 1600 mm2 of fillet weld to provide the necessary strength.
What length of 10 mm fillet is required?
Design throat thickness 0.7 x nominal size
0.7 x 10 mm = 7 mm
Effective area
= design throat thickness x effective length
effective area
Effective length =
design throat thickness

1600
=
7
= 228
Required length of 10 mm fillet is 230 mm.
Use of the effective area method allows the fabricator flexibility in the welding process.
eg If an effective area of 2000 mm2 were specified:
200 mm of 10 mm DTT Fillet = 2000 mm2
400 mm of 5 mm DTT Fillet = 2000 mm2
End returns
Welds terminating at the ends or sides of parts of members should, whenever possible,
be returned around the corners for a distance of not less than twice the nominal size of
the weld. The weld carried around the corner is not taken into account for purposes of
strength calculations, as this is counted as the allowance for start and finish of the weld
(Fig 8.9).
2 x nominal size
Fig 8.9 – End returns

Intermittent fillet welds

There are many applications where the required strength can be achieved without
the need for a continuously welded joint. Where this is the case, it is common to use
intermittent fillet welds. There are two types of intermittent fillet welds.
(a) (b)
Fig 8.10 – Intermittent fillet welds (a) chain welds and (b) staggered welds
Any section of intermittent fillet welding shall have an effective length of not less than
four times the weld size, with a minimum length of 40 mm.
The clear spacing between the effective lengths of each weld carrying stress shall not
exceed the following number of times the thickness of the thinner part joined:
• 16 times for compression
• 24 times for tension and in no case be more than 300 mm.
Chain intermittent welding is preferred to staggered intermittent welding.
Where staggered intermittent welding is used, the welds on each side of the parts
joined shall be continued to the end of the part.

Fillet welds failure
Fillet welds should not be left unwelded on the opposite side of the joint, except where
any stress is shared by other members or where the joint is adequately supported.
Force
Weld breaks
easily
(a) Welded on side (b) Force opposed by

low resistance
HV fillets
Force
Weld breaks
Weld breaks
Force
(c) Corner fillets (d) Corner fillets
Weld Weld
Force breaks breaks
Tendency
to open
(e) Lap or edge fillets (f) Lap or edge fillets

Fig 8.11 – Fillet welds welded one side

Butt welds
Butt welds are used to join metal products such as sheet, plate and rolled and pressed
sections. This type of joint has the advantage of giving high strength without changing
the profile of the structure. Butt welds are better able to transfer stress than fillet welds
and are preferred for live or cyclic loading.
Industrial uses for butt welds include:
zz boiler and pressure vessel construction
zz ship building
zz earth moving equipment
zz aircraft and submarines.
Butt weld terminology

The terminology that applies to the parts of a fillet weld applies equally to butt welds,
the major difference being design throat thickness which in a full penetration butt weld
is equal to the plate thickness. The terms concerned with the preparation for butt welds
require explanation at this stage.
Toe
Heat affected
zone (HAZ)
Throat thickness
ace
df
el
Reinforcement W
Parent metal
Depth of
penetration
Effective HAZ Depth of root
throat thickness bead ‘penetration’
Fig 8.12 – Butt weld definitions

Weld root
The portion of the weld where the parts to be joined are in the closest proximity to each
other.
Root face
That portion of the prepared edge of a part to be joined by a butt weld that has not
been bevelled. This unbevelled section will support the first run of weld metal deposited
in the groove.
Root face
Fig 8.13 – Root face
Root gap
The separation between parts to be joined by a butt weld. The gap is for the purpose of
ensuring, as far as possible, complete fusion or penetration through the full thickness of
metal.
Root gap
Fig 8.14 – Root gap
Angle of bevel
The angle of the prepared edge of a component bevelled for welding.
Angle of
bevel
Fig 8.15 – Angle of bevel

Included angle
The angle between the fusion faces of components prepared for welding.
Included
angle
Fig 8.16 – Included angle
Throat thickness
The distance from the root to the weld face measured through the centre of the weld.
Throat
thickness
Fig 8.17 – Throat thickness
Design throat thickness (DTT)

In a full penetration butt weld, the DTT is equal to the thickness of the thinner part
joined.
Design
throat
thickness
Fig 8.18 – Design throat thickness

Reinforcement
Reinforcement in a butt weld is the term given to the metal lying outside of the planes
of the parts being joined.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Fig 8.19 – Reinforcement
Preparation of plate edges for butt welds

Workmanship
In most cases, especially when joining metal of considerable thickness, it is difficult to
execute satisfactory butt welds unless the edges to be joined are adequately prepared.
Sheet metal and thin plate may be welded without preparation, but for metal over
6 mm in thickness the edges must be prepared in such a way as to provide a ‘V’ or ‘U’
shaped groove in which the weld metal is deposited, so allowing for complete fusion or
penetration through the full thickness of the metal.
Failure to properly prepare the edges may lead to the production of faulty welds, as
the correct manipulation of the electrode may be impeded and/or the desired degree of
penetration may not be achieved.
Plates prepared for welding by flame cutting should have an even surface free from
cracks, notches or grooves. Machine flame cut surfaces are preferred to hand flame
cut surfaces. Scale, slag, rust and any grease or paint in the weld vicinity should be
removed. Imperfections on bevelled edges may be removed by filing or grinding.
Pre-heat may be required when flame cutting weld preparation on hardenable

steels, particularly in heavy thicknesses.

Plates that have been cut by shearing or bevelling machines should have all burrs and
irregularities removed before welding and may also require a dressing by grinding.
Parts should be aligned correctly. Weld preparation is commonly applied by:
zz shearing
zz grinding
zz machining
zz flame or plasma cutting
zz arc or flame gouging.
Butt welds can be either a ‘complete penetration butt weld’ where fusion exists through
the full thickness of the joint, or an ‘incomplete penetration butt weld’ where the depth
of the weld is less than the thickness of the plates joined.
At this stage it is only intended to discuss complete penetration butt welds and even
here the types of butt welds referred to will be the more common types. Additional
information can be gained by referring to AS/NZS 1554, Part 1.
Types of butt welds

Butt welds are made between the edges of abutting plates and are generally described
according to the way these edges are prepared. The edge preparation chosen for
a particular type of joint must generally ensure that complete penetration can be
achieved with minimum weld metal and effort, while bearing in mind other relevant
factors such as:
zz the accessibility of the joint to be welded – whether it can be welded from both
sides of the joint or only one
zz the position of the joint to be welded, ie vertical, horizontal or flat.
The type of butt weld selected for a particular job is usually the one which is easiest
and cheapest to make when all other factors have been considered.
Edge preparation and specification

The various types of edge preparation in common use for the welding of steels are as
follows.
Closed square butt joint

The edges are not prepared and are fitted together without a gap. This preparation is
suitable for steel up to 3 mm thick and is welded from both sides.
t = 3 max.
Fig 8.20 – Closed square butt

Open square butt
The edges are not prepared but are separated slightly to allow fusion through the
full thickness of the plate. The gap is equal to half the plate thickness + or - 1.5 mm.
Suitable for steel up to 6 mm in thickness, but must be welded from both sides.
t = 6 max.
t
G=
2
Fig 8.21 – Open square butt
Open square butt joint with permanent backing material

This type of joint is used when welding plates up to 6 mm thick, where welding is
possible from one side only. The gap is equal to the plate thickness. Complete fusion of
the weld into the backing material must be obtained.
G=t
t = 6 max.
Backing material
Fig 8.22 – Open square butt with backing material

Single V butt joint

Used on steel up to 12 mm thick and on metal of greater thickness where access from
both sides is difficult. Where possible, the back of the first run must be cleaned out and
the job completed by deposition of a backing run.
60 –70
RF = 3 max.
G = 2–5 mm
Fig 8.23 – Single V butt
Single-bevel butt joint

Applications for single-bevel butt joints are as for single V joints described above.
45
RF = 3 max.
G = 2–5 mm
Fig 8.24 – Single-bevel butt

Double V butt joint
Used on plate 12 mm and over when welding can be applied from both sides. It allows
a reduction in weld metal compared to a single V preparation on the same thickness of
steel. This type of preparation also tends to minimise distortion, as the weld contraction
is equal on each side of the joint. Not usually economical on steel over 50 mm thick.
60o–70o
RF = 3 max.
G = 2–5 mm
Fig 8.25 – Double V butt
Double-bevel butt joint

Applications for double-bevel butt joints are as for double V joints described previously.
45
RF = 2–5mm
G = 2–5mm
Fig 8.26 – Double-bevel butt

J and U joint
Where the weld metal volume required is large (in thick joints), the basic shape of the
preparation may be modified.
Fig 8.27 – Single J butt
Fig 8.28 – Single U butt
(a)
(b)
Fig 8.29 – (a) Double J, (b) double U butt welds

Transition joints
When butt welds are completed between materials of different thicknesses, the edges
must be chamfered to allow the smooth transition of stress or tension. The maximum
slope or transition at the edges is 1:1.
1I
Chamfer before 1
1 1
welding
1
1
(a) (b) Chamfering thicker part
Remove after
Equal to t or less welding
t t
(c) Transition through sloping

weld face & chamfering
1
1
Chamfer
Narrow plate
1 Butt joint
Wider plate 1
(d) Chamfering wider part of unequal width plates
Fig 8.30 Transition joints

Backing runs
Where possible, complete penetration butt welds should be welded from both sides.
The back of the root run should be gouged and/or ground to clean metal to ensure
complete penetration of the backing run.
Backing material
Backing material is used to support the root run of a butt weld, or to provide a sound
weld through the full plate thickness when access is possible from one side only.
Permanent backing material is known as a backing strip. Temporary backing material is
known as a backing bar.
Backing strips are fused into the weld and:
zz should be no less than 3 mm thick and be of sufficient size to ensure they are not
burnt through
zz have weldability not less than that of the parent metal
zz fit as close as possible, with a maximum gap between the parent metal and the
backing strip of 1.5 mm.
Here are some points to remember.

zz Test welds should be carried out to ensure the suitability of amperage/root face/
gap combinations. Frequent tacks and a consistent gap should be used.
zz For economy, an electrode of the largest possible size should be employed and
where possible welding carried out in the downhand position.
zz Small variations in gap or root face dimensions can significantly affect penetration
and fusion in the root of a joint. Accuracy and consistency of weld preparation
and fit-up is essential.

Chapter 9 – Weld procedures
Introduction
The objective in establishing welding procedures is to develop the best and most
economic means of producing welds to a set standard.
Once a suitable procedure has been established and proved suitable for use and
providing that suitably trained and qualified welders are employed, the welds that result
should consistently prove fit for purpose.
zz Definitions
zz The necessity for welding procedures
{{ obtaining the welding procedure specification
{{ application of code books
{{ carbon equivalent
{{ calculation of pre-heat
{{ Australian Standard® specifications
{{ selection of consumables
{{ qualification by testing
{{ writing a welding procedure qualification/specification (WPQ).

Definitions
Welder certification – Shows the ability of a welder to pass an examination in welding
competency, to a minimum acceptance standard (eg AS 1796). It does not indicate
current competency nor the welder’s ability to complete specific weldments to code
requirements. Welder certification is portable.
Welder qualification – The ability of a welder to execute welding to a given procedure
specification, at a particular place and/or time, on a particular type of weldment.
Generally, welder qualification is not portable and becomes redundant at the end of a
contract or after a specific period of time.
Welding procedure – A specific, pre-planned course of action followed to complete
a particular weldment. Procedures may be informal (passed to welders verbally) or
formal such as written instructions to be followed.
Welding procedure qualification (WPQ) – A welding procedure setting out proposed
variables for a proposed production weldment. The procedure is then used by a welder
to make a test weld(s), which must then undergo a series of tests (destructive and/or
non-destructive) to ‘prove’ the procedure. Once qualified, a welding procedure usually
has no time limitation – it remains in force indefinitely.
Welding procedure test – Completion and testing of a weldment, representative of
that to be used in production, in order to prove the feasibility of a proposed welding
procedure.
Qualified welding procedure – Also known as the following.
zz Welding procedure specification (WPS) – A documented welding procedure
that has been approved by the inspecting authority (and client), either by means
of testing, or by documentary proof of previous satisfactory welding of joints to
which that procedure applies.
zz Procedure qualification record (PQR) – A record of the welding procedure and
test results with all amendments, kept for future reference and possible use in
other weldments. In fully traceable weldments, a record of qualified welders (and
the joints they welded) is also required.
zz Production weld test (PT) – A production test is normally a part of production
welding. A test coupon may be cut from the product, or an extension piece may
be welded to the end of a production joint. If neither is practical, sometimes
a test plate welded to represent production as closely as possible may be
acceptable. The production test weld is then tested to ensure weld quality is
being maintained.

The necessity for welding procedures

A welding procedure provides:
zz information stating the precise methods of completing weldments
zz clients with relevant information to satisfy themselves that the weldments are
correctly welded and quality is assured
zz the basis of in-house inspection, client inspection and use by the inspecting
authority and a means of quality assurance
zz a start point for investigation and repair in the event of defective welding that may
occur during fabrication or failure in subsequent service
zz basic information required for subsequent repair procedures.
Each manufacturer (or sub-contractor) is responsible for all welding they complete
and are therefore responsible for writing, qualifying and recording their own welding
procedures. Alternatively, procedures qualified by the client may be used. The welding
procedure specification should contain all the necessary information that the operator
needs to make the weld. The document should be clear, concise and easily understood
by the operator. A clear, complete WPS will reduce the amount of supervision required
and maximise weld quality.
Obtaining the welding procedure specification

There are three ways of obtaining a welding procedure specification:
zz use of an existing procedure
zz use of a ‘pre-qualified’ procedure
zz welding procedure approval.
Use of an existing welding procedure

Procedures previously qualified may be used for subsequent jobs, providing that the
work is not outside the scope of the procedure and all documentation is recorded. This
is common practice where a company carries out a certain type of work on a repetitive
basis.
Use of a ‘pre-qualified’ procedure

It is not necessary to carry out WPQ testing in all cases, as it is possible to ‘pre-qualify’
procedures. For example, AS/NZS 1554.1 covers the welding of steel structures using
steels with minimum yield strength not exceeding 450 MPa. These steels exhibit good
weldability and present little likelihood of weld cracking and mechanical properties are
not significantly affected by welding.
On this basis AS/NZS 1554.1 allows for pre-qualified welding procedures provided that
the parent metal, weld preparation, welding consumables and workmanship standards
all comply with the requirements of the relative clauses of the code. Qualification
testing is not required in such circumstances.
Other codes also provide for the use of pre-qualified procedures. Pre-qualified
procedures are usually restricted to the welding of steels that present little likelihood of
cracking.

Welding procedure approval

Where existing or pre-qualified procedures are unavailable, it will be necessary to
develop and qualify a procedure.
Where procedures and welding operator approvals are required, fabricators must take
the following actions prior to production:
zz write up a proposed welding procedure (WPQ)
zz qualify the procedure by testing
zz record all details of welding procedure qualification as a WPS.
All of the factors that need to be considered when writing a WPQ cannot be dealt with
here, as many of these factors depend upon the application code, welding process and
other variables. There are however some considerations which need to be addressed.
These are:
zz application of code books
zz carbon equivalent
zz calculation of pre-heat
zz qualification range
zz selection of consumables.
Application of code books

The most important clause in any code book is the ‘scope’ clause. The scope clause
details the applicability of the code; eg the scope clause of AS/NZS 1554.1 states
that the code applies to the welding of steel structures using steels with a maximum
specified minimum yield strength of 500 MPa. Anything else is outside the scope of this
code.
Once you have determined from the scope clause that you have the correct code
for the application, it must then be established that you have the correct edition.
The edition of the code should be the one stated in the specification. As frequent
amendments to code books are published, these should be taken into account.
Carbon equivalent
Carbon has a greater effect on the properties of steel than any other element. We
know by now that increased levels of carbon in steel bring about improvements in the
properties of hardness and tensile strength, but that they also increase hardenability
and reduce ductility.
Increases in carbon content will produce a harder and more brittle heat-affected
zone due to welding and this must be taken into account when formulating welding
procedures.

General guidelines
Low carbon steel (< 0.3%) Generally weldable with any grade of consumable
without pre-heat, except for heavy thickness.
Medium carbon steel (0.3% – 0.5% C) Usually require hydrogen-controlled consumable and
increases in pre-heat as carbon content hardness and
thickness increases.
High carbon steel (0.5% – 1.7% C) Usually always requires hydrogen-controlled
consumable and pre-heat. As hardness and thickness
increases, post-heat may be required, and possibly
annealing of the weldment prior to welding.
Most welders would understand these general guidelines for welding carbon steels,
however welding of alloy steels is far more complex due to the range of alloying
elements used and their effect on weldability. Such ‘rules of thumb’ would be difficult to
apply.
An alternative approach is to calculate a ‘carbon equivalent’. We can, by use of
formulae, equate alloy content to percentage of carbon and apply the general rules
mentioned, for the purpose of determining pre-heat and welding procedures. The major
difference here of course is electrode composition.
There are two main formulas in common use.
Method 1
CE (Carbon equivalent) = C% + Mn% for carbon manganese steels
6
Method 2
CE = C% + Mn + (Cr + Mo + V) + Ni + Cu (for other low alloy steels)
6 5 15
= 0.12 + 0.12 + (2.5 + 1.0) + 0.015 + 0
6 5 15
= 0.12 + 0.02 + 0.7 + 0.01
CE = 0.85
Example
Calculate the equivalent for a low alloy steel having the following composition.
0.12% C 0.12% Mn 2.5% Cr 1.0% Mo 0.015% Cu

CE = C% + (Mn) + (Cr + Mo + V) + Ni + Cu
6 5 15
= 0.12 + 0.12 + (2.5 + 1.0 + 0) + 0.015 + 0
6 5 15
= 0.12 + 0.02 + 0.7 + 0.01
CE = 0.85

This particular steel would have similar hardenability to a plain carbon steel containing
0.85% C and welding procedures would be similar.
The carbon equivalent is usually only calculated to two (2) decimal places.
Calculation of pre-heat
Pre-heat is an essential factor in maximising the weldability of hardenable steels. The
amount of pre-heat required is determined by calculation using tables contained in the
following.
zz AS/NZS 1554.1 Structural steel welding – Part 1: Welding of steel structures
zz WTIA Technical Note 1: ‘The weldability of steels’.
The prime function of pre-heat is to slow the cooling rate of the weld zone. When
calculating pre-heat, the following factors are taken into account.
1. The weldability of the steel.
2. The cooling rate on the basis of the quenching effect of the parent metal.
3. The heat input from welding.
4. The hydrogen levels that can be expected via the welding consumables.
The first step in calculating pre-heat is to determine the weldability of the steel. This is
done by consulting tables from which the weldability group number can be obtained, or
by calculating the carbon equivalent which can then be converted to a weldability group
number using tables. (See Table 9.1)

Australian Standard® specifications
This table has been deleted. It was reproduced from Table 1 on page
12 of AS/NZS 3679.1:1996, Table 1 on page 9 of AS/NZS 3678 and
Table 1 on page 8 of AS/NZS 1548-1995.
Table 9.1 – Relationship between carbon equivalent and group number

This table has been deleted. It was reproduced from Table 5.3.4(B) on
page 52 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.
Table 9.2 – CE – Relationship between carbon equivalent and group number

as per AS/NZS 1554.1:2004
Once the weldability of the steel has been established, the combined thickness of the
metal conducting the heat away from the weld zone is determined. This is done by
adding together the thickness of all the plates adjacent to the weld. By this means the
cooling rate can be determined. The method of doing this is explained in Fig 9.1.
The group number and combined thickness are combined to give a ‘joint weldability
index’. This is done by cross-referencing the group number and combined thickness
(see diagram Fig 9.1) and the closest curve selected.
The heat input is then calculated using the formula.
Heat input = Amperage x volts x 60

Travel speed in mm/min x 1000
The heat input and joint weldability index are then combined to give the minimum
pre-heat temperature. For this purpose, either Fig 9.2 or Fig 9.3 is used, depending
whether or not hydrogen-controlled welding consumables are used.

These graphics have been removed. They were redrawn from

Figure 5.3.4 (A) on page 53 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.
Fig 9.1 – Relation of joint weldability index with joint combined thickness
and group number

This graph has been removed. It was redrawn from Figure 5.3.4 (B) on
page 54 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.
Fig 9.2 – Pre-heat – Energy input requirements for hydrogen-controlled electrodes

(EXX15, EXX16, EXX18, EXX28 and EXX48)
semi-automatic and automatic welding processes
This graph has been removed. It was redrawn from Figure 5.3.4 (C) on
page 54 of AS/NZS 1554.1:2004.
Fig 9.3 – Pre-heating determination for manual metal-arc electrodes

other than hydrogen-controlled
Reproduced from AS/NZS 1554.1:2004

Example
A buff weld is to be made between two pieces of 20 mm AS 1548-5-490 plate.
Calculate the minimum pre-heat temperature when the root run is to be made using an
E4816 electrode with the following variables.
Amperage – 120A
Arc voltage – 25V
Travel speed – 180 mm/min
1. Weldability group No = 5.
2. Combined thickness = 20 + 20 = 40 mm.
3. Joint weldability index = C.
4. Heat input Amps x Volts x 60
Travel speed x 1000
120 x 25 x 60
180 x 1000
= 1.0 kJ/mm
5. Minimum pre-heat = 50 °C.
The minimum pre-heat temperature should be obtained prior to welding and

maintained during welding. The weldment must be brought to the pre-heat
temperature for a minimum of 75 mm on each side of the joint or a distance equal
to the plate thickness, whichever is the greater.
It is generally accepted that the maximum interpass temperature is a maximum of

250 °C above the minimum pre-heat temperature.
As pre-heating is an expensive exercise, the competent welding supervisor will
commonly manipulate the welding variables to increase the heat input. By this means,
pre-heat can be avoided where the pre-heat temperature initially calculated is low.

Selection of consumables
Welding consumables are chosen that will match the parent metal composition and
properties and give the deposited weld metal similar tensile strength, weld metal
toughness and alloy content. The welding situation must be taken into account and the
consumable chosen must provide cost effective welding.
Qualification range
Most codes allow qualification to cover a stated range of parent metal thickness either
side of the test piece.
For example, a 10 mm butt weld is to be made using AS 1210 as the application code
and the procedure qualification test weld made in 10 mm plate (ie t = 10 mm).
Table 5.14.3 of the code allows qualification in the range of 5 mm – 2t for joints of this
type.
This means that welds in plates ranging from 5 – 20 mm can be qualified using this
procedure.
The person writing the procedure should consider the range of joints to be welded
and use the qualification range to best advantage so as to minimise the number of
procedures to be qualified.
Qualification by testing
To establish whether or not welds made with the proposed welding procedure will
comply with the specification, test plates are welded and tested. Testing is used to
disclose the presence of weld defects, but more importantly at this stage to verify that
the procedure will deliver finished welds that exhibit the required mechanical properties.
The level of testing required is governed by the application code (eg AS 1210).
Recording details of the welding procedure

When testing is completed and it has been ascertained that the WPQ will deliver welds
of the desired standard, this now becomes a qualified welding procedure and can be
issued as a welding procedure specification (WPS). All details of the procedure are
recorded and along with all the other procedures and testing that the company has
qualified become part of the procedure qualification record (PQR).
A welding procedure will contain the following information:
• procedure number
• date
• contract details
• code details
• material specifications
• joint details
• welding process
• welding sequence
• pre-heat requirements
• NDT requirements

• welding variables consumables
• test plate and welder identification
• signature
• notes.
Refer to Table 9.3 for further information.
Qualification of welders by testing

To be qualified, welders deposit test welds in accordance with the WPS. The test plates
are inspected to determine the welder’s ability to deposit sound welds in accordance
with the WPS.
A welder who completes the test plates used for procedure qualification shall be
deemed to be qualified if the test plates conform to the code requirements. The
process of procedure qualification and welder qualification is time consuming and
costly.
Every attempt should be made to minimise the number of qualification tests required,
firstly by making best use of qualification range and secondly by ensuring that the
welder is kept current and his/her qualification is not allowed to lapse, necessitating
re-qualification.
Writing a welding procedure qualification/specification (WPQ)

A WPQ is usually written up by a qualified welding supervisor or welding engineer. It
is normally written on a proforma that addresses all the relevant information required.
The format of such a proforma should ensure that all information is clearly stated and
is easily understood by the welder. Information which is not relevant to the welding
operator should not be included.
The welder may be a skilled tradesperson, but may not understand the importance
of the procedure in a metallurgical sense. If the procedure is to be effective, the
supervisor must ensure that the operator both understands the need for and follows the
procedure.
An example of a WPQ proforma is given in Table 9.3.

Contact ________________________________________________ Procedure no. _______________
Client _____________________________________________________________________________
Code/spec _______________________________________________ Date / /
Material _______________________________ Joint details

Thickness _______________________________
Th. Range _______________________________
Joint type _______________________________
Joint pos _______________________________
Rep method _______________________________
Inc. Angle _______________________________
Root gap _______________________________
Root face _______________________________
Process _______________________________ Weld sequence

Pre-heat °c _______________________________
Int. Pass °c _______________________________
PWHT _______________________________
Gouge meth. _______________________________
Dressing _______________________________
Mech. Test _______________________________
NDT _______________________________
Test lab _______________________________
Run Side Consumable Dia Extn Gas L/min Pol Amps Volts Speed Kj/mm
Test plate identification Procedure specification

Welder _______________________________ Prepared by ___________________________
Marked _______________________________ Checked by ___________________________
Date / / Date / /
Notes ____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Approvals ___________________ / / ____________________________ / /

Client Contractor
Table 9.3 – Welding procedure qualification

Chapter 10 – Metal cutting and gouging
Introduction
Weld preparation is commonly applied by:
zz grinding
zz shearing
zz machining
zz flame or plasma cutting
zz arc or flame gouging.

zz Weld preparation
{{ grinders
{{ machining
{{ oxy-flame cutting
flame-cutting techniques
{{ flame gouging
flame gouging techniques
flame gouging applications
{{ air-arc gouging
air-arc gouging technique
air-arc gouging applications.

Grinders
Angle grinder
The angle grinder is in common use in the fabrication industry, particularly for the
fabrication of steel. It provides a convenient and efficient means of edge preparation,
slag and scale removal and final finishing/shaping to accurate dimensions.
The angle grinder is so called because the disc rotates at right angles to the electric
motor.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 10.1 – Angle grinder
The angle grinder employs the use of a hard (and usually recessed) disc, which
is protected by a guard that must be kept in place at all times. A range of discs is
available for grinding materials such as carbon steel, stainless steel and aluminium.
Choice of the correct disc for the material being ground is important, as material
contamination, or clogging of the disc may result if the incorrect disc is chosen.
Manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed in this regard.
Grinders come in a range of sizes from 100 mm (wheel diameter) up to 230 mm. It is
important to select the correct size grinder for the job. 100 mm and 125 mm grinders
are suitable for light work only and are easily overloaded. Larger grinders provide
for faster and more efficient removal of metal. 180 mm and 230 mm grinders are
powerful tools and the operator will be unable to stop the wheel should it jam due to
inappropriate use. A firm grip of both handles of the grinder is essential and use should
be in line with recommended procedures.
Cut-off wheels are available for use with angle grinders. These discs are thinner than
a grinding disc and do not have a recessed centre. They can be used to clean out or
repair root runs or faces. Care should be taken to avoid jamming or kick back. Once
again it is essential that both handles are gripped firmly, guards are in place and the
machine is used in line with manufacturer’s recommendations.
Cutting-off wheels should not be used for grinding applications, as they are thin
and unable to withstand sideways pressure.

Straight grinder
The straight grinder (or barrel grinder as it is commonly called) is used for numerous
grinding applications. It is ideal for grinding narrow areas, such as when weld
reinforcement needs to be ground flat, or for the removal of scale alongside welds −
particularly inside pipes. As with all grinders, it is important to hold the machine firmly.
Movement of the straight grinder should be backwards, against the direction of rolling
where possible, as this will reduce the tendency of the straight grinder to run with the
rotation of the wheel.
As with all portable grinders, they should be allowed to stop before putting them down.
This is particularly important with straight grinders, even if care is taken to put them
down with the wheel clear of the bench. Centrifugal force of the motor can cause the
body of the grinder to rotate and to fall or wrap up the lead.
Fig 10.2 – Straight grinder
Disc sander
Disc sanders are available either as a straight, or in-line type, or as an angled sander
– the type most commonly used in the fabrication industry. Sanders are ideal for
cleaning of the material surface. They are particularly useful in the aluminium industry
where they are used for removal of surface oxide prior to welding, or for cleaning up
and final polishing.
Sanders employ the use of a flexible abrasive disc supported by a rubber or fibre
back-up pad. The discs are held in position by a broad, flat locknut, which fits into a
depression in the centre of the pad. Alternatively, the disc may self-adhere to the pad.
Sanders operate at lower RPM than grinders, to minimise clogging of the disc and
burning of the surface being sanded.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 10.3 – Disc sander

Safe use of sanders and grinders

zz Inspect and ensure electrical safety.
zz Ensure guards are correctly and securely fitted.
zz Inspect the disc/wheel for any signs of damage and ensure that it is tightly fitted.
zz Ensure you are well balanced.
zz Grip the grinder securely with both hands.
zz Eye protection must be worn.
zz Hearing protection must be worn.
zz Ensure no fire hazard exists from flying sparks.
zz Direct sparks away from others and towards a safe place.
zz Stop the wheel before putting the grinder down.
zz Ensure the grinder cannot fall.

Machining
The edge preparation of the circular material such as pipes may be easily carried out
on a lathe, provided the lathe capacity is appropriate. The edge of flat material can
be milled or machined. A hand-machining tool is now commercially available for the
preparation of long plate edges.
Fig 10.4 – Manually held curve
Fig 10.5 – Pipe bevelling

Plate beveller (nibbler)

Plates above 6 mm in thickness that are to be joined by butt welding will generally
require weld preparation to be applied to the plate edges. Applying preparation with
the plate beveller (or ‘nibbler’, as it is more commonly called) is a simple and versatile
method of doing so. This electrically operated machine can be used to apply single or
double V preparation to a range of ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
The machine is available in two sizes; the smaller is suitable for bevelling plates up to
25 mm thick and the larger for plates up to 32 mm thick.
In both cases the machines are fully portable and may be used to prepare edges that
are straight, or have either convex or concave curves. For concave curves, the smallest
radius that can be bevelled is approximately 40 mm.
Fig 10.6 – Balancer attached

Fig 10.7 – Fixed mounting
Fig 10.8 – Bevelling concave curve

The nibbler is capable of preparing bevelled edges to angles of 30°, 37.5°, or 45°.
By changing the guide bracket, it is also possible to produce angles of between
approximately 15° and 55°. A feature of the bevelling machine is that bevelling may be
started and stopped at any point of the edge being bevelled.
(a)
(b)
Fig 10.9 – Double V edge preparation (a) first cut and (b) second cut

Safety
When operating a bevelling machine, ensure the following:
zz safety glasses are worn
zz loose clothing is tied back
zz a container is used to collect metal chips
zz a firm grip is taken before starting the machine
zz a balanced stance is adopted
zz the blade is correctly adjusted
zz metal is not forced into the machine.

Oxy-flame cutting
Outline of the process
The process of oxy-flame cutting makes use of the reaction between heated iron and
oxygen combining to form iron oxide.
When iron is heated to 815 °C (called the ignition temperature), it readily combines with
oxygen. The resulting reaction produces iron oxide. This reaction (combustion) also
gives off extra heat, which keeps the process of oxidation going.
The important point to note is that the reaction occurs at a lower temperature than the
melting point of steel (approx. 1500 °C).
The molten iron oxide, together with some free iron which runs off as molten slag, is
removed by an introduced jet of oxygen, thus exposing more pre-heated iron and iron
oxide.
With the movement of the cutting blowpipe and with it the cutting stream, a narrow cut
or kerf is produced (Fig 10.11).
Nozzle movement
Fine Kerf
drag lines
Fig 10.11 – Kerf
Oxy-flame cutting can only be successfully employed on materials that have a lower
ignition temperature than their melting point, eg carbon steels and low alloy steels.
Materials, such as aluminium and stainless steel cannot be successfully cut because
their oxide melts at a higher temperature than their melting point.

Flame adjustment
With all flame cutting, a pre-heating flame is necessary. This usually surrounds the
orifice through which the oxygen jet passes and its purpose is to bring the surface of
the metal to ignition temperature and to maintain it at that temperature. The flame is
adjusted to neutral with the oxygen cutting stream ON.
Correct adjustment (neutral flame).

This should be checked with the
cutting oxygen flowing at
recommended pressure.
The cutting oxygen stream should
be clearly defined as shown.
Cutting
stream
Fig 10.12 – Correct flame adjustment
Principles of flame cutting

The principles of flame cutting may be summarised as follows.
1. The heating of the metal to its ignition temperature 815 °C.
2. The burning or oxidation of the iron in the path of the oxygen jet. The
oxide remains molten as its melting point is lower than that of the steel – this is
important, for if the oxide has a higher melting point than the metal then normal
oxy-cutting would not be possible.
3. The removal of the molten slag (a mixture of oxides and molten steel by the force
of the oxygen stream – kinetic energy).
4. The continued and even movement of the blowpipe along the line of the cut.
The burning or oxidation process produces heat. This is what pre-heats the next
layer of iron prior to oxidation.

Oxidation
Elements have the property of combining or uniting with one another to form new
substances that have chemical and physical properties entirely different from those of
the two substances that entered into the combination. This new substance is called a
compound and the process is known as a chemical combination or chemical reaction,
eg iron will combine with sulphur to form iron-sulphide.
Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which oxygen combines with another element to
form an oxide, eg iron + oxygen = iron oxide. When steel (an alloy of iron) is heated
to about 815 °C (or above) and is not protected from the atmosphere, oxidation of the
surface of the metal occurs, ie oxygen combines with the iron, an element in the steel,
to form iron oxides. This oxidation results in the weld being porous, hard and brittle.
Therefore during welding, care has to be taken to prevent oxygen coming into contact
with the metal. In the case of gas welding, this is done by careful use of outer envelope
of the flame and/or use of fluxes. Flame cutting relies on this process of oxidation.
Quality of the cut

A satisfactory cut may be defined as one fulfilling the following requirements:
zz accurate shape and size of finished object
zz reasonably smooth surface of cut face (drag lines not too pronounced)
zz sharp upper and lower edges of cut
zz slag adhesion light or non-existent.
To produce high quality cuts, the following factors should be observed.

zz Make sure that the cutting equipment is in good condition.
zz Select a nozzle size appropriate to the thickness of metal to be cut.
zz Ensure that the nozzle face and the cutting and heating orifices are clean.
zz Adjust gas pressures to suit nozzle size and plate thickness.
zz Correct heating flame adjustment (ie neutral flame of suitable size).
zz Clean surface of work along the line of the cut (ie free of rust, scale, etc).
zz Nozzle is the correct distance from plate (ie tip of pre-heating cones about 2 mm
above the work).
zz Cutting blowpipe is held at correct angle.
zz Suitable and uniform speed of cutting.
zz A suitably trained operator.
A nozzle that has been correctly cleaned and in good condition will exhibit a clean,
long jet of cutting oxygen. This appears as a long parallel-sided pipe or zone
through the centre of the heating flame.
A short, indefinite or bushy jet indicates a dirty or damaged nozzle. When
inspecting the cutting jet, it should be viewed from two positions at right angles to
each other.

Other factors which may affect the quality of the cut are the:
zz quality of the material, eg presence of laminations, slag pockets and heavy
surface scaling
zz purity of the oxygen
zz angle of nozzle to place surface, eg bevel cutting is more difficult than a 90° cut
zz training and experience of operator.
By observing all the above factors, oxy-cutting will be of a very high standard.
The positive results of good quality oxy-cutting are:
zz less time and effort spent in cleaning up the job by grinding and filing
zz greater accuracy means final finishing or machining is kept to a minimum.
zz less material wastage
zz overall quality and finish is attained, which promotes a general feeling of pride in
those associated with the work or product.
When all the conditions are correct, a good quality cut should have the following
features (Fig 10.13):
zz a sharp top edge
zz a smooth surface, with drag lines barely visible
zz a very light scale or oxide film on the cut face, which is easily removed
zz a square face
zz a sharp bottom edge.
90˚
Light oxide
film to
face
Fine drag
lines Sharp
corners
Fig 10.13 – Features of a good quality oxy-cut

A good tradesperson will endeavour to maintain a high standard of workmanship when

it comes to oxy-cutting.
Before starting, it’s important to check the equipment and settings and prove the
procedure by a trial cut, preferably on scrap steel. Periodic checks should be made to
see that the quality is maintained and if not, determine reasons for the low quality.
Possible causes include:
zz too much pre-heat
zz cutting oxygen pressure too low
zz cutting speed too slow
zz pre-heat flame too high above work
zz pre-heat flame too close to work
zz dirty nozzle
zz dirty or rusty plate.
Flame-cutting techniques
The following segments outline the recommended techniques and methods to be used
when oxy-cutting.
Straight line cutting – by hand

1. It is usual to start the cut from the edge of the plate (other starting positions will
be covered later).
2. Heat the metal until it reaches red heat ignition temperature. The tips of the
pre-heating cones should be held 2–3 mm from the surface of the plate for this
operation.
3. Depress the cutting oxygen lever slowly and allow the oxygen to come into
contact with the heated iron; and allowing the resultant reaction oxide stream to
track down the face of the plate edge.
4. The cutting action is continued by a smooth movement of the cutting blowpipe.
The cutting oxygen stream produces a fine spray of sparks under the cut,
together with droplets of molten metal. The correct cutting speed is accompanied
by a spluttering sound.
Straight line oxy-cutting by hand demands a high degree of skill to maintain a smooth
travel and to keep the cut to a given line.
To assist the operator when cutting straight lines, a set of roller guides can be attached
to the cutting blowpipe.
Roller guides can also be adopted for cutting bevels and for assisting with the cutting of
circular shapes.

Straight line cutting – using aides

Roller guides
1. Fit the roller guides to the cutting blowpipe, making sure the cutting nozzle fits
snugly into the recess provided in the roller guide body.
2. Partially tighten clamp nut so that the roller guides are at 90° to the cutting
blowpipe (Fig 10.14). Fully tighten the clamp nut.
3. Check nozzle distance off-plate. Adjust by raising or lowering wheels (Fig 10.15).
4. Finally, make sure the cutting nozzle is at 90° to the horizontal by having both
wheels placed on the metal surface. This ensures that a square cut will be made.
Roller
Cutting guides
nozzle
90°
Blowpipe
Fig 10.14 – Roller guides − top view

Roller
guides
90°
Adjust to
correct height
2–3 mm approx
Fig 10.15 – Roller guides − elevation
Angle irons or heavy steel section

Fig 10.16 shows how an angle iron (ASA) can be used in conjunction with the cutting
blowpipe. Any steel section which will not distort easily due to the local heat can be
used. The section is set away and parallel to the line of cut.
Cutting
nozzle
Angle iron or
heavy section
Centre line of
blowpipe and
line of cut
Fig 10.16 – Use of angle as a cutting guide

Bevel cutting
Machine bevelling produces a consistently high quality finish, but bevels produced
by hand cutting can also be of a similar standard where machines cannot be used
conveniently or economically.
Aides such as roller guides (Fig 10.15) or a piece of angle iron (Fig 10.16) can be used
to help maintain a straight and even bevel.
The length of the bevel face (T), not the plate thickness, determines the nozzle size,
gas pressures and cutting speed (Fig 10.17).
Where small or singular bevelling operations occur, an increase in the pre-heating
flame and a decrease in cutting speed using the same nozzle as fitted for square
cutting can be employed. Pre-heating the plate edges is recommended before cutting
is started.
The cutting angle can be proved by inspecting a short trial cut, so that minor
adjustments can be made if necessary.
Select angle iron

to suit required
bevel angle
Nozzle angle
adjusted to bevel
angle using roller
guides
Cutting nozzle
size selected for
bevel length ‘T’ Angle
iron guide
‘T’
Fig 10.17 – Bevel cutting

Circle cutting
Manual oxy-cutting of a round hole or disc can be made easier using a radius bar or
radius rod.
Freehand or For circles

use radius rod or larger than 100 mm
plate. use radius bar
Fig 10.18 – Circle cutting
A radius rod (Fig 10.19) is fitted into the roller guide stock. It can be made in a variety
of sizes to suit mainly small radii.
The wheel shown fitted (Fig 10.19) is optional, as it may hinder the operator in small
work but can be a steadying influence with slightly larger radii.
Round bar
radius leg
Adjust to suit
required radius
Fig 10.19 – Radius rod fitted to roller guide

Radius plate (Fig 10.20) has a larger range than the radius rod and can be used for
both small and medium sized radii. The design of the fixing device must be made to
suit the particular model of cutting blowpipe used.
Washer Wing nut
Washer
Slot
3 mm thick
radius
plate
Adjust to suit required radius
Fig 10.20 – Radius plate
Radius bar (Fig 10.21) is used in conjunction with roller guides and is suitable for
medium to large circle cutting.
Radius bar
fixed into roller
guide body
of circle
to be cut
Clamp screw
Adjustable
centre
Adjust to suit required radius
Fig 10.21 – Radius bar

Pipe cutting
1. The tubular section should be supported on rollers, or in such a way that it can be
easily turned (Fig 10.22).
2. Half-way round one side, pierce a hole and carry the cut along the required line
to the top of the pipe. The operator should maintain the nozzle at 90° to the pipe
face by using a rolling action of the wrists.
3. Give the pipe a quarter turn and repeat the operation, continue this procedure
until the pipe is severed in two.
Di
re
c
‘B’ Finish
tio
n
of
tra
v
el
90˚
‘A’ Start
Fig 10.22 – Tubular section supported on rollers

Flame gouging
Flame gouging has similarities to the oxy-fuel gas-cutting process such as:
zz it relies on the chemical process of oxidation for its operation
zz it is suitable only for use on carbon and low alloy steels
zz both acetylene and LPG are fuel gases used for the process.
The principal difference between the two processes is that flame gouging uses a low
velocity oxygen stream, as opposed to the high velocity oxygen stream used for
flame-cutting. This is achieved by increasing the diameter of the oxygen orifice at the
outlet end of the gouging nozzle, as opposed to the cutting nozzle which reduces in
size.
Fig 10.23 – Nozzle design
To obtain the volume of oxygen required for gouging, relatively high oxygen pressures
must be set at the regulator.
Regulator pressure Speed Groove dimensions

Nozzle
size
Oxygen kPa Acetylene mm/min Width Depth
32 350–450 100 300/500 8 3–6

40 400–450 100 500/650 10 5–10
48 450–500 100 500/560 12 10–18
Table 10.1 – Approximate data for flame gouging

Flame gouging techniques
Starting
angle
Gouging
angle
Fig 10.24 – Flame gouging in the flat position
There are three basic techniques in gouging, which are:

zz progressive gouging
zz spot gouging
zz back-step gouging.
Progressive gouging
The flame for gouging is adjusted in the same way as the oxy-cutting flame. The
pre-heat flame should be neutral, with the oxygen lever fully depressed. When starting
to gouge, the nozzle is held at an angle of 20° to 40° from the metal surface and above
the line of gouge. As the metal reaches a bright red heat, the oxygen lever is slowly
depressed and gouging begins. The nozzle angle is gradually lowered to about 7° and
a smooth and constant travel speed is maintained. Cone points of the pre-heat flame
should be 6–13 mm behind the reaction zone and the nozzle just clear of the groove
bottom.
(1) (2)
20 - 40
7
(3) (4)
Fig 10.25 – Progressive gouging

Spot gouging
Spot gouging uses a step back sequence, which means it is easier to control the depth
of the cut. This method uses the same technique for starting as progressive gouging.
Once the gouge has been started and the depth of groove obtained, the operation is
stopped, moved back along the line of cut and the starting procedure repeated. This
action reduces the possibility of damage to the cutting nozzle.
Back-step gouging
For certain types of work, it is necessary to make a long deep gouge. This procedure
combines both progressive and spot gouging techniques. The surface of the metal
is pre-heated as for normal gouging, the cutting oxygen is turned on and the nozzle
angle reduced. The angle is then gradually increased until the desired depth is
obtained and the nozzle moved backward approx 25–30 mm while reducing the angle
to the normal 7°.
At the end of this sequence, the nozzle angle is again increased and the sequence
repeated until the gouge has progressed along the required line. In effect, a spooning
action is employed as in Fig 10.26.
(1) (2)
20 - 40
7
(3) (4)
Fig 10.26 – Back-step gouging
Flame gouging applications

Preparation of plate edges for welding
Flame gouging is one method of preparing U and J type weld joints. Individual plate
edges can be gouged before assembly, or plates can be abutted when U joints are
required and both edges gouged together (see Fig 10.27). Welds may be placed on the
underside of a joint before gouging takes place to form a sound backing bead, provided
the gouge is deep enough to remove any trace of slag or defect.
When gouging is carried out from both sides, a double U or double J can be produced,
as is often required for thicker materials. Plate edges may be prepared by gouging in
the vertical position, with the gouging blowpipe travelling downwards and nozzle angles
corresponding to those used in the flat position.

Plate edge flame gouged Preparing of plate edges

for welding for welding
Weld
Weld
Fig 10.27 – Preparation of plate edges
Removal of weld defects

Flame gouging is very effective for removing isolated defects in welds. Spot gouging
can be applied to minimise repair welding, providing the position of defects is known. It
is particularly effective for removing weld metal which has cracked, as the heat tends to
open the crack and complete removal can be assured by visual inspection. Removal of
the defect is easily witnessed while gouging is in progress.
When faulty welds are removed by flame gouging, no further preparation is usually
necessary, apart from clearing away the oxides and slag.
Do not remove Original

edge of plate fillet weld (1) (2)
Defect
d
(3)
(a) (b)
Fig 10.28 – Removal of weld defects and faulty welds
Back gouging welds

It is common practice to back gouge the root of butt welds using the flame gouging
process, prior to deposition of the backing run. Back gouging of welds should be
carried out in a convenient position, preferably flat. The procedure is the same as for
preparing plate edges or removing weld beads and is illustrated in Fig 10.29.

(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig 10.29 – Back gouging used in conventional butt weld designs (a) single V
preparation, (b) U-groove preparation and (c) double V preparation
Flame gouging of cracks and defects in steel castings

General rules for this operation are that gouging may be carried out when the material
is capable of being oxy-cut and when hardening or other problems will not arise as
a consequence. Hardening problems in certain alloy steel and cast steels may be
overcome by pre-heating, post-heating and cooling precautions. Tests should be
carried out in doubtful situations.
Flame gouging is not generally recommended for quench and tempered steels, due
to the risk of a reduction of mechanical properties from the relatively high heat input
associated with flame gouging.
Fig 10.30 – Crack in cast steel frame prepared for gouging

Air-arc gouging
The process
Air-arc gouging removes metal by melting it with the heat of an electric arc and
directing a jet of compressed air to clear away the molten metal. As the process does
not depend on oxidation, it may be used for materials such as non-ferrous metals which
do not oxy-gouge. Further advantages over flame gouging include faster operation
and a reduced HAZ with less distortion. The advantages are offset to some extent by
reduced portability and the need to guard against increased fume and long streams of
hot sparks.
The equipment
Power source
Various DC power sources (such as constant current welding generators or transformer
rectifiers) are commonly used to supply the current needed.
Constant voltage equipment is often preferred for heavy duty applications. It is
essential to connect the electrode holder to the positive pole of the DC power source
used. An AC power source may be used, provided suitable electrodes are available. In
each case, the power source should have a continuous rating for the current values to
be used. An output of up to 450 amperes is required for general purpose arc-air cutting
and gouging. Higher current outputs may be required for certain applications.
Electrode holder
The gripping jaw of the holder is fitted with a self-aligning rotating head. When the air
valve in the holder is opened, twin jets of compressed air are emitted parallel to the
axis of the carbon electrode. The self-aligning rotating head permits the blowpipe to be
used in any position and ensures that the air stream is always directed to converge at
the arc.
Max 150 mm
Min 75 mm
Air valve
Air jets
Air flows
Photograph reproduced with the permission of Lincoln Electric Co. (Aust) Pty Ltd
Fig 10.31 – Electrode holder

Air supply
Compressed air may be supplied by a compressor or from cylinders, usually at a
pressure of 560 kPa. The air supply hose must have a bore of not less than 6 mm and
be free from restrictions. Although the actual pressure is not critical, it is important that
sufficient air is supplied to ensure a clean, slag free cut or gouged surface.
Electrode materials
Electrodes are made of a blended mixture of carbon and graphite, bonded together
and enveloped in a thin layer of copper. The copper coating aids electrical conductivity
through the electrode and acts as a stiffener to the carbon, increasing its working life
and reducing radiated heat.
Electrodes are available in a range of sizes from 4 mm to 12 mm and to suit both DC
and AC. The choice will depend on the job application (ie the amount of metal to be
removed) and the equipment available.
Air-arc gouging technique

The current setting should conform to the manufacturer’s guide on the electrode
packets and be sufficient to obtain a smooth and continuous forward movement but
without overheating and rapid burning of the electrode. Compressed air pressure of at
least 500 kPa is necessary to clear molten metal from the groove. In addition, the flow
of air will tend to cool the electrode and increase its life.
The electrode is gripped in the holder jaws with a forward projection of 75 mm to
150 mm from the air jets. Note that the air jets are underneath the electrode.
Gouging is commenced by turning on the air flow and ‘arcing up’ with the electrode.
Once the groove is started and reaches correct size, a smooth forward movement is
made along the line of gouge. Groove size is determined by electrode size, speed of
travel, current and electrode angle. The angle between electrode and work is usually
20°, increasing to deepen the groove. Widening of the groove may be achieved by
sideways weaving of the electrode.
Air-arc gouging applications

The applications of air-arc gouging are the same as discussed under flame gouging.
Air-arc provides more precise control of the groove and allows for taper. As already
noted, materials which do not flame gouge can be grouped by this process.
Additionally, air-arc gouging is ideally suited to quenched and tempered steels and
other metals where the high heat input of flame gouging may prove detrimental.

Chapter 11 – Elementary electrical terms
Introduction
The arc welding processes have been a popular and widely applied method of welding for
many years. The arc welding process offers sound and reliable welds, simple operation
and low capital cost.
zz Arc welding process overview
{{ welding voltage
welding current
{{ welding machines
machine characteristics.

Arc welding process overview

There are a lot of arc welding processes that are used in the metal fabrication and
welding industries. Some of these arc welding processes are in common use and
others are used only in specialist applications. This section introduces some of the
welding processes that are most often used, which are:
zz manual metal arc welding (MMAW)
zz gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
zz flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
zz submerged arc welding (SAW)
zz gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
All these welding processes depend on three main requirements for their operation:
1. a heat or energy source needed for fusion
2. atmospheric shielding to prevent oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere from
contaminating the weld
3. filler metal to provide the required weld build-up.
The above factors will be looked at in our closer examination of specific arc welding
processes and discussed further in later chapters.
All of the arc welding processes have a few basic electrical requirements for their
operation. They must have sufficient voltage available for the operator to get the arc
started and be maintained. They also must provide sufficient amperage to heat and
melt the parent metal and filler material.
Welding voltage
The voltage available at the MMAW power source output must be safe for the operator.
To protect the operator from the greater risks associated with high open circuit
voltages, the maximum voltage allowed is restricted by law (80 V for AC and 110 V for
DC). A high open circuit voltage will however assist the operator to easily strike the
arc. At open circuit voltages lower than 45 V, the arc becomes difficult to strike without
some form of starting assistance. The load voltage of an MMAW machine should be in
the range of 21–28 V and most electrodes will run satisfactorily at load voltages around
24–25 V. Low hydrogen and alloy steel electrodes sometimes require slightly higher
load voltages (26–28 V) to run properly.
Welding current
To be suitable for welding, the current used must meet the following requirements.
zz There must be sufficient amperage to provide the heat for fusion.
zz There must be a suitable means of current control.
Mains supply is unsuitable for direct use for welding as the supply current is too
low. Mains supply must be ‘transformed’ to make it suitable for use in welding, or
alternatively, welding current can be produced from a dedicated welding generator or
alternator.

Current types
Electric current may be either:
zz alternating current (AC)
zz direct current (DC).
Alternating current (AC)

Alternating current is produced by an alternator – AC is usually taken from the mains
supply which operates at 50 cycles/sec.
zz There is a period of current flow from positive to negative, followed by a period of
current flow from negative to positive.
zz The flow changes direction 50 times/sec.
zz The voltage falls to zero 100 times/sec (therefore the arc is broken and
re-established 100 times/sec).
Due to the even periods of current flow with AC, the heat is distributed evenly at the
electrode and the work piece and there is no choice of polarity.
Direct current (DC)

DC may be produced by:
zz a chemical reaction as produced in a storage battery
zz a generator driven by a rotational shaft
zz converting AC to DC by means of a rectifier or inverter.
Direct current exhibits the following characteristics.

zz Direct current flows continuously in one direction at the preset voltage.
zz In DC the current always flows from negative to positive.
zz With DC, the flow of electrons striking the positive pole (+ve) generates two-thirds
of the heat from the arc at the positive pole.
1/50 Sec.
+ 1Hz
+
VOLTS
VOLTS
0 0
TIME TIME
_ _
(a) (b)
Fig 11.1 – Typical AC and DC output curves as seen in an oscilloscope

(a) sine wave, (b) DC

Polarity
Polarity refers to the way in which the electrode lead is connected to the DC welding
power source. When welding with positive polarity, the electrode lead is connected to
the positive terminal of the welding machine. When welding with negative polarity, the
electrode lead is connected to the negative terminal.
Changing polarity with DC does not change the direction of current flow, current still
flows -ve to +ve. Changing polarity however alters the point at which the greater portion
of heat is generated in the welding circuit, ie:
zz most of the heat is generated at the electrode with +ve polarity (electrode
connected to positive)
zz most of the heat is generated at the work piece with -ve polarity (electrode
connected to negative).
There is no polarity with AC welding circuits. As current flow is equal between

both the positive and negative poles, the heat is distributed evenly between the
electrode and the work piece.
Arc blow
Arc blow is a problem peculiar to DC circuits. Arc blow is the effect of electromagnetic
forces within the circuit that deflect the metal droplets as they flow across the arc gap.
As the current within the circuit increases, the magnetising effect increases accordingly.
Consequently, arc blow is more severe at higher amperages, particularly above about
300 A.
Among the methods used to control or minimise the effects of arc blow are:
zz change to AC
zz change polarity
zz change the position of the work return lead
zz use two work return connections
zz change the direction of welding
zz wrap the work return lead around the job
zz reduce the amperage.
AC versus DC
AC and DC welding circuits each have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Essentially, AC welding machines are cheap and lack portability but are simple and
trouble-free in their design and operation. Not all of the electrodes will run on AC.
DC generator machines are generally portable and offer better control of welding
conditions, but are more expensive to buy and maintain. Some welders prefer the
smooth arc characteristics of pure DC and like the advantages of polarity choice and
heat control.

Alternating current (AC) Direct current (DC)

Portability These machines generally Most modern types have
consist of static step-down features that allow portability
transformers and they are (especially the self-contained
considered as stationary types. types).
Power The use of these machines Petrol or diesel engine driven

supply is restricted to the location of machines can be used in any
the nearest alternating current location.
power point.
Efficiency 70–90% electrically efficient. 40–60% efficient but some

modern types compare with
alternating current efficiency.
Polarity No polarity. Choice of polarity.

Arc blow Unaffected. Arc blow occurs even in normal
currents and it is difficult to
control above 300 amperes.
Maintenance As there are no moving parts Revolving and wearing parts

to be considered, maintenance adds to maintenance.
costs are low.
Initial costs Cheaper plant as less Most costly due to generator and
construction is required. motor construction involved.
Electrodes Restricted to use of electrodes Suitable for all types of

that are suitable for alternating electrodes.
current only.
Running cost Cheaper running costs due to Added costs due to the use
the use of an installed power of electric motors or internal
supply. combustion engines
Voltage Constant open circuit voltage. The open circuit voltage can be
control varied by the operator.
Arc length Limited arc length. Greater tolerance in arc length

due to the characteristics of the
machine.
Table 11.1 – Comparison of AC and DC machines

Welding machines
There are various types of welding machines available to accommodate the wide range
of welding processes and applications that comprise ‘welding’.
Welding machines range from small ‘hobby type’ machines putting out as little as
100 amps, to large industrial types with outputs in the thousands of amps.
To ensure the safety of the welding operator, the open circuit voltage (OCV) of welding
machines is restricted by regulations to:
zz AC – maximum OCV 80 V
zz DC – maximum OCV 110 V.
AC machines
When an AC mains supply is available, it is possible to use a step-down transformer to
reduce the supply voltage of 415 V to a safe OCV of around 70–80 V. At the same time,
current is increased so as to provide sufficient heat for welding.
Mains supply (P) (S)
PRIMARY SECONDARY
(P) (S)
Fig 11.2 – Step-down transformer
The step-down welding transformer consists of a laminated soft iron core carrying two
coils which are not electrically connected. The first is connected to the supply (primary).
Voltage applied across the first coil will produce, by induction, a voltage in the second
coil. The value of this secondary (induced) voltage will be proportional to the ratio
between the turns in the two coils. If each coil has an equal number of turns, equal
voltage will appear at the secondary connections. If however a transformer has
400 turns in the primary coil and 50 turns in the secondary coil, then a primary voltage
of 400 V will induce 50 V to appear at the secondary connections.
The power into the welding machine is calculated by multiplying the volts by the amps
and is expressed as volt-amps (VA). This figure is generally quite large and divided by
1000 and expressed as kilovolt amperes (kVA).
Power IN = volts x amps.
Therefore – 400 V x 50 A = 20 000 VA.

Since transformers have very low losses, we can consider here that the total power
put into the machine must equal the power output. Therefore, in this machine which is
theoretically 100% efficient:
Power OUT = 20 000 VA.
The output voltage is determined by the ratio of the windings of the transformer.
Therefore in this case, the output voltage will be equal to 50 V.
If power = amps x volts, it can be seen that:
AMPS = POWER
VOLTS
Therefore, in our welding machine, the output current is equal to:
20 000 = 400 A
50 V.
The output current of 400 A at 50 V would now be suitable for welding, particularly if
some form of current control were added.
We have considered a transformer that was theoretically 100% efficient, however
in practice this would not be the case. Let’s say that our transformer was only 80%
efficient; this means that we would have a power loss of 20%.
Since the open circuit voltage is determined by the ratio of the input and output
windings of the machine and is therefore fixed, the power loss would be in the form
of reduced output amperage and heat. A loss also occurs in the output voltage of the
machine because as the output current increases, the energy required to build up the
magnetic field and then collapse it also increases (drooping characteristic). Therefore,
our load voltage and output amperage would be 25 V @ 320 A.
DC machines
Direct current for welding may be obtained from a generator set, a transformer rectifier
unit or an inverter.
Generators
A welding generator basically consists of an armature carrying a number of windings
that rotate in a magnetic field produced by electro-magnets (field coils). The passage of
the armature through this field induces a voltage through the windings. The current is
collected by carbon brushes running on a copper commutator at one end of the rotating
armature and current will flow when the circuit is made. The armature is rotated by an
electric motor connected to an AC supply or by a diesel or petrol engine.

Electrode positive
GENERATOR
2
3
heat
1
3
Work
heat
Electron flow -ve to +ve
Fig 11.3 – Direct current circuit with electrode positive
Welding generators are constructed to produce high current flow at the comparatively
low voltages suitable for welding. The current produced by the generator should
be steady and the voltage must not fluctuate during welding. A steady current is
maintained by compensation coils or reactors to absorb current fluctuations and
produce a more stable arc.
Generators can be engine driven using either petrol or diesel engines. These machines
offer the advantage of being portable and are popular for site work where line power is
unavailable. Some generators also provide auxiliary power, which is useful for power
tools and lighting.
Most modern portable power supplies utilise a highly efficient high frequency alternator
and electronics to provide both AC and/or DC current at constant voltage, or constant
current type outputs suitable for use in a wide range of welding operations.
Rectifiers
A rectifier is a device that permits current flow in one direction only and can therefore
be used to convert AC to DC. They can be supplied as an individual unit, but most
often are incorporated into the welding power source. The rectifier consists of metal
plates coated with a selenium compound of silicon diodes, each unit having the special
property of allowing the current to flow in one direction only. This means that when an
alternating voltage is applied, only the positive half cycles are effective. This ‘half wave
rectification’ is undesirable and uneconomic, so the rectifier units are arranged in the
form of a bridge to achieve ‘full wave rectification’.
Transformer/rectifiers
Where both AC and/or DC welding current is desirable, for example with gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW), or when DC is required from mains supply (eg for gas metal arc
welding (GMAW)), a transformer/rectifier is commonly selected. GMAW machines
usually provide DC output. Manual metal arc welding (MMAW) and GTAW machines
usually provide both AC and DC output. By means of a switch or by changing leads,
the welder can select either positive or negative polarity on the DC output.
Most GTAW machines are equipped with a high frequency oscillator that provides
a high frequency spark to enable the arc to be started without the electrode making
contact with the work. The high frequency spark may be used simply to start the
arc when using DC, or may be continuous to re-establish and maintain a steady arc
with AC.

Half wave rectification Full wave rectification
+ +
0 0
_ _
Current regulator Full wave rectifier
Diode rectifiers
AC
supply Secondary
primary
Fig 11.4 – Single phase transformer with bridge (full wave) rectifier
Inverters
Inverters are fast taking over from other types of welding machines as they are able
to provide AC and smooth stable DC output at high efficiency levels and they feature
lightweight construction.
The machines operate on either 240 V or 415 V AC input current and immediately
rectify this to DC, using a series of high temperature diodes. This DC current is stored
in filter capacitors and then converted to an oscillated AC output in an oscillator stage
at a much higher frequency than the input supply. This high voltage/high frequency
signal is then fed into a high efficiency transformer primary coil and high frequency AC
current is produced in the secondary coil. The frequency can be anything from 5 kHz
upward, depending on the design and type of output required.
Because of the high frequency AC generated by the oscillator, the weight of
transformers can be reduced dramatically because there is no magnetic loss or heat
loss through the windings, therefore much greater transformer efficiencies can be
achieved.
Now that a high frequency, low voltage but high current power supply has been
created, it can be used as high frequency AC welding power for MMAW or GTAW of
aluminium. Alternatively, the AC can then be rectified into DC current again and passed
through a second filtering system to produce a very smooth DC current flow. Welding
machines with an output frequency of around 5 kHz demonstrate a characteristic
whistling sound during welding.
Inverter welding machines have very good electronic controls that offer excellent
control over the characteristics, voltage and current. They are also very efficient and
highly portable, due to their reduced weight.

The inverter cycle

zz mains current rectified to DC and stored
zz DC is oscillated to high frequency
zz HF/high voltage AC is transformed to low voltage AC
zz AC rectified to produce DC
zz DC filtered to smooth current.
Power switches Output rectifier

50 Hz/AC DC DC AC AC Output DC
1 2 3 4 5
5 kHz
Input rectifier Transformer Filter
Fig 11.5 – Inverter cycle
Amperage control
If a welding operator draws current direct from a transformer with no form of current
control, the welding current is fixed and will only be limited by the resistance of the
arc, the welding leads and transformer characteristics. Current may be excessive and
there will be no means of enabling the operator to select the correct setting for the job.
Some method of current control is required if a machine is to be practical to use. Four
common types of current control devices are described here.
Movable coil
This consists of a special arrangement in the transformer so that the distance between
the primary and secondary windings may be varied, enabling the amount of current
induced in the secondary coil to be varied.
Amperage is usually selected by winding a hand wheel or shifting a lever. This action
moves the primary coil in the machine either closer to or away from the secondary
coil, which is usually mounted on the machine base. The closer the two coils are
together, the greater the magnetic force between them and consequently the higher
the amperage. As the coils are moved further apart, efficiency is lowered – resulting in
reduced current output.

Iron core
80
Primary
coil
(movable)
Lead
screw Minimum output
E
Secondary
coil
(fixed)
0 100 200
I
Base
Iron core
80
Primary Maximum output
coil
(movable)
Lead
screw
E
Secondary
coil
(fixed)
0 100 200
I
Base
Fig 11.6 – Moveable coil AC transformer
Resistance
Electrical resistance in a circuit opposes the flow of current. By varying the resistance
in the welding circuit, the amperage can be controlled. This is usually done by
passing the current through one variable resistance coil, or a series of coils with fixed
resistance. Resistance is inefficient where high currents are used, as large amounts of
heat are generated.

Resistance
coils
Transformer 50
50
30
20
Primary
10
power in Machine terminal
5
Primary Secondary Machine terminal

coils coils
Work piece
Fig 11.7 – Fixed resistance coils
With machines as in Fig 11.7, amperage is selected by pushing in buttons to make

contact with the appropriate resistance coil. Each coil allows only a certain amperage
to flow through it. The more coils selected, the greater the amperage.
Moving core choke

This consists of a coil of wire or copper strip heavy enough to carry the welding current,
which is wound around an iron core. This induces a counter-voltage that chokes back
on the current flow. By adjusting the amount of iron within the coil, the amount of
current can be controlled. The further the core is pushed into the coil, the greater the
choking effect, consequently less amperage flow.
A strong magnetic field is also generated and this will tend to draw the core into the
coil, so a locking device is necessary.
Transformer
Machine terminal
Machine terminal
Primary Secondary Work piece

coils coils
Fig 11.8 – Moving core choke transformer

Reactors
Various forms of reactors are used to control welding current. By saturating the
laminated iron core of the reactor with the magnetic flux of direct current, the available
output alternating current is reduced. In DC circuits, the current passes through the
reactor prior to being converted to DC in the rectifier section of the power source.
AC DC
0
Line (AC) AC
Control
Fig 11.9 – Saturable reactor
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

Modern welding machines use silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) devices to provide a
‘one knob’ output control system. The SCR circuit is fitted into the transformer output
circuit and is an electronic device that can be switched on and off at various points
in the AC cycle. When this is coupled with a feedback circuit, the output voltage and
current can be easily controlled. These machines can provide AC and/or DC current
choice and may also offer constant current or constant voltage type output from the
same machine.
Control
knob
+DC
AC AC
-DC
Fig 11.10 – Silicon control rectifier (SCR)

Machine characteristic
Further to classifying welding machines as AC or DC, welding machines are also
classified according to their characteristic output curve. Machines are classified as
either:
zz constant current (CC) – also known as drooping characteristic
zz constant voltage (CV) – also known as constant potential of flat characteristic.
The machine characteristic is often referred to as the slope of the machine, as it can be
seen that the output curve slopes downward.
(a) 70 (b)
60
VOLTS
VOLTS
50 45
40
30 30
20 15
10
0 0 100 200 300 400
100 200 300
AMPS AMPS
Fig 11.11 – Volt/amp curves (a) constant current machines (CC),

(b) constant voltage machines (CV)
The curves on the above graphs represent the power output of each type of machine;
they show voltage output at a given load amperage. It can be seen from the output
curves that a change in arc voltage produces a change in the output amperage of the
power source.
Some welding processes (such as GMAW) are intolerant of changes in arc voltage.
Others (such as MMAW or GTAW) are intolerant of fluctuations in amperage. Because
the arc length (electrical stick-out with GMAW) varies by natural movement of the
operator’s hand during welding, resistance across the arc varies. An increase of arc
length would cause an increase in arc voltage and a decrease in amperage. Shortening
the arc length would have the opposite effect. These fluctuations in amperage
and voltage are controlled by manufacturing machines which have the desired
characteristic curve.
Constant current machines

Constant current machines translate fluctuations in arc length to changes in arc voltage
and permit little change in the output amperage. This is desirable in hand held welding
processes such as MMAW or GTAW where changes in arc voltage have little effect on
welding, but fluctuations in amperage would make it difficult for the welding operator to
control the welding process.

Constant voltage machines
Constant voltage machines are designed to hold the arc voltage steady and allow the
amperage to fluctuate with minor variations in arc or stick-out length. In power feed
processes such as GMAW, arc conditions are greatly affected by even small changes
in arc voltage. Therefore, changes which would naturally occur in stick-out length with
the movement of the operator’s hand are translated to fluctuations in amperage whilst
holding the arc voltage constant. It should be noted that small variations in stick-out
length will produce relatively large changes in amperage.
Variable slope machines

Some machines allow adjustment of the open circuit voltage, however not only does
the OCV change but the slope (current response) of the machine changes also.
It can be seen from Fig 11.12 that when the maximum OCV is selected, the machine
has the output curve associated with a constant current machine. When the minimum
OCV is selected, a different output curve results. This slope is infinitely variable
between the maximum and the minimum OCV. This type of machine is ideal for
applications such as pipe welding, as it gives the operator the ability to control
amperage by means of adjusting the arc length.
Maximum OCV
VOLTAGE / VOLTS
Minimum OCV b
50
125 A
27 V
32
Arc voltage
22
100 200
Current amps 15
Fig 11.12 – Typical volt-ampere curves possible with a variable voltage power source.
The steep curve (a) allows minimum current change. The flatter curve (b) permits the
welder to control current by changing the length of the arc

Duty cycle
An essential factor in the performance of any welding machine is the machine duty
cycle.
The duty cycle is the percentage of a five minute period that the machine can operate
at the rated output amperage. It is important to realise that:
zz the duty cycle rating may not be at the maximum current output of the machine
zz semi-automatic and fully automatic processes may require that the machine be
rated at or near 100%
zz if the current required is higher than the amperage at which the machine is rated,
the operating time will have to be reduced
zz welding at an amperage lower than the amperage at which the machine is rated
will enable the operating time to be increased
zz simply reading the maximum output current on the dial of a welding machine is
not a reliable indicator of the machine's performance capability.
Example
A welding machine is rated at 60% duty cycle at 300 A on the front label.
The maximum amperage output of this machine is 350 A.
At 100% duty cycle the allowable amperage would be 232 A.
Selecting a welding power source

The choice of machine depends on three major factors:
zz the type of work the machine is required to do
zz the operating conditions – field or site work, shop work, power available
zz the type of machine that satisfies type of work and operating conditions for the
least cost.
There are six basic machine types commonly available. These are:
zz AC transformers
zz transformer rectifiers
zz inverters
zz motor generators
zz independently driven generator
zz engine driven generator.

AC transformers
These stationary machines require mains current to operate. They are cheap to buy
and maintain and electrically efficient, but offer limited control of the welding current
and restricted electrode choice.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 11.13 – AC transformer
Transformer rectifiers
These stationary machines provide AC/DC welding current from an AC main by means
of a rectifier. They offer quiet efficient operation with virtually no moving parts. These
machines are commonly used for GTAW and GMAW.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 11.14 – Transformer rectifier

Inverters
Inverters also require mains primary current. Compared to other machines of similar
current capacity they are compact, lightweight and provide a smooth DC output. They
are commonly used as MMAW, GMAW and GTAW machines.
6
7
Operating Controls
5
1 Negative (–) dinse connection 8
2 Positive (+) dinse connection 4
3 Overload protection indicator 3

4 Welding current regulator
5 Main power switch and signal light
2
6 Carry strap
7
7 Selector switch for welding process
8 Machine body 1
9 Work clamp and cable
10 Electrode holder and cable
10
BOC Limited ©2006 9
Fig 11.15 – Inverter
AC motor generators
An AC electric motor and a DC generator are built on a common shaft. The AC motor
turns the shaft and direct current is produced in the generator section and output to the
welding terminals. These machines offer smooth current with a choice of polarity. OCV
small machines (typically to 300 A) are commonly used for MMAW and larger machines
are commonly used to provide current for SAW.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 11.16 – AC motor generator

Independently driven generator
These machines are normally purchased where a power take off (PTO) is available,
such as those on a truck, tractor or 4WD. Welding current is then available wherever
the host vehicle can go. Often this type of machine has a power pack built in to provide
power for lights, drills, grinders and other equipment.
Fig 11.17 – Independently driven generator
Engine driven generator

These machines are DC generators or AC alternators with electronic control coupled
to a diesel or petrol internal combustion engine. They are extremely portable and
are commonly used for site construction work. These machines are equipped with
governors to maintain constant engine speed and with idling devices to reduce engine
speed when welding is not in progress. Most machines are water cooled, but machines
with air cooled engines are available for light duty use. Initial cost and maintenance
cost for machines of this type is high. Diesel engines cost more than petrol engines, but
are more economical to run and maintain.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 11.18 – Engine driven alternator

Chapter 12 – MMAW, arc conditions
and electrodes
Introduction
Manual metal arc welding (MMAW) is one the earliest of the arc welding processes, but
has remained in popular use despite the introduction of newer and more sophisticated
processes. Indeed this lack of sophistication is one of the major attractions of the
process.
zz The process
{{ applications of the process
zz Manual metal arc welding (MMAW) electrodes
{{ AS/NZS 4854
{{ AS/NZS 4855
{{ AS/NZS 4856
{{ AS/NZS 4857.

Chapter 12 – MMAW, arc conditions and electrodes
The process
zz A low voltage, high amperage current flows to create an arc between the tip of
the electrode and the workpiece. This generates the heat for welding and causes
the workpiece and the tip of the electrode to melt.
zz The flux coating on the electrode decomposes (burns) due to the intense heat
of the arc and generates a gaseous shield which protects the weld pool and
surrounding hot metal from the atmosphere.
zz The electrode melts off and is transferred across the arc in the form of droplets.
The molten metal provided by the electrode adds to the molten parent metal and
they become the weld metal when solidified.
zz Molten electrode flux that is transferred across the arc acts as a scavenger,
picking up impurities from the surface of the parent metal. The slag that forms
covers the weld pool, then solidifies and protects the hot weld metal as it cools.
zz The flux constituents provide arc ionisation (the air gap between the tip of the
electrode becomes electrically conductive), enabling the use of alternating
current.
Direction of Electrode flux

travel Electrode
Arc column
or
Arc plasma
Solidified slag Shielding gases
Weld metal
Parent metal
Fig 12.1 – The arc
Applications of the process

Many welders have grown up using the MMAW process. This familiarity and the fact
that it is simple to set up and use, make it first choice in many instances. The low cost
of equipment makes the process accessible to most people and MMAW has no special
requirements such as external gas shielding or high frequency arc initiation. Sound
welds are easily produced and the process suffers from no tendency towards particular
weld defects such as lack of fusion, which is common when using the gas metal arc
welding process.

MMAW is widely used for:
zz structural work
zz pressure vessels
zz piping
zz maintenance welding
zz site construction
zz general fabrication.

One of the greatest advantages of the MMAW process is its versatility. A wide range of
consumables is available. Set-up time for use is low, making the process ideal for small
jobs, short production runs and where the welding is carried out on site.
MMAW offers many advantages over other welding processes, including:
zz low capital cost for equipment
zz versatility across a wide range of applications
zz simple reliable equipment
zz low maintenance of equipment
zz ideal for site work
zz wide operator appeal
zz sound reliable welds.
Limitations of the process

Although faster than some welding processes, MMAW has lower deposition rates
than many of the newer welding processes that employ higher current densities.
The process has a low operator duty cycle with the welder spending much of his/her
time changing electrodes and chipping slag. These two factors combine to limit the
application of the process where high production rates are required.
Equipment
Equipment for manual metal arc welding consists of the following.
zz A power source – Usually a constant current type output transformer or
transformer rectifier is used, although various other types of power sources such
as generators or inverters can also be used. The function of the power source is
to supply welding current with sufficient amperage to provide the necessary heat,
at a voltage that is safe to use.
zz Electrode hand piece and lead – To carry current to the arc via the electrode.
zz Work return lead – Connects the workpiece to the power source, thereby
completing the welding circuit. A closed circuit is necessary for current flow.

Transformer
Electrode Work Electrode

terminal terminal holder
Electrode
Work return
lead Arc
Electrode Work
lead
Fig 12.2 – Manual metal arc welding equipment
MMAW variables
The major variables of the MMAW process are:
zz amperage
zz arc length
zz travel speed
zz angle of approach
zz angle of travel.
Arc voltage is not considered to be a variable in the MMAW process, as this is

essentially dependent on the electrode flux type and only varies from around 22–28 V.
Amperage
An increase in amperage will:
zz increase the heat of the welding arc
zz increase fusion and penetration
zz give a higher deposition rate
zz increase arc force
zz enable easier arc starting
zz give a more fluid weld pool
zz increase spatter
zz increase emission of ultraviolet radiation.

Correct current
Current too low
Rounded
bead
Low
penetration
Trapped
slag
Current too high

Flattened
bead
Excessive
Undercut spatter
Fig 12.3 – Effects of amperage
A decrease in amperage will have the opposite effect.

As the size and thickness of the metal to be welded increases, so the heat required for
fusion increases, necessitating higher amperages. Also, the higher the heat input the
slower the cooling rate of the weld zone. Slow cooling rates are generally desirable
when welding most metals.
A simple equation for welders is:
Voltage x amperage = heat.

Arc length
Arc length is fairly self regulating in MMAW, because of the constant current type output
characteristics of the power source. An increase in arc length will, however, increase
voltage slightly whilst current will remain relatively stable. The slight voltage increase
will cause the arc width to increase and decrease overall heat into the weld area.
Typical arc length for MMAW is about equal to the electrode core wire diameter. Too
long an arc will cause loss of metal transfer across the arc and lead to poor shielding.
A short arc may cause the electrode to freeze into the weld zone.
Good penetration.
Fine spatter
Neat, even
weld run
Arc length correct
Poor penetration.
Coarse spatter
Rough, uneven
weld run
Arc length too long
Electrode stuck
to work Narrow,
uneven bead
Arc length too short
Fig 12.4 – Effects of arc length

Travel speed
The ideal travel speed for MMAW is determined by where the arc (and thus heat) is
positioned on the material surface, balanced by the weld size and shape required and
finally where the molten flux is running in relation to the arc.
Travelling too fast will not allow sufficient arc time to heat and melt the parent metal.
The electrode core wire will also not have enough time to be deposited in sufficient
quantities to produce an even width and height. The resultant weld will be low in
penetration and have a skinny, rope-like appearance.
Travelling too slow may allow the weld to run under the arc and therefore decrease
heating and melting of the parent metal. The weld and slag may react with the arc and
thus produce a rough looking weld that may also have slag inclusions.
Correct speed
Too fast
Too slow
Fig 12.5 – Effects of travel speed

Angle of approach
Another simple rule for welders is that the metal goes where you point the electrode.
Following that rule, it can be seen in the fillet weld example below that to get an even
weld build up, the electrode must be pointed evenly at both plates, ie 45° (half the
angle). Also the welding arc is ‘directional’, ie metal transfer is essentially along the line
of the electrode.
Fig 12.6 – Angle of approach
Unless attention is given to the angle of approach, defects such as slag inclusions, lack
of fusion and penetration and unacceptable weld contours may result.
Angle of travel
Direction of travel
Fig 12.7 – Angle of travel
The angle of travel is established essentially as a means of keeping the molten weld
pool behind the arc and preventing the slag from catching up to electrode and causing
slag inclusions. Although the angle of travel is commonly set at 70–80°, many factors
such as amperage, electrode type and travel speed will determine the actual angle
used.
It should be noted, however, that the angle of travel used should be the minimum
required for slag control, as laying the electrode too flat causes problems such as poor
appearance, excessive spatter, reduced penetration and a narrow, convex bead shape.

MMAW electrodes
Wire
O
Core wire
Electrode
coating
(flux)
Fig 12.8 – Electrode construction
The MMAW electrode consists of a core of wire surrounded by a flux coating. The wire
is generally of similar composition to the metal to be welded. The flux is applied to the
wire by the process of extrusion. For welding carbon and low alloy steels (the metals
most commonly fabricated using the MMAW process), electrodes will have one of four
flux types, which are:
zz cellulose type coating
zz rutile type coating
zz hydrogen-controlled coating (low hydrogen)
zz iron powder type coating.
AS/NZS 4855 covers the full range of coatings.

The flux coatings (from which the electrode types take their name) account for the
major differences between electrode types.
The constituents of the flux coating are carefully controlled so as to give desirable
running characteristics and weld metal properties.

Among these desirable running characteristics are:

zz arc stability
zz ease of striking
zz elimination of porosity
zz minimum spatter
zz elimination of noxious fumes and odours
zz a tough durable coating
zz control of penetration
zz high deposition rates
zz desirable physical and mechanical weld metal properties.
The above list is by no means exhaustive and many characteristics are incompatible,
eg deep penetration and minimum spatter. Therefore when choosing an electrode
for use, compromises must be made. The choice of an electrode for a particular
application depends upon:
zz the composition of the parent metal
zz the size and thickness of the parent metal
zz the mechanical and physical properties required of the weld metal
zz the welding position
zz the amount of penetration required
zz the amount of spatter allowable
zz available welding current
zz deposition rate required
zz appearance
zz cost
zz slag detachability
zz weld contour and size
zz fluidity of the slag
zz operator appeal.
Functions of the flux coating

In the early days of arc welding, bare wire electrodes were used. The results obtained
from these electrodes left much to be desired. Over the years, electrodes have been
improved and flux coatings have evolved to the stage where the deposited weld metal
now in many cases has better metallurgical properties than the parent metal.
The flux coating of the electrode has many functions, among these:
zz to provide a gaseous shield to protect the weld from atmospheric contamination
zz to provide arc ionisation, which gives a stable arc and enables the use of AC to
control the chemical composition and properties of the deposited weld metal and
control the deposition rate
zz to control spatter
zz to influence the degree of penetration.

Additionally, it provides slag which performs several functions. The slag:
zz forms a protective cover over the weld metal to prevent the formation of oxides
while the weld metal is cooling
zz acts as a scavenger to remove oxides and impurities from the weld
zz helps to produce the correct bead shape and improve weld appearance
zz slows the cooling rate of the weld metal
zz enables ‘positional’ welding.
Some of the ingredients used in the flux are:

zz wood pulp (cellulose), titanium dioxide (rutile), limestone, fluorspar, silica,
feldspar – for producing slag and shielding gas
zz ferro-manganese and ferro-silicon – used as de-oxidisers
zz potassium and sodium silicates – used as binders
zz clays and gums – used as binders
zz ferro-chromium, ferro-molybdenum and nickel powder – for alloying
zz iron powder and iron oxide – to increase deposition.
Electrode coating types
cellulose rutile basic rutile plus rutile plus

(wood pulp (titanium (calcium iron oxide iron powder
base) dioxide) carbonate)
As shown above, there are five basic electrode coating types used to make electrodes
for the welding of carbon and low alloy steels. Reference should be made to
AS/NZS 4855 for the full range of coatings.
These coating types are then arranged into four basic electrode types or groups,
which are:
zz cellulose
zz rutile
zz hydrogen-controlled
zz iron powder.
The general characteristics for each of these groups are as follows. For the purpose of
this text, only part of the ISO 2560-X classification has been shown.
Cellulose type
These electrodes contain a high percentage of alpha flock (wood flour) and from 3–7%
moisture in the coating. This provides the fiery, deep-penetrating arc characteristic of
cellulose electrodes. Cellulose electrodes run on low amperages compared to rutile
electrodes (approximately 15% lower) and the thin, fluid slag does not completely cover
the finished weld deposit. High spatter levels are produced and the weld appearance is
characterised by coarse, uneven ripples.

Applications: Used for the first (root) run on pipes and plates, welding in the vertical
position (particularly vertical down) and wherever deep penetration is required.
Storage conditions: Should contain 3–7% moisture for best results (do not store in
electrode ovens).
Rutile type
These electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium-dioxide and are known as the
general purpose group of electrodes. They are used for the general welding of low
carbon steels and are suitable for use in all welding positions.
Rutile electrodes have a smooth running and stable arc, low to moderate spatter levels
and moderate penetration. Most of them operate on AC or DC operation and have
good appearance and easy slag detachability.
Rutile electrodes may also have small amounts of iron oxide added, to give them a
fiery more penetrating arc.
Applications: Used for general purpose welding on most joint types and weld positions.
Storage conditions: Rutile electrodes have no special storage requirements. Storage in
a warm dry place is sufficient.
Electrode
E4312 E4313 E4314
diameter
2.6 mm 50−90 50−90 60−110
3.25 mm 90−140 90−140 95−150
4.0 mm 130−190 130−190 140−200
Table 12.1 – Approximate amperages for rutile electrodes
Hydrogen-controlled (low hydrogen) type

These electrodes have coatings of calcium carbonate and are designed to produce low
hydrogen levels in the deposited weld metal as a means of minimising cracking in the
heat-affected zone. They are characterised by a globular transfer of metal across the
arc, low penetration as a means of minimising weld metal dilution and fluid slag.
Applications: Hydrogen-controlled electrodes are used for welding high strength steels
and produce tough, ductile weld metal with tensile strengths in excess of 480 MPa.
Amperages used are similar to rutile electrodes, but they require a minimum of
60 OCV.
Storage conditions: Should contain less than 0.2% moisture. They are supplied in
sealed packets or cans to prevent absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. Upon
opening, the electrodes should be transferred to an electrode oven and conditioned at
300 °C for at least one hour before use. Once they have been conditioned (all moisture
is driven off), they should be kept at a temperature of 100 °C minimum. They should be
used ‘hot’ from the oven and not allowed to cool.

Iron powder/iron oxide
These electrodes have coatings that contain a high percentage of iron, in the form of
iron powder and/or iron oxide. They are characterised by high deposition rates, smooth
arcs, low spatter, good appearance and excellent slag detachability. The heavy flux
coating necessitates that higher amperages be used than for other electrode types.
Applications: Electrodes containing iron powder in the flux coating are commonly
used for structural welding of low carbon steels and are suitable for welding in the flat
position only.
Care and storage of electrodes

The condition of electrodes can seriously affect the quality of the welded joint,
particularly when dealing with alloy and high strength steels.
Types of electrode deterioration

The condition of covered electrodes may deteriorate due to the following types of
damage to the electrode covering:
zz excessive absorption or loss of moisture
zz mechanical breakage of coverings
zz formation of surface deposits
zz contamination.
Excessive absorption or loss of moisture

During the manufacturing process, covered electrodes are dried to a predetermined
moisture level, giving the optimum welding characteristics for that particular electrode.
Hydrogen-controlled electrodes require the minimum of moisture; on the other hand,
cellulose electrodes require up to 7% moisture.
The absorption of excessive moisture by the covering, either from the atmosphere,
condensation, or from other sources, can give the following difficulties:
zz weld metal porosity
zz excessive spatter
zz arc instability
zz poor weld contour
zz undercut
zz difficulty with slag removal
zz blistering of the flux coating, especially with cellulose types
zz increased risk of lamellar tearing
zz increased risk of hydrogen-induced cracking.
Mechanical breakage of coverings

Covered electrodes are reasonably robust, but the covering can be damaged by rough,
careless handling or by excessive bending. Loss of covering leads to erratic arcing and
inadequate protection of the molten weld metal. For this reason, it is good practice to
discard electrodes with mechanically damaged coverings.

Formation of surface deposits

Electrodes that have been kept for long periods of time in non-ideal storage conditions
usually form a white powdery deposit on the flux coating. This deposit is produced by
a chemical reaction between the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the sodium
silicate of the flux binder. This reaction forms crystals of sodium carbonate and silica
powder. If there are heavy deposits on the covering, it is possible that rusting of the
core wire has occurred, which may lead to hydrogen-induced cracking. Heavy surface
deposits indicate that re-drying of the electrodes is required.
Contamination
The covering of electrodes can become contaminated by oil, grease, paint and other
fluids through bad handling or storage practices. Some contaminants such as paint
may introduce undesirable material into the weld or interfere with the welding process.
Oil, for instance, is also a source of hydrogen and may lead to hydrogen-induced
cracking.
Recommended practices
Deterioration of the types described can be prevented or sometimes corrected by
adopting good practices in packaging, handling, transport and storage.
Storage of electrodes
Electrodes are supplied in sealed packets or cans to prevent absorption of moisture.
They should be stored in a moisture-free environment that has a fairly even
temperature. Electrode packets, cans and bulk packs should not be opened or
unsealed until required for use.
Once the electrode container is opened, the following procedure should be adopted.
zz Mild steel electrodes should be stored in a warm dry place.
zz Cellulose electrodes must not be stored in an electrode oven.
zz Hydrogen-controlled electrodes should be conditioned and stored in an electrode
oven at 100 °C minimum.
zz When obtaining electrodes from storage, they should be used in order of receipt.
This method will ensure that electrodes do not remain in storage for any length of
time.
Re-drying of electrodes
Re-drying of electrodes when their moisture content exceeds the recommended range
should be carried out in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. Further to
this, WTIA Technical Note 3 ‘Care and Storage of Manual Arc Welding Steel Electrodes’
provides guidance in this area.
zz Electrodes other than hydrogen-controlled that are affected by excessive
moisture content can be re-dried at 120 °C for approximately one hour.
zz Hydrogen-controlled electrodes that are affected by excessive moisture content
can be re-dried at 400 °C for half to one hour's duration. If facilities to carry out
this procedure are not available, then drying for a minimum of one hour at 250 °C
will suffice for most applications.

The re-drying or reconditioning of hydrogen-controlled electrodes is not

recommended for critical welds.
Electrode classification
MMAW electrodes are classified under Australian Standard® AS/NZS 4855 – Welding
consumables – covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine
grain steels – Classification.
This standard deals with the manufacture, testing, marking and packaging and
classification of covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding.
The classification system of the code provides a mechanism for identification of the
various electrodes and a description of the electrode and their characteristics and
applications.
AS/NZS 4855 classifies electrodes using letters and numbers. An example of the full
classification system using letters and numbers is available in Appendices 3 and 4 at
the back of this book. This text deals with the classification system as per ISO 2560B.
Electrode
Approximately 0.1 x tensile
strength in N/mm2
Flux type
Weld position
Welding current Suffix
E XX1 XX2 XX3
The classification system consists of five letters and figures. To assist with the above
explanation, the symbols X1, X2, X3 etc are used to represent the variables.
E48
The first group of letters relate to the consumable. E stands for ‘electrode’. After E the
two numericals XX1 refer to 1/10th of the minimum strength of the deposited weld,
which is measured in Newton millimetres squared. This code only covers electrodes
that are 430 or 490 N/mm2.
15
A second set of two-digit numbers XX2 are used to represent the flux type, the welding
position or positions in which the electrode is capable of making satisfactory welds and
the welding current to be used.
zz Optional indicators relating to notch toughness grading, attainable diffusible
hydrogen status and coating moisture absorption resistance.
A brief summary of the electrode types covered in AS/NZS 4855 follows in Table 12.2.

Welding position, current and covering
This table has been removed. It was reproduced from Table 4B on

page 6 of AS/NZS 4855:2007.
Table 12.2 – Welding position, current and covering type from AS/NZS 4855
EXX03 electrodes
Electrodes of this type contain a mixture of titanium dioxide (rutile) and calcium
carbonate (lime), so they share some characteristics of rutile electrodes with some
characteristics of basic electrodes.

EXX10/11 electrodes (E4310, E4311, E4910)
Electrodes of EXX10 and EXX11 classification have thin coatings that contain at least
15% cellulose and up to 30% titania as rutile or titanium white.
Cellulose electrodes operate with a forceful, deeply penetrating spray-type arc
with fairly high spatter. As a result of the decomposition of the cellulose material, a
voluminous gas shield is formed around the arc region, protecting the weld metal from
atmospheric contamination. The slag is very fluid, thin, friable and easily removed when
cold but may not appear to completely cover the deposit.
These electrodes are readily used in all positions and are suitable for all types of
welding on low-carbon steel. Special applications recommended for these electrodes
involve changes in welding position during the running of the electrode (eg pipe
welding in situ). Sizes larger than 5 mm are not generally used in all positions.
For optimum performance, the coating of these electrodes must contain 3–7%
moisture. Operating characteristics will be adversely affected if excessive drying
occurs.
Owing to the burn out of the coating and high spatter loss, maximum current values are
limited. However, with current values near the maximum, these electrodes can be used
for deep penetrating welds in the flat and horizontal positions (eg square butt joints).
EXX11 electrodes can be used with AC or DC current. EXX10 electrodes can only be
used with DC. When operating on DC, positive polarity is preferred.
EXX12 electrodes (E4312)

EXX12 electrodes have thin coatings containing a high proportion of titania as rutile,
titanium white or ilmenite.
These electrodes are designed to operate from AC or DC power sources. Electrode
negative is the preferred polarity with DC. The arc is usually stable at low open circuit
voltages.
They have a fairly viscous, full covering slag that is easily removed when cold, except
perhaps from the first run of a deep V. The arc is quiet, medium penetrating and with
low spatter.
These electrodes are recommended for general purpose use with structural fabrications
and sheet steels. Due to the viscosity of the slag, some of these electrodes are suitable
for vertical down welding.

EXX13 electrodes have thin coatings containing a high proportion of titania as rutile,
titanium white or ilmenite with the addition of basic materials to increase the fluidity of
the slag.
These electrodes demonstrate the same arc characteristics as EXX12 electrodes and
can be operated from AC or DC power sources.
Due to the fluid slag that the EXX13 electrode produces (more fluid than the other
types of rutile electrodes), the EXX13 electrodes are more suitable for welding in the
vertical up or overhead positions and are unsuitable for welding vertical down.


EXX14 electrodes have medium-thick coatings containing a high proportion of titania
white or ilmenite and sufficient iron powder to give metal recovery rates of 105–130%
of the mass of the core wire melted.
The slag is fairly viscous, full covering and easily removed when cool. It is sometimes
self releasing. The arc is medium penetrating and with low spatter.
These electrodes are successfully operated from AC or DC power sources including
those with low open circuit voltages.
Due to the medium-thick coating containing iron powder, operating characteristics
are improved, allowing touch welding to be carried out. Slag is not excessive and
these types of electrodes are recommended for use in general shop and structural
fabrication.
EXX15 and EXX16 electrodes (E4915, E4916)

EXX15 and EXX16 electrodes have coatings containing a high proportion of basic
material such as limestone and fluorides such as fluorspar. The coating ingredients are
specially selected for low hydrogen content and during manufacture the electrodes are
baked at high temperatures to remove moisture.
EXX15 electrodes are designed to operate from DC power sources only. EXX16 can be
operated satisfactorily on AC or DC, electrode positive being the preferred polarity for
these electrode types.
The arc is quiet, medium to low penetrating with globular transfer of metal from the
electrode to the weld pool and produces moderate spatter. The slag is very fluid, full
covering and easily removed when cool.
These electrodes are particularly recommended for steels affected by underbead
cracking. The virtual elimination of hydrogen from the arc atmosphere reduces the
possibility of the defect occurring in difficult to weld steels such as medium and high
carbon steels and low alloy high tensile steels. Tough, ductile welds are produced with
these electrodes and by keeping the hydrogen content low, pre-heat and post-heat
temperatures can be reduced. Other uses include the welding of highly restrained joints
in heavy sections as the tendency for weld metal cracking is reduced and the welding
of free machining (high sulphur content) steels as well as malleable cast iron.
It is recommended that as short an arc as possible be maintained in all positions of
welding to prevent porosity and that the electrode be used in a properly dried condition.

EXX18 electrodes have medium-thick coatings containing a high proportion of basic
material such as limestone, fluorides such as fluorspar and sufficient iron powder
to give metal recovery rates of 105–130% of the mass of the core wire melted.
Manufacture of these electrodes is very similar to that of the EXX15 and EXX16
electrodes, ensuring low hydrogen content.
Deposition rates are higher than with EXX15 and EXX16, owing to the iron
powder content and the extra thickness of the coating allows a higher current per
corresponding core wire diameter to be used.
They are suitable for use with AC or DC, electrode positive being the preferred polarity.

EXX19 electrodes
Electrodes of EXX19 classification have coatings based on the mineral ilmenite and
consequently have arc action and slag characteristics intermediate between the
EXX12/13 titania types and the EXX20 iron/manganese oxide type.
The electrodes are characterised by a rather fluid slag. They provide deeper
penetration than the EXX13 group and excellent radiographic quality weld metal. They
are designed for use on AC or DC electrode negative or positive and are suitable
for multi-pass welding steel up to 25 mm thick. Stable arc and good operational
characteristics provide smooth even beads in all positions including the vertical
(using the upward progression only). The weld metal has excellent ductility and crack
resistance, with good impact properties.

These electrodes have medium-thick coatings containing a high proportion of oxides
and/or silicates of iron and manganese.
Using either AC or DC electrode -ve, a spray type arc is produced with medium to deep
penetration according to the current being used. The slag is voluminous, completely
covers the deposit and is honeycombed on the underside. The slag is easily removed
even from the first run of a deep groove.
These electrodes are principally used for horizontal fillet and flat butt welds in heavy
carbon steel plate where good penetration is required.

EXX24 electrodes have thick coatings containing a high proportion of titania as rutile,
titanium white or ilmenite and sufficient iron powder to give metal recovery rates in
excess of 130% of the mass of the core wire melted.
Using AC or DC electrode -ve or +ve, these electrodes operate with a low to medium
penetrating, smooth spray type arc with very low spatter. The slag is fluid, full covering
and dense and when cool is self-releasing or easily removed.
Owing to the high iron powder content and increased coating thickness, high currents
are required.
These electrodes are recommended for the high speed welding of low carbon steel in
the flat and horizontal positions. A touch welding technique is normally used.

EXX27 electrodes have thick coatings containing a high proportion of oxides and/or
silicates or iron and manganese and sufficient iron powder to give metal recovery rates
in excess of 130% of the mass of core wire melted.
They are similar to the EXX20 electrodes, but contain iron powder to increase
deposition rates. They demonstrate similar arc characteristics and can be used with
AC or DC current. Electrode negative is the preferred polarity.
Recommended usage of these electrodes is in the flat and horizontal fillet positions and
they are particularly applicable to high speed welding of low carbon steel where good
penetration and ease of deslagging are required. Touch welding techniques are usually
employed.


EXX28 electrodes have thick coatings containing a high proportion of basic material
such as limestone and of fluorides such as fluorspar and sufficient iron powder to give
metal recovery rates in excess of 130% of the mass of core wire melted.
They operate with a medium penetrating spray type arc and low spatter. The slag
is fluid, full covering and easily removed. Power sources can be either AC or DC,
electrode positive being preferred.
These electrodes are restricted to use in the flat and horizontal positions and are
generally used where large amounts of low hydrogen weld metal in heavy sections is
required. Touch welding techniques are usually used.
As with all hydrogen-controlled electrodes, it is important to maintain a close arc to
reduce the possibility of porosity and that the electrodes are used in a properly dried
condition.
EXX48 electrodes
EXX48 electrodes demonstrate the same usability, composition and design
characteristics as EXX16 and EXX18 respectively. In addition, these electrodes are
specially designed for vertical down welding. Some electrodes of this type are designed
to provide a flat to slightly concave fully loaded penetration bead without undercut on
single V welding, such as in piping and pipelines.
EXX99 electrodes
The coating and running characteristics of electrodes in this classification are such that
one or more features prevent their classification in any of the preceding classes.
Examples
E4818 – A1 C/Mo deposit: 0.12% C / 0.4–0.6% Mo
Note: all electrodes in this group are of similar composition and have an Al suffix.
E5518 – B2 Cr/Mo deposit: 1.0–1.5% Cr / 0.4–0.65% Mo / 0.05–0.12% C
E5515 – B4L Cr/Mo deposit: 1.75–2.25% Cr / 0.4–0.65% Mo / 0.05% C
Australian Standard® 4854

AS/NZS 4854 specifies requirements for corrosion resisting chromium and chromium
nickel steel electrodes for MMAW. It covers electrodes in which the chromium content
exceeds 10.5% and the nickel content does not exceed 50%. These are essentially
stainless steels.
AS/NZS 4854 employs the letter ES for electrode; the AISI steel type of the core wire
and a usability designation for the flux type.

An example of the full classification system (B classification) is shown below.
Electrode
AISI steel type
Weld position
Flux type
E X1 X2 X3
The classification system consists of letters and figures. To assist with the above
explanation, the symbols X1, X2, X3 etc. are used to represent the variables.
Australian Standard® AS/NZS 4856 and AS/NZS 4857

The basic principles of classification AZ/NZS 4856 and 4857 are the same, however
there are some important differences.
AS/NZS 4856 and 4857 classify electrodes using letters and numbers. See Appendices
5 and 6 in the back of this book for more details.

Chapter 13 – Welding alloy steels
Introduction
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon or other additional elements. However, there are
many types or groups of steels and many grades within each group.
Steels can be classified into two main groups: plain carbon steels and alloy steels.
zz Plain carbon steels
zz Alloy steels
{{ general oxy of low alloy steels
{{ typical low alloy steels
{{ high alloy steels.

Plain carbon steels

Plain carbon steels have different amounts of carbon added to produce changes to the
The composition of plain carbon steel is:
zz iron nil
zz carbon 0.1–1.7%
zz phosphorous 0.04% max
zz silicon 0.3% max
zz sulphur 0.04% max
zz manganese 0.8% max.
Plain carbon steels may also be divided into three groups according to carbon content:
zz low carbon 0.1–0.3% carbon
zz medium carbon 0.3–0.5% carbon
zz high carbon 0.5–1.7% carbon.
Carbon has the greatest effect of any of the alloying elements. It only takes relatively
small changes in the carbon content of steel to bring about significant changes to
the mechanical properties of the steel. The effect of increasing carbon content in low
carbon steel is that it:
zz lowers the melting point
zz increases the tensile strength
zz increases hardness
zz increases hardenability
zz reduces ductility
zz reduces malleability
zz reduces weldability.
Plain carbon steels are an extremely useful and economical group of steels. The major
drawback of the plain carbon group of steels is the progressive reduction in ductility
and weldability that accompanies increases in carbon content.

Alloy steels
Alloy steels are those where the mechanical properties of the steel are controlled by
the addition of small amounts of carbon and the addition of other elements.
Alloy steels are divided into two basic groups:
zz low alloy steels – where the total alloy content is less than 5%
zz high alloy steels – where the total alloy content is greater than 5%.
Stainless steels and austenitic manganese steel are examples of high alloy steels in
common use.
The major advantage of these steels is that we can bring about improvements
in mechanical properties (such as hardness and tensile strength) without the
accompanying lack of ductility that occurs when carbon alone is used to improve
Further to this, we get a combination of desirable properties that the addition of each of
the alloying elements brings.
For example, if we alloyed a steel with:
chromium – to improve hardness, tensile strength and corrosion resistance
nickel – to improve toughness and promote a fine grain structure
molybdenum – to impart creep resistance,
we would finish up with a strong, tough, corrosion resistant, creep resistant steel.
Alloying elements in alloy steel

Some common alloying elements used in the manufacture of alloy steels and their
effects are as follows.
Manganese (Mn)
Manganese is added to plain carbon steels to counteract the effects of the oxygen
left over from the steel refining process (de-oxidiser). Manganese also combines with
any residual sulphur to reduce hot shortness. When used in alloy steel, manganese
slows down the transformation of austenite. Manganese will increase hardenability.
When present in quantities between 11–14%, manganese maintains an austenite grain
structure in steels at room temperature and confers the ability to work harden.
Chromium (Cr)
Chromium increases hardness and tensile strength without reducing ductility and
increases corrosion resistance at both high and low temperatures.
Chromium alloyed steels retain their strength and resist scaling at high temperatures.
Chromium increases hardenability and reduces weldability.
Nickel (Ni)
Nickel is a grain refiner and an austenite former. It improves tensile strength without
reducing ductility, ie improves toughness. Nickel improves corrosion resistance.

Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdenum will increase the hardenability of steels. It reduces temper brittleness
of chromium steels and reduces the tendency towards creep (the slow stretching
of a metal under stress at high temperatures). Molybdenum also raises the critical
temperature in steel.
Vanadium (V)
Vanadium improves the mechanical properties of heat treated steels and can induce
secondary hardening in high speed steels. Vanadium produces a fine grain structure
and is also used to produce magnet steels.
Tungsten (W)
Tungsten enables steel to remain hard at elevated temperatures and is used in the
manufacture of high speed steels.
Copper (Cu)
Copper helps steels to resist atmospheric corrosion and also brings about slight
increases in tensile strength.
Cobalt (Co)
Cobalt imparts the quality of red hardness, ie steels may remain hard even though they
are red hot.
Sulphur (S)
Sulphur improves the machinability of steels.
General weldability of low alloy steels

Low alloy steels are hardenable (most grades) and are therefore subject to possible
cracking as a result of cutting and welding if correct procedures are not followed. The
key to successful working and welding of these steels is:
zz careful control of heat input
zz selection of consumables
zz suitable techniques and procedures.
Heat input
Alloy steels are hardenable and rapid cooling may lead to the formation of martensite in
the HAZ adjacent to the weld. This can be controlled by:
zz pre-heat
zz taking advantage of the heat or controlling the heat input of the welding process.

Post-heat
The higher the heat input, the slower the cooling rate. As a general rule, slow cooling
rates are desirable when welding low alloy steels.
Correct selection of consumables is desirable as most steels in these categories
require the use of hydrogen-controlled welding consumables as a means of eliminating
HAZ cracking. Electrodes are chosen which:
zz deposit weld metal of similar composition to the base metal
zz give the required tensile strength
zz give the required impact properties.
For manual welding, electrodes conforming to the relevant standard are normally
chosen. These electrodes will provide good ductility of the weld metal and also help
minimise dilution.
The use of the following sound welding techniques and procedures can significantly
improve the results obtained when welding steels in these groups:
zz determine pre-heat requirements prior to flame cutting or welding
zz ensure all flame-cut surfaces are clean, smooth and crack free
zz ensure alignment and fit-up to close tolerances
zz meet all conditions of pre-heat prior to tacking or welding
zz make long convex tacks of sufficient throat thickness
zz no arc strikes outside the weld preparation area
zz use preparation and welding variables aimed at minimising dilution
zz ensure removal of all moisture from the weld zone and consumables
zz feather tacks.
Do not weld over broken tacks.
zz deposit convex weld beads to allow for contraction

zz use a suitable welding procedure and sequence
zz maintain strict control over interpass temperatures
zz clean thoroughly between runs
zz ensure a smooth notch-free cover pass
zz apply post-weld heat treatment as required.

Typical low alloy steels

The low alloy steel group is a particularly useful group of steels. Steels in this group
possess excellent mechanical properties and are easy to work and weld. These metals
also have additional properties which make them suited to particular applications.
Typical low alloy steel types in common use are:
zz carbon/manganese steels
zz weather resistant steels
zz quenched and tempered steels
zz chrome/molybdenum steels
zz nickel steels.
Carbon/manganese steels
These micro-alloyed steels containing from 0.5–1.8% manganese are manufactured to
AS 1548 and are intended for use primarily in the fabrication of pressure vessels and
boilers. These plates are silicon-aluminium killed (de-oxidised) and are supplied up to a
maximum thickness of 150 mm. Plates may be supplied as rolled, or in the heat treated
condition and are supplied with certificates of chemical analysis and mechanical
testing.
The manufacturer produces the steel to more stringent quality requirements, ie the
chemical composition is strictly controlled to much finer tolerances than is the case
with mild steel. The manufacturer also carries out more stringent, non-destructive and
destructive testing to ascertain the steel’s physical and mechanical properties. It also
clearly identifies the steel with identifying numbers legibly marked on the plate.
The steel is supplied to the purchaser with a set of test certificates showing such things
as the:
zz purchaser’s order number
zz identification code of the material
zz process of manufacture
zz ladle analysis in respect to all elements
zz temperature at which tests are carried out to ascertain mechanical properties
zz details of any heat treatment applied to the plate or test samples (if any).
Further to this, each plate shall be clearly identified with the:

zz manufacturer’s name or identification mark
zz grade designation
zz plate or identification number
zz direction of rolling.

Classification of steels to AS 1548:1995 – Steel plates for pressure equipment
Steels to AS 1548 are classified as follows.
AS 1548 – Type – UTS-heat treatment – Impact properties
Example: AS 1548 -5- 490 N L20
AS 1548 –5– 490 N L20
Standard
Silicon – aluminium fully killed, niobium-treated

carbon-manganese
490 MPa specified minimum tensile strength
Normalised
Notch ductile at -20 ºC
Type – steel is of two types:
• 5 = silicon-aluminium fully killed, niobium treated carbon-manganese
• 7 = silicon-aluminium fully killed carbon-manganese.
UTS – designates the minimum tensile strength in MPa.

Grades:
• 430
• 460
• 490.
Heat treatment
R = as rolled
N = normalised (870–930 ºC)
A = as rolled (may be normalised)
T = supplied as material by the TMCR process.
Impact properties
Specifies notch toughness at a particular temperature:
H = high temperature (100 to 450 ºC)
L = 0 ºC or below
L20 = -20 ºC.

Grades available – The grades available under AS 1548 are given in Table 13.1
This table has been removed.

It was reproduced from Table 1 on page 8 of AS 1548:1995.
Table 13.1 – Available grades to AS 1548:1995
Weather resistant steels (weathering steels)

These low alloy steels (alloyed with nickel, chromium and copper) are designed to give
increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Additionally, they combine high strength
with good weldability.
Minimum yield strength is 340 MPa (UTS 480 MPa) and corrosion resistance is four to
seven times that of structural carbon steel. Whereas plain carbon steel will oxidise and
eventually rust away if left unprotected, weather resistant steels develop a tough purplish
oxide on the surface which protects the steel against further oxidation. Weathering
steels are used for structural purposes, outdoor locations, offshore plant and for other
applications such as transport equipment where the high strength-to-weight ratio can be
used to advantage.
Weathering steels are readily weldable with both hydrogen-controlled and
non-hydrogen-controlled electrodes. However, if the corrosion resistance of the weld
metal is required to match that of the parent metal, an electrode containing 2.5%
nickel should be used.
AS/NZS 3678 – Grade designation

Example: AS/NZS 3678 – WR 350/L0 – Mechanical properties grades
AS 3678 – WR – 350 / – L0 16
AS/NZS 3678
Standard
Weather resistant
350 MPa yield strength
Notch ductile at -0o C
Specified carbon range
The grade designation of weather resistant steels is by:

zz the prefix WR indicating weather resisting
zz the specification of yield strength
zz low temperature impact properties where appropriate.
Indicates weather resistant steel with 350 MPa minimum yield strength and impact
tested at 0 °C.
Available grades are as follows:
zz WR 350
zz WR 350/L0.
Example: AS/NZS 3678 – A1006 – Analysed grades
AS 3678 – A 10 06
Standard
Aluminium-killed
Plain carbon steel
Specified carbon range
Example: AS/NZS 3678 – XK 1516 – Analysed grades
AS 3678 –X K 15
Standard
Indicates major deviation in

chemical composition
Silicon killed
Carbon manganese steel
Chemical composition
This table has been removed. It was reproduced from Table 1 on page 9
of AS/NZS 3678:1996.
Table 13.2 – Chemical composition of weather resistant steels

Minimum Minimum Min %
Grade yield strength tensile strength elongation
MPa MPa
WR350
& 340 450 20
WR350/L0
Table 13.3 – Mechanical properties of weather resistant steels
Quenched and tempered steels

Quenched and tempered steels are high strength, low alloy steels, which as the name
suggests are heat treated during manufacture. Quenched and tempered steels are
available in both structural and wear resistant grades. The properties that result in
these steels are a product of chemical composition and heat treatment.
Quenched and tempered steels offer several advantages over structural carbon steels.
zz High strength – The tensile strength of quenched and tempered steels is about
three times greater than that of structural carbon steel.
zz Corrosion resistance – The atmospheric corrosion resistance of quenched and
tempered steels is about three times that of structural carbon steel.
zz Toughness – Quenched and tempered steels are tougher and in particular
display good low temperature notch toughness.
zz Abrasion and impact resistance – Some grades of quenched and tempered
steel are heat treated to give high hardness with good abrasion and impact
resistance. These grades are used as wear plates.
zz Economy – For structural fabrication purposes, thinner sections of quenched
and tempered steels can offer the same strength as much thicker structural
carbon steel sections. Apart from the design advantages of lighter weight, thinner
sections make handling easier and welding and cutting faster.
Applications
Quenched and tempered steels, because of their strength, toughness and lighter
weight (reduced thickness), are being widely used for such fabrications as bridges,
crane jibs, dump truck bodies, gas and liquid tanks and even the structural members
for large buildings.
When supplied in the higher hardness grades, quenched and tempered steels are
widely used in quarries, mines and ore treatment plants on components such as
excavator buckets, ore chutes and wear plates.

Composition
The chemical composition of Bisalloy quenched and tempered steels is as follows.
Typical chemical composition %

Grade
C P Mn Si S Cr Mo B
Bisalloy 80 0.18 0.010 1.40 0.20 0.003 – 0.20 0.0010
Bisalloy 320 0.18 0.010 1.40 0.20 0.003 0.20 0.20 0.0010
Bisalloy 400 0.18 0.010 1.40 0.20 0.003 0.20 0.20 0.0010
Bisalloy 500 0.29 0.015 0.30 0.30 0.003 0.10 0.25 0.0010
Reproduced with the permission of Bisalloy Steels Pty Ltd
Table 13.4 – Chemical composition of Bisalloy quenched and tempered steels
Availability
Quenched and tempered steels are produced both in Australia and overseas. A brief list
of manufacturers and their product name is given below.
Manufacturer Product
Bisalloy Steels Bisalloy
Nippon Steel Welten
Sumitomo Sumiten & Sumihard
Kawasaki Steel Riverace
Kobe Steel K-Ten
Nippon Kokan Hiten & Everhard
United States Steel T1
Bisalloy Steels are produced in Australia and tend to be the most commonly
encountered. These are followed closely by the USS T1 steels, due to the fact that
machinery such as cranes and earthmoving equipment produced by American-based
companies is common in Australia.
Common structural grades are:
zz T1 A
zz Bisalloy 60, 70, 80, 80PV
zz Wel-Ten 60 and Wel-Ten 80c.
Common wear resistant grades are:

zz Bisalloy 320, 360, 400 and 500
zz Wel-Ten AR430 AR360C and AR500E.

The mechanical properties of Bisalloy steels can be seen in Table 13.5 below. Low carbon
steel has been included for comparison purposes.
Yield CE
Quench Temper Elongation
Grade strength UTS MPa (IIW)
ºC ºC %
MPa %
AS/NZS 3678 250 - - 250 410 22 0.44
AS/NZS 3678 350 - - 350 450 21 0.48
Bisalloy 60 900 680 580 640 30 0.50
Bisalloy 70 900 640 670 760 28 0.50
Bisalloy 80 900 600 750 830 26 0.50
Bisalloy 320 900 400 970 1070 18 0.29
Bisalloy 500 900 175 1400 1640 10 0.40

Reproduced with the permission of Bisalloy Steels Pty Ltd
Table 13.5 – Mechanical properties of steels
Weldability
Quenched and tempered steels are readily weldable, particularly the structural grades.
Quenched and tempered steels can be welded by a range of hydrogen-controlled welding
processes. The most widely used are MMAW, FCAW, GMAW and SAW. The cooling rate
of welds made with these processes is such that the mechanical properties of the weld
are close to those of the parent metal. Welding processes with high heat inputs such as
ESW or OAW are not recommended, as excessive heat input will destroy the mechanical
properties. Most manufacturers supply data that can be used to help predict the pre-heat
required for a given heat input. Maximum allowable heat input and interpass temperatures
are also given.
Quenched and tempered steels are hardenable and rapid cooling will cause a loss of
ductility and possible cracking in the weld zone. Above 12 mm plate thickness pre-heat
should be considered. Hydrogen-controlled consumables should always be used.
Fabrication and welding techniques for quenched and tempered steels

zz Flame-cutting – Pre-heat to 100–200 ºC max is required where flame cutting is
carried out in very cold conditions (below 10 ºC) or in heavy plate thickness. Flame-
cut edges should be inspected for cracking.
zz Gouging – Flame gouging of quenched and tempered steels is not recommended,
due to the high heat input. Air-arc gouging is the preferred method.
zz Poor fit-up is to be avoided.
zz Close control of heat input and interpass temperature must be exercised.
zz Minimise joint restraint when welding.
zz Allow for shrinkage, or use a more ductile filler material.
zz Stringer beads are preferred when welding. When weaving techniques are
employed, the maximum width of the weave should be two times the electrode
diameter.
Chrome/molybdenum steels (Cr/Mo)
Chrome/molybdenum (or chrome/moly as they are more commonly known) are also
known as creep resisting steels. Creep is the slow yielding (or stretching) of a metal at
high temperatures, even though the stresses involved are below the yield strength of the
material. The addition of molybdenum as an alloying element imparts creep resistance to
steel to counteract this tendency.
Chrome/moly steels have excellent mechanical properties. The high strength-to-weight
ratio of these steels makes them ideal for applications where a combination of high
strength and light weight are needed. Such applications are aircraft frames, race car
chassis and motorcycle frames. Pipes and tubing are by far the greatest application
for this product. Processing plants, refineries, power stations and other locations which
transmit fluids at high temperatures and/or pressures make extensive use of
chrome/moly piping.
Commonly encountered chrome/molybdenum steels are given in Table 13.6.
Popular
C Nb Si Cr Mo
name
1/2 Cr - 1/2 Mo 0.10–0.20 0.30–0.60 0.10–0.30 0.50–0.81 0.44–0.65
1 Cr 0 - 1/2 Mo 0.15 max. 0.30–0.60 0.50 max. 0.80–1.25 0.44–0.65
11/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo 0.15 max. 0.30–0.60 0.50–1.00 1.0–1.50 0.44–0.65
2 Cr - 1/2 Mo 0.15 max. 0.30–0.60 0.50 max. 1.65–2.35 0.44–0.65
21/4 Cr -1 Mo 0.15 max. 0.30–0.60 0.50 max. 1.90–2.60 0.87–1.13
Table 13.6 – Common Cr/Mo steels
Weldability
As the alloy content of Cr/Mo steels increases, so does the hardenability and the
tendency towards cracking. These steels should be welded using hydrogen-controlled
processes that deposit weld metal of similar composition to the parent metal. MMAW
electrodes are classified in AS/NZS 4855 and have a ‘B’ suffix denoting a chrome/moly
weld metal composition. GMAW wire would have a similar suffix.
Pre-heating and interpass temperature control is also employed, in addition to post-heat
treatment (stress relieving), when welding creep resisting steels. Also, the completed
weld joint is usually subject to stringent non-destructive testing; ie radiography, ultra
sonic testing and/or dye penetrant testing. Non-destructive testing is generally carried
out after post-weld heat treatment.
Nickel steels
As an alloying element, nickel enables ductility and toughness to be maintained in
steels, even at very low temperatures. Consequently, the major use for nickel steels is
for cryogenic applications (storage vessels for liquified gases). The cryogenic steels
described are intended for use below -60 °C.

The commonly recognised grades are:

zz 3½% nickel – for service temperatures -60 °C to -80 °C
zz 5% nickel – for service temperatures down to -160 °C
zz 9% nickel – for service temperatures down to -196 ºC.
The 3½% and 5% nickel grades are not commonly encountered as they have little cost
advantage over 9% nickel steels, which have lower service temperatures and superior
9% nickel steels
9% nickel steels are in common use in storage vessels for LNG (-164 ºC) and for liquid
oxygen and nitrogen (-196 ºC).
9% nickel steel is available as quench and tempered – QT and double-normalised and
tempered – NNT. Available grades are as follows.
ASTM type Tensile strength Yield strength

A353 – QT 689–827 MPa 517 MPa
A553 – NNT 689–827 MPa 586 MPa
Table 13.7 – Available 9% nickel steels
Fabrication and welding of 9% nickel steels

9% nickel steel can be formed hot or cold. It is readily flame-cut and weld preparation
can be applied by flame-cutting or machining. Flame-cut surfaces are usually ground,
to remove the shallow layer of overheated steel that results.
9% nickel steel does not suffer from hardening of the HAZ and is readily weldable. It
can be welded without pre-heat up to at least 50 mm of plate thickness by the common
arc welding processes.
The surface oxide melts at a temperature 600 °C higher than that of the base metal
and should be removed by grinding, followed by degreasing, prior to welding.
The most commonly used consumables are of the NiCrMo type and interpass
temperatures should be kept low.
High alloy steels

High alloy steels are steels where the total alloy content exceeds 5%. The groups most
commonly encountered by the fabricator are:
zz stainless steels
zz austenitic manganese steel.

Stainless steels
Stainless steels are essentially iron/chromium alloys where the chromium content
exceeds 10.5%. The iron content is greater than that of any other element and the
carbon content is purposely kept low to control carbide precipitation. The chromium
oxides, which form rapidly on the surface and are self healing if damaged, render the
metal impervious to further corrosive attack.
There are various types and grades of stainless steel, aimed at providing corrosion
resistance over a wide range of applications.
Stainless steels are divided into four main groups:
zz austenitic
zz ferritic
zz martensitic
zz ferritic/austenitic duplex alloys.
Stainless steels are classified under a three digit classification system established by
the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). This is:
zz 200 series – non-hardenable austenitic
zz 300 series – non-hardenable austenitic
zz 400 series – hardenable martensitic or non-hardenable ferritic.
Austenitic stainless steels are also commonly referred to by their chromium and nickel
content, eg 18/8 or 20/12. The approximate chromium content is always stated first,
followed by the nickel content.
Austenitic stainless steels

These are the most commonly fabricated grades and are consequently of the most
importance to the welder. They:
zz are essentially non-magnetic and thereby easily distinguished
zz are by far the most widely used (18/8 type stainless steel alloys)
zz have high strength
zz have excellent weldability relative to other high alloy steels (except the free
machining types)
zz do not harden by heat treatment
zz can be cold worked to a high degree of hardness
zz may be annealed by heating to 1040–1120 °C and quenching
zz have good resistance to scaling at high temperatures
zz have a high rate of thermal expansion
zz have low thermal and electrical conductivity
zz range in analysis from 16–26% chromium and 6–22% nickel.

Weldability of austenitic stainless steel

Factors that limit the weldability of austenitic stainless steel are:
zz the tendency of the weld metal, weld fusion line, or HAZ towards hot cracking
zz the precipitation of chromium carbide, leading to intergranular corrosion (weld
decay)
zz the formation of undesirable structures (eg sigma phase) within a certain range of
temperatures and chromium concentrations.
Cracking occurs when cooling from high temperatures and follows the boundaries of
the dendrites as solidification progresses. Cracks can affect a large part of the weld
zone. Austenitic stainless steels are sensitive to micro-cracking of the grain, however
this sensitivity decreases if there is ferrite present in the microstructure. Ferrite is
needed to minimise micro-cracking, however > 3% ferrite is desirable to completely
eliminate micro-cracking of the grain structure.
Various diagrams such as the Schaeffler diagram and the DeLong diagram have been
used to predict levels of ferrite in deposited weld metal.
Intergranular corrosion (weld decay)

The carbon present in austenitic stainless steels is normally dissolved within the grains.
However, in the range from 500–900 °C the carbon forms chromium carbides along
the grain boundaries (chromium has a higher affinity for carbon than iron). Chromium
carbides are themselves not corrosion resistant. Additionally, the material along the
grain boundaries is depleted of chromium, leaving it subject to corrosive attack.
This form of corrosion is generally known as intergranular or intercrystalline corrosion.
When associated with the weld HAZ, it is normally called weld decay (see Fig 13.1).
There are two methods of reducing the occurrence of weld decay.
zz The production of steels with extra-low carbon content (about 0.03%), which
reduces the amount of carbide formed. These steels are designated with an ‘L’
suffix, eg 316L.
zz The addition of stabilising elements. These elements have a higher affinity for
carbon than does chromium. They combine with the carbon present, leaving the
chromium free to form the chromium oxides that provide corrosion resistance.
The most commonly used stabilising elements are molybdenum (Mo), titanium
(Ti) and niobium (Nb).
For information regarding the types and properties of common austenitic steels, visit
the website of the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) at <www.steel.org>.

HAZ
Grain structure
Weld
Fig 13.1 – Weld decay
Sigma phase precipitation

When steels containing high concentrations of chromium are subjected to prolonged
heating at 600–900 °C, some of the chromium forms an intermetallic compound (FeCr)
with iron. This compound is extremely brittle and leads to cracking, particularly in
heavy, multi-run weldments, or when heat treatment is carried out. The remedy is to
ensure quick cooling between runs.
Recommendations for welding austenitic stainless steels

Welding procedures for stainless steels differ dramatically from those used for carbon
and low alloy steels. Whereas carbon and low alloy steels suffer from cracking
problems largely attributed to rapid cooling, austenitic stainless steels do not generally
cold crack, but are subject to hot cracking. Additionally, high levels of weld shrinkage
contribute to the problem and it is essential that convex beads are always employed
and that craters are always filled.
Austenitic steels should not be held at elevated temperatures for any period of time.
Rapid cooling, rather than causing cracking, actually improves toughness.
Welding procedures for stainless steel should be designed to combine cleanliness, low
heat input, rapid cooling and distortion control.
zz Use matched filler and hydrogen-controlled process.
zz Low heat input – high travel speeds, low currents, stringer beads, low interpass
temperatures.
zz Ensure good fit-up.
zz Allow for approximately 50% more distortion than for carbon steel.
zz Tack at intervals half of those used for mild steel.
zz Use feather tacks.
zz The weld area must be clean. All possible sources of carbon pick-up must be
removed. Use iron-free grinding disks.
zz Use sequence welding, chill bars or jigs to minimise distortion.
zz Use a short arc length to reduce the loss of alloying elements.
zz Fill craters.
zz Avoid heat build-up.
zz Ensure rapid cooling.
Consumables
There is a wide range of austenitic welding consumables available. In general,
consumables are chosen that give weld deposits which match the base metal chemistry.
If in doubt, consumables slightly richer in nickel and chromium should be selected.
Higher grade consumables should also be used where dilution may reduce the corrosion
resistance, or increase the hardenability of the steel. For selection of stainless steel
consumables see Table 13.8.
AISI steel type Filler metal

301 308
302 308
303 312
304 308L
304L 308L, 347
305 308
309 309L
310 310L
316 316
316L 316L
316Ti 318 316ND
317 347
Table 13.8 – Recommended filler material
Ferritic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steels contain between 13% and 30% chromium (typically around 16%)
and less than 0.15% carbon. When heated, there is no transformation to austenite,
the grain structure is essentially ferrite at all temperatures up to the melting point. The
relationship between the chromium content and the carbon content is important in
maintaining a ferritic grain structure.
Ferritic stainless steels have been developed in what are essentially three generations.
The first generation are almost never fully ferritic, due to the comparatively high levels of
carbon present. Steels in this group are as follows.
Typical composition – First generation
430 0.08% C 17% Cr

442 0.20% C 21% Cr
446 0.25% C 25% Cr

The second group are the relatively inexpensive, stabilised ferritic stainless steels. This
group comprises the following.
Typical composition – Second generation

405 0.05% C 13% Cr 0.2% Al
409 0.05% C 11% Cr 0.5% Ti
Commonly used for auto exhaust systems – especially 409. It is usually welded with a
low heat input and matching filler using the GMAW process, or when in sheet form, by
resistance welding.
The newest group are the modern, low interstitial ferritics or so-called ‘super ferritics’.
Steels in this group are as follows.
Typical composition – Third generation
Type C N Cr Mo Ni Other
18–2 02 .02 18 2.0 – .25Ti, .3Nb
26–1 003 .008 26 1.0 – –
Sea cure .01 .025 26 3.0 2.5 .4Ti
29–4 .005 .01 29 4.0 – –
29–4–2 .005 .01 29 4.0 2.0 –
These steels have outstanding corrosion resistance, particularly to chlorides, which

cause problems for the austenitics.
Weldability of ferritic stainless steels

Ferritic stainless steels are non-hardenable, but are embrittled by grain growth and
secondary phases that form in the grain, such as sigma phase.
Generally speaking, the weldability of the ferritic stainless steels can be described as
fair when compared with austenitic stainless steels. The grain growth problem can be
minimised by ensuring low heat input.
For best results when welding ferritic stainless steels, the following general procedures
may be adopted:
zz pre-heat to 120–200 °C
zz low heat input to limit grain growth
zz slow cooling from 450 °C to room temperatures.
Where full corrosion resistance is required, full annealing at 800 °C will be

necessary.

Consumables
Ferritic stainless steel consumables are available, however they produce welds of low
ductility. For this reason, austenitic stainless steel consumables are generally used, as
they ensure ductile weld metal in the as-welded condition.
When the use of austenitic consumables is contemplated, consideration should be
given to the following.
zz They will have no effect on possible corrosion in the HAZ.
zz Problems may be encountered with colour match and differences in thermal
expansion.
zz PWHT can cause weld metal embrittlement and corrosion susceptibility, unless
stabilised electrodes are used.
Martensitic stainless steels

Martensitic stainless steels contain 13–17% chromium and 0.1% carbon or above.
Chromium in excess of 17% tends to form excessive ferrite in the grain structure.
These steels have good corrosion and oxidation resistance and good high temperature
strength up to 600 °C. Their rate of thermal expansion is similar to that of mild steel and
some grades may be fabricated by welding.
Common martensitic grades are as follows.
Grade %C %Cr %Ni %Mo Use

403 0.10 12 – – -
410 0.10 12 0.5 turbines
410 NiMo 0.04 12 4.0 0.5 turbines
420 0.20 12 – – steel mill rolls
440A 0.70 17 – – blades for shears
440B 0.90 17 – – or where abrasion
resistance is required
440C 1.10 17 – –
Weldability of martensitic stainless steels

Martensitic stainless steels may be supplied in a variety of heat treated forms, from
fully annealed, to fully hardened and tempered. Irrespective of the condition, welding
will create a hardened, martensitic HAZ. The hardness of this zone will depend on the
carbon content and susceptibility to cracking will increase accordingly. Normally, steels
with less than 0.15% carbon such as 403 and 410 will not require PWHT, whereas
those above 0.15% carbon, such as 420 or 440, should be post-weld heat treated to
ensure freedom from cracking.
Welding procedures for these steels usually involve pre-heat to 250 °C, except where
the carbon content is less than 0.1%. The maximum interpass temperature for all
grades is 350 °C and where the carbon content exceeds 0.15%, PWHT at 650–700 °C
is recommended.

Consumables
Martensitic consumables such as E410 and E420 are available. However, the weld
metal lacks toughness, so austenitic consumables such as E308 are generally used.
Austenitic consumables produce welds of lower strength and greater ductility. These
steels are susceptible to hydrogen induced cracking and austenitic consumables also
help in this regard, keeping the hydrogen in solution.
Duplex alloys
Ferritic/austenitic stainless steels contain 18–28% Cr, 4.5–8% Ni and 2.5–4% Mo. In
these steels there is insufficient nickel to produce a fully austenite grain structure and a
mixture of ferrite and austenite results.
Basic properties
zz High resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
zz Higher tensile strength than austenitic or ferritic stainless steels.
zz Good formability and weldability.
These steels are commonly used where chloride concentrations are high, as a means
of minimising stress corrosion cracking.
Duplex alloys are generally specified by proprietary names, eg SAF 2205.
Austenitic manganese steel

As discussed previously, manganese is used in carbon/manganese steels which
are used primarily for the construction of pressure vessels. These steels contain
manganese in the range of 0.5–1.7%.
If manganese is added to steel in the range of 11–14%, a steel called ‘austenitic
manganese steel’ is formed, so called because when manganese is within the
range of 11–14%, the grain structure remains in the austenite condition at ambient
temperatures.
Composition
The composition of manganese steel is as follows.
zz Carbon 1.00–1.40%
zz Manganese 11–14%
zz Silicon 0.30–1.00%
zz Sulphur 0.60% max
zz Phosphorus 0.10% max.
Austenitic manganese (11–14%) steel, when quenched in water from temperatures

around 1050 °C, is soft but very strong and ductile. It is readily work hardenable and
has the ability to form a hard, wear resistant surface when pounded, scraped or cold
worked in any manner. This property of maintaining a tough ductile interior with a
work hardened surface makes it ideal for applications such as wearing parts of earth
moving and crushing equipment.

Austenitic manganese steel can be identified by its non-magnetic properties (it may
become slightly magnetic due to cold working) and a bright bushy spark when touched
on a grinding wheel.
To join austenitic manganese steel by welding, the electrode recommended is 18/8
chrome/nickel (stainless steel). For building up worn parts, an electrode depositing
11–14% manganese can be used.
Weldability
The following precautions should be taken during welding.
zz Deposit short welds – well dispersed to affect rapid cooling. Use the smallest
gauge electrode and lowest welding current consistent with adequate fusion.
zz Allow the parent metal to cool between runs – it can be quenched or cooled with
wet rags. The body of the component should not be hotter than can be borne by
the bare hand, before depositing another run.
zz To reduce cracking due to contractional stresses, peen each weld bead as it is
completed.
zz Do not let manganese steel cool slowly from high temperatures.
Manganese steel as cast is brittle, it will return to this embrittled state following slow
cooling from high temperatures. Toughness and ductility can be restored by quenching
from 1050 °C.
Austenitic manganese steel must be arc welded and pre-heating must be avoided,
otherwise it will become brittle. It can be cut with the oxy-acetylene gas flame
without any serious hardening effect on the cut surface. It is suggested however,
that oxy-cut surfaces be ground prior to welding.
Hard-facing electrodes with a carbon steel core must never be deposited straight
onto manganese steel. The manganese steel must first be buttered with an electrode
depositing 18/8 stainless steel. Otherwise, the carbon steel weld metal will be diluted
by the parent metal, resulting in extremely brittle welds.
MMAW of austenitic stainless steel

Although GMAW and GTAW springs readily to mind in discussion on welding stainless
steels, MMAW produces highly satisfactory results, particularly in heavy sections.
Electrodes generally require a minimum of 60 OCV, and DC -ve is the preferred
current. Provided the following welding recommendations are adhered to, sound welds
will generally result.

Welding of stainless steel clad steels
Where corrosion resistance is only required on one side of the plate (for example in a
storage vessel), stainless clad steels are commonly selected for use. Stainless clad
steels are produced by bonding a thin sheet of stainless steel to a sheet of carbon steel
via the rolling process. The cladding is usually of the 18/8 or 18/10 stainless steel types
and usually represents 10% to 20% of the total plate thickness.
Advantages of stainless clad steel

zz Cost – the cost of clad steels is cheaper than stainless steels of the same
thickness.
zz Distortion – distortion levels are similar to carbon steels.
zz They can be oxy-cut from the carbon steel side.
Welding procedure
The mild or alloy steel backing should be welded first, making sure that the root run
does not come in contact with the stainless cladding. This can be achieved either by
welding with a fairly close butt weld preparation and a large root face, or by cutting the
cladding away from both sides of the root.
After the welding of the steel backing has been completed, the back is grooved out by
grinding or carbon-arc gouging. The first run on the clad side is welded with a stainless
steel of matching composition and with minimum dilution. A more highly alloyed
electrode (such as a 25/20) is often desirable to overcome the effect of dilution. The
remainder of the joint is completed with an electrode of matching composition.
For the best corrosion resistance, at least two layers of stainless steel weld metal
are recommended. If the cladding is thin and it is only necessary to deposit a single
layer, it would be best to use an electrode of higher alloy content.

70 70
Step 1
Mild steel
2 mm max
Stainless steel Stainless steel

cut back
Step 2
MS weld MS weld
Step 3
Backgrind Root ground clean
Step 4
Stainless steel weld Stainless steel weld
Fig 13.2 – Weld procedures for clad materials

Chapter 14 – Non-ferrous metals
Introduction
Non-ferrous metals are metals that contain no iron at all, or those in which iron forms
only a minor part of the alloy.
Aluminium and copper are typical non-ferrous metals that are widely used in the metal
fabrication industry in their alloy form. Aluminium is very abundant on earth in its raw
form of aluminium oxide (bauxite). The process used to convert bauxite to aluminium is,
however, very expensive. In spite of this, aluminium and its alloys can offer significant
advantages over steel when used in specific applications.
The major groups of non-ferrous metals commonly encountered by the fabricator are:
zz aluminium and its alloys
zz copper and its alloys
zz nickel and its alloys
zz titanium alloys.

zz Aluminium and its alloys
{{ classification of aluminium alloys
{{ weldability of aluminium alloys
zz Copper and its alloys
zz Nickel and its alloys.

Aluminium and its alloys

The material commonly referred to as aluminium encompasses a wide range of
aluminium and aluminium alloys, whose properties vary remarkably. While pure
aluminium is soft, weak and ductile, some aluminium alloys have mechanical properties
that are superior to those of steel.
Properties of aluminium
Density – Aluminium has a density of 2700 kg/m3, ie approximately one-third the
density of steel. Aluminium is widely used in applications where weight is a factor.
Melting point – The melting temperature of commercially pure aluminium is 660 °C.
Alloying (particularly with silicon) lowers the melting temperature of aluminium, with
most commercial alloys melting in the range of 520–650 °C.
Corrosion resistance – Aluminium resists atmospheric corrosion and is resistant to
corrosion by some other media. This corrosion resistance is gained by the formation of
a tough oxide that forms on the surface of the metal. The melting temperature of this
surface oxide is 2040 °C.
The oxide must be removed prior to welding; this is usually accomplished by vigorous
brushing with a stainless steel wire brush and the action of the welding arc when the
polarity is electrode positive.
Tensile strength – The tensile strength of pure aluminium is around 90 MPa UTS
(mild steel 300–450 MPa). However, this can be improved substantially by alloying and/
or heat treatment. By this means the tensile strength can be raised to in excess
of 700 MPa.
Electrical conductivity – Aluminium is second only to copper among the commercial
metals in electrical conductivity. Where:
zz Cu = 100
zz Al = 60
zz mild steel = 10
zz stainless steel = 2.
Thermal conductivity – The thermal conductivity of aluminium is about five times that
of mild steel. While this makes it suitable for applications such as heat exchangers, this
property tends to lead to lack of fusion defects when welding.
Co-efficient of thermal expansion – The co-efficient of thermal expansion of
aluminium is 0.000026, ie for each °C of temperature it rises or falls, it will expand or
contract that fraction of its length. This is twice as much as for mild steel (0.000012).
Hot shortness – Aluminium alloys lack ductility at elevated temperatures. This,
combined with high thermal expansion, tends to cause hot cracking when welding.
Hydrogen solubility – Aluminium will dissolve substantial amounts of hydrogen in the
molten state. Upon cooling, this hydrogen is forced out of solution, resulting in weld
porosity. For this reason it is essential that weldments be cleaned thoroughly prior to
welding and that there is no possibility of hydrogen being introduced via the welding
process or consumables.
Colour change – Unlike many metals, aluminium does not change colour when
heated; neither does the surface oxide change colour.

Identification of aluminium
Aluminium can be identified from other metals by testing, as follows.
magnetism non-magnetic
spark test non-sparking
colour silvery-white
weight lighter than cast iron, steel lead, tin, zinc alloys
grain structure uniform light grey grains
oxy flame test does not ‘flare’
Aluminium is often difficult to distinguish from zinc die castings and magnesium alloys.
However, zinc die cast when fractured often exhibits shiny pores (fish eyes) in its grain
structure, and magnesium filings ‘flare’ and burn when subjected to the oxy flame test.
Uses of aluminium
Aluminium is often selected for use in the fabrication industry where its properties of
light weight and corrosion resistance can be used to advantage.
Typical uses of aluminium alloys are:
zz aircraft
zz boats
zz truck bodies
zz storage vessels
zz lightweight castings and extrusions.
Certain factors may limit the usage of aluminium. Among these are:
zz high temperature service
zz where hardness is required
zz where fatigue stresses are present
zz corrosive media such as hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, or nitric acid
zz cost.
Classification of aluminium alloys

At least eight elements, in various combinations, are commonly used to produce
aluminium alloys. The aluminium alloys available to industry offer a remarkably
wide range of properties. To aid the selection of an appropriate aluminium alloy,
the Aluminium Development Council of Australia (ADC) has produced a system of
classification.
Aluminium alloys are divided into eight basic groups (or series) according to alloy
composition, as follows.

Alloy Major alloying element Alloy series

Aluminium (99 005% min. purity) 1000
copper 2000
Aluminium alloys grouped
by major alloying elements manganese 3000
silicon 4000
magnesium 5000
magnesium and silicon 6000
zinc 7000
other elements 8000
Table 14.1 – Aluminium alloys by composition
The effects of alloying elements in aluminium

Copper – Increases strength and hardenability, but decreases corrosion
resistance.
Manganese – Improves mechanical properties.
Silicon – Lowers melting point, makes material more fluid when molten
(filler wires and castings).
Magnesium – Increases hardness and tensile, greatly improves resistance to corrosion
magnesium and silicon in combination give a heat treatable alloy.
Zinc – Improves corrosion resistance and strength.
These alloys can be briefly described as follows.
1xxx Series Pure aluminium for applications requiring excellent corrosion resistance, high
conductivity and good workability. They have low strength and are readily
weldable.
2xxx Series High strength but lower corrosion resistance. Difficult or impossible to weld by
the common welding processes.
3xxx Series Good workability, moderate strength and are readily weldable.
4xxx Series Silicon lowers the melting point without producing brittleness. A major use is in
filler rods for welding and brazing.
5xxx Series Moderate to high strength – good corrosion resistance in marine
environments. These alloys are readily weldable.
6xxx Series Moderate strength, good formability and corrosion resistance. Readily
weldable.
7xxx Series High strength – difficult to weld. Medium strength – limited weldability.
Clad alloys Cladding is a means of having a highly corrosion resistant surface with a high
strength centre. Weldability depends on the alloys used and the type of joint.
Table 14.2 – Properties and uses of aluminium alloys

Of these groups, the 2000, 6000 and 7000 series are heat treatable and may be heat
treated to produce high strength alloys. Of these, the 2000 and 7000 series alloys exhibit
poor weldability and are generally not welded.
Temper designations
Aluminium alloys can have their mechanical properties enhanced by being worked
(wrought) by either mechanical or temperature treatments.
A system is used to indicate the exact condition of the worked material and whether the
alloy is heat treatable, consisting of a letter and numbers.
Basic letter or designation (first letter)

F = as fabricated
O = annealed Non-heat treatable and heat treatable alloy
H = strain hardened
T = thermal treated Heat treatable alloy
F temper – Applies to products that acquire some temper from shaping but have no
special control over the degree of strain.
O temper – Applies to a fully annealed product with the lowest strength and greatest
ductility.
H temper – Applies to a product that has had strength improvements by cold working.
Basic digit (first number)

H1 = strain hardened only
H2 = strain hardened/annealed
H3 = strain hardened/stabilised
Basic digit (second number)

0 = softest (annealed)
8 = fully hard
Basic digit (third number)

= variation degree
For example; H324, H112.

Supplementary information related to temper
T digit (first digit) then number

T1 = slow cooled, natural aged
T2 = annealed, cold worked
T3 = heat treated, cold worked then stabilised
T4 = heat treated, natural age to stabilise (after any working)
T5 = cooled from hot shape then aged
T6 = heat treated then aged
T7 = heat treated then stabilised
T8 = heat treated, cold worked then aged
For example; 6063T4.
Common grades
There are many commercial aluminium grades available. However, the range available
‘ex-stock’ is generally limited to the following.
Elongation min
characteristics
Yield strength
strength MPa
application
resistance
Corrosion
MPa min
Temper
Tensile
Typical
Form
Alloy
5005 very sheet H14 160 150 6 general

moderate good plate H36 180 165 6 purpose
strength material
anodises well
5251 very sheet 0 185 75 24 general

medium good sheet H36 270 230 6 fabrication
strength and pressure
vessels
5083 very plate 0 290 145 22 structural plate

high strength good plate H321 315 230 16 and marine
fabrication
good H323 325 250 10
weldability
6063 very ext T1 150 90 20 general

extrudes well good T5 220 180 12 purpose and
architectural
good T6 240 215 12
extrusions
weldability
Table 14.3 – Availability of aluminium alloys

• The 5000 series alloys are supplied as sheet and plate.

• 6063 is supplied in the form of extrusions.
• Sheets supplied up to 4 mm thick may be plastic coated.
Weldability of aluminium alloys

The commonly fabricated 5000 series and 6000 series alloys are readily welded by the
inert gas shielded arc welding processes, and to a lesser extent, by other processes.
Factors which tend to reduce the weldability of aluminium alloys are:
zz surface oxide
zz low melting point
zz high thermal conductivity
zz high co-efficient of thermal expansion
zz hot shortness
zz solubility of hydrogen.
Surface oxide
Aluminium gains its corrosion resistance from the oxide film that forms on the surface
when exposed to the atmosphere. While pure aluminium melts at 660 °C, the melting
temperature of the oxide is much higher at 2040 °C. This leads to welding problems in
two major ways, as follows.
zz Lack of fusion defects – Where the oxide film prevents adequate fusion to the
base metal.
zz Collapse of the weldment – Particularly where heat input is slow, such as in
oxy-fuel gas welding. A considerable amount of the base metal may be melted,
supported only by the surface oxide on the underside of the plate. Eventually the
weight of molten aluminium may break the oxide film, leading to collapse of the
weldment.
{{ Gas tungsten arc welding process – Rapid rise in temperature enables
fusion without substantial melting of the base metal.
{{ Slow heating of the base metal – By the time the surface melts, a
considerable amount of parent metal may be at the same temperature
supported only by the oxide film underneath.
{{ Collapse of base metal – Supporting oxide film breaks due to the weight
of the molten aluminium base metal.

Arc welding
Parent metal
660 C
Oxide film
2,040 C
Gas welding
Fig 14.1 – Collapse of the weldment
Low melting point

The low melting point of aluminium sometimes makes control of the welding process
difficult.
High thermal conductivity

The high thermal conductivity leads to rapid heat loss from the weld zone. This
may lead to lack of fusion defects, particularly at the start of a weld bead. Rapid
freezing of the weld metal also leads to the comparatively high levels of porosity
that are associated with welds in aluminium. The high thermal conductivity may also
necessitate extensive use of pre-heat.
High co-efficient of expansion/hot shortness

Hot cracking is a common problem when welding aluminium alloys.
The high weld shrinkage and lack of ductility of the hot metal, combine to render the
metal unable to yield to absorb shrinkage forces. Common crack types are centreline
and crater cracks.
Absorption of hydrogen
In the hot condition, aluminium will dissolve large amounts of hydrogen. As the metal
cools, hydrogen comes out of solution and forms gas pores in the microstructure.
Levels of porosity may be extreme, causing a serious loss of cross-sectional area of
the weld. It is essential that aluminium is cleaned prior to welding and that all possible
sources of hydrogen via the welding process are eliminated.

Copper and its alloys

Copper is a reddish-brown coloured, corrosion resistant, highly conductive,
non-magnetic metal. Its melting point is 1083 °C and its density is 8940 kg/m3. Copper
is work hardenable and may be annealed by heating and quenching.
Uses
The main uses of copper are electrical, plumbing and heat exchanger applications.
Grades
zz de-oxidised copper – good weldability
zz tough pitch copper – limited weldability
zz oxygen free copper – good weldability.
Weldability
The weldability of copper is limited by three factors.
1. The presence of oxygen results in cuprous oxide forming at the grain boundaries,
leading to cracking. Fusion welding should be restricted to de-oxidised or
oxygen-free copper.
2. High thermal conductivity necessitates that pre-heat be used in most cases
(400 °C–700 °C).
3. Annealing of the weld zone, accompanied by a reduction in mechanical
properties. Hot peening of the weld zone may be required.
Copper is commonly alloyed with other elements to produce a range of useful metals.
The common alloys are:
zz brasses – alloys of copper and zinc
zz bronzes – alloys of copper and tin
zz cupronickels – alloys of copper and nickel.
Brass
Cartridge brass – 70% Cu/30% Zn. Ideal for cold forming operations such as stamping,
drawing, or spinning.
Muntz metal – 60% Cu/40% Zn. More yellow in colour than cartridge brass. Cold short.
Weldability of brass
The major problem associated with welding brass is the loss of zinc, as zinc boils at
910 °C. This leads to porosity and a loss of strength. To control this zinc loss, filler rods
have small quantities of aluminium or silicon added. This forms a skin over the weld
pool and helps to stop the zinc boiling off.
Formability – Brasses which contain in excess of 68% copper are hot short, while those
containing less than 68% copper are cold short.

Bronze
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. The addition of tin to copper increases hardness,
wear resistance and resistance to salt water corrosion.
Tin bronze – 1%–15% Sn. Commonly referred to as phosphor bronze because of the
addition of tin, which acts as a de-oxidiser.
Aluminium bronze – 5%–11% Al. Whitish in colour. Alloys containing above 10%
aluminium are heat treatable to produce high strength alloys.
Silicon bronze – up to 5% Si. The strongest of the non-heat treatable bronzes. They
have good workability and are readily weldable.
Weldability of bronzes
Tin bronze oxidises easily. Phosphor de-oxidised filler is generally used.
Aluminium bronze tends to be hot short and is susceptible to cracking at high
temperatures. PWHT may be required.
Silicon bronze has good weldability. However, rapid cooling between 800 °C and
950 °C should be facilitated, to prevent hot cracking.
Copper/nickel alloys (cupronickel)

Cupronickels are alloys of copper and nickel, in which the major portion of the alloy
is copper. Cupronickels may contain up to 30% nickel. They are non-heat treatable
and have excellent corrosion resistance, particularly to corrosion by salt water. The
mechanical properties may be improved by cold working.
Weldability of cupronickel
Cupronickels are readily welded by the gas shielded arc welding processes and by
silver brazing. They are prone to porosity as a result of contamination by O2 and H2
during welding. Shielding gas flow rates may need to be increased slightly when
compared to other metals.
Type Cu Ni Other Description and uses
0.5 Mn Corrosion resistant, used for coolers,

90/10 cupronickel 88 10
1.5 Fe tubes for salt water condensers, piping.
Strong resistance to corrosion and has

1.0 Mn high tensile strength.
70/30 cupronickel 68 30
1.0 Fe Used in tubes for salt water condensers,
wire for electrical fuses.
Table 14.4 – Copper nickel alloys

Nickel and its alloys

Nickel
zz chemical symbol Ni
zz colour silvery-white
zz melting point 1452 °C
zz density 8800 kg/m3
zz coefficient of expansion 0.000013
zz thermal conductivity between Fe and Al
zz magnetism slightly.
Pure nickel is available in several grades between 94–99.95%.
Uses
Nickel is tough and ductile and corrosion, oxidation and creep resistant. Common
applications of nickel are:
zz food handling equipment
zz chemical plant
zz heating coils
zz evaporators
zz marine fabrications.
Monel
Composition: Ni 65%
Cu 28%
Mn and Fe.
Monel exhibits high resistance to corrosion by acids and salt water. It is tougher,
cheaper and stronger than nickel.
Uses
zz food handling equipment
zz heat exchangers
zz offshore structures
zz turbine blades, bolts, screws, shafts.
Nimonic
Composition: Ni 57% or 75%
Cr 20%
Fe, Ti, Al, Co.
Nimonics are high strength, high temperature alloys. They have excellent resistance to
corrosion, creep, oxidation and scaling at high temperatures.

Uses
zz pumps, valves, springs
zz turbine blades, aircraft engine parts
zz vessels, chemical plant.
Inconel
Composition: Ni 32%–76%
Cr 15%–20%
Fe 7%–46%
Al, Ti, Mn.
Highly resistant corrosion and oxidation, these alloys maintain strength and toughness
from sub-zero to elevated temperatures.
Uses
zz food and chemical plant
zz heat exchangers
zz furnace parts and equipment
zz turbine blades
zz aircraft manifolds.
Grade Ni% Cr% Cu% C% Fe% Mn% Al% Ti%

Nickel 200 99.5 – – 0.06 0.15 0.25 – -–
Nickel 201 99.5 – – 0.01 0.15 0.20 – –
Nickel 205 99.5 – – 0.06 0.10 0.20 – –
Monel 400 66.0 – 31.5 – 1.35 0.90 – –
Monel 404 55.0 – 44.0 – – – – –
Monel 500 65.0 – 29.5 – 1.00 0.60 2.73 0.60
Nimonic 80 74.5 20.0 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.55 1.30 2.50
Nimonic 90 57.0 20.5 0.05 0.05 9.50 0.05 1.65 2.60
Inconel 600 76.0 15.85 0.10 0.04 7.20 0.20 – –
Inconel 601 60.5 23.0 – 0.05 14.0 – 1.35 –
Incoloy 800 32.0 20.0 – 0.04 46.0 – – –
Table 14.5 – Nickel alloys

Titanium and its alloys

Titanium
zz chemical symbol Ti
zz colour silvery-grey
zz melting point 1670 °C
zz density 4500 kg/m3
zz ultimate tensile strength 315 MPa
zz magnetism non-magnetic.
Titanium is a lightweight, non-magnetic metal, which is silvery-grey in colour. It has

excellent corrosion resistance and when alloyed has a high strength-to-weight ratio.
Grades
Pure titanium is relatively soft and weak. Its applications are generally restricted to those
applications that take advantage of its excellent corrosion resistance, but do not have a
high strength requirement.
Titanium is commonly alloyed with elements such as aluminium, chromium, zinc, iron,
manganese, tin, vanadium and molybdenum. Titanium alloys exhibit high strength-to-weight
ratios, good creep resistance and excellent corrosion resistance up to 250 °C.
Uses
The major uses for titanium alloys are in the chemical, marine and aerospace industries,
in applications that take advantage of the strength, light weight and corrosion resistance of
titanium alloys.
Weldability
Processes such as RW and GMAW may be used to weld titanium and its alloys. However,
GTAW has become the most popular process. Although titanium has excellent corrosion
resistance up to 250 °C, above this titanium is highly reactive with oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen and other contaminants.
The major challenge when welding titanium and its alloys is to prevent contamination of
the parent metal. The weld should be gas shielded until it has cooled to below 400 °C. To
facilitate this, trail gas shielding is commonly used. An example of this for use when welding
pipe is given in Fig 14.2. Sound welding procedures will result in welds with excellent
TIG torch
Gas in
Shielding device
Gas out
Fig 14.2 – Trailing gas shielding device

Welding of nickel alloys

Weldability – When nickel alloys are brought into contact with sulphur at temperatures
above 240 °C, they are highly susceptible to hot cracking. Cracking can also result
from the presence of lead, phosphorus and other low melting point substances that
are commonly found in grease, paint, crayons, cutting fluid, inks, lacquers etc. Where
possible, the use of such substances should be avoided during fabrication.
It is imperative that thorough cleaning is carried out prior to welding.
Welding recommendations
zz thorough cleaning
zz use of jigs and fixtures
zz low heat input
zz close tacks
zz short arc lengths.
Welding recommendations
zz Thorough removal of all surface scale, grease and other surface contaminants is
essential. This can be achieved by pickling, brushing with a clean stainless steel
wire brush and solvent cleaning with acetone or alcohol. The weldment should be
cleaned for a distance equal to ten times the plate thickness on either side of the
weld, with a minimum of 25 mm.
zz High purity shielding gases must be used (minimum 99.995% pure). Argon,
helium, or argon/helium mixtures may be used.
zz Gas shielding must completely protect the weld until it cools to below 400 °C.
Trail shielding devices and welding chambers are used to facilitate this.
zz Filler rods should be cleaned using a cloth wetted with alcohol or acetone and
once cleaned, the filler rods and weldments should only be handled with clean
cotton gloves.
zz Backing gases are essential and weld support is desirable.
zz Current for GTAW is DC -ve.
Amperages are similar to those used for welding stainless steel.

Chapter 15 – GTAW and equipment
Introduction
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) has increased in popularity because of the relative
ease with which it can be applied to difficult to weld materials, notably aluminium and
stainless steel and the increased use of these materials in various industries. Thin
metals, out of position work and automatic applications are well within the scope of
the GTAW process and it is in these areas that it excels. Welds produced are of high
quality in terms of both soundness and appearance.
zz The gas tungsten arc welding process
{{ equipment
shielding gases
gas regulators and flow meters
{{ gas tungsten arc welding techniques.

The gas tungsten arc welding process

The gas tungsten arc process employs an electric arc created between a non-consumable
tungsten electrode and the work to heat and melt the parent metal and provide the heat
required for fusion. Under normal conditions, the tungsten electrode does not melt and
become part of the weld.
A separate inert gas shield is introduced around the arc zone to exclude the atmosphere
and its undesirable effects. Additional weld metal may or may not be required, but can be
added by dipping compatible filler rods into the weld pool.
ACHF, DCSP
or DCRP Gas cup.
Welds made with
power supply Either ceramic or
or without addition
water-cooled metal
of filler metal
l
ave Many joint designs
o f tr
ion in all positions
Tungsten electrode ect can be welded
(virtually Dir easily
non-consumable)
Weld surface
smooth & clean
No flux
required
Base metal
can be any
commercial
metal Weld possesses good
quality, little or no loss Inert gas Work return
of alloying elements shields electrode lead
and weld puddle.
Highly
concentrated heat
Fig 15.1 – Gas tungsten arc welding


GTAW has a wide range of applications, in particular its use on stainless steel and
non-ferrous metals such as aluminium and its alloys and also copper and copper
based alloys. The GTAW process is also widely used on plain carbon steel, carbon
manganese steel and low and high alloy steels because of its weld finish and quality.
It can be used to weld a wide variety of metal thicknesses in all types of applications,
including:
zz general engineering
zz transport and marine industries
zz sheet metal industries
zz boiler and pipe welding.

Some of the advantages of the GTAW process include the following.
zz An open arc, which means the weld zone is highly visible to the operator,
enabling greater control of the weld pool and fusion zone.
zz The arc heat is highly concentrated and produces virtually no sparks, spatter or
fumes.
zz The process operates in an inert atmosphere and therefore does not produce any
adverse effects on the weld or weld area.
zz High quality welds with a good visual appearance are able to be easily produced.
zz No flux is required, therefore no slag is produced and this saves time required for
post-weld clean up. Some wires do however have a flux enclosed.
zz The process has a wide range of applications (nearly all the ferrous and
non-ferrous materials, together with some of the more exotic materials such as
nickel and titanium).

Some of the limitations of the GTAW process are as follows.
zz Equipment is relatively expensive – to make full use of the process, a high
degree of skill is required from the operator.
zz The process is not suitable for use on dirty material and does not like a windy
environment.
zz It is not really suitable for thicker sections or high productivity work, although it
can be mechanised to improve quality and efficiency.
zz The process also has more intense arc radiation and fume safety hazards,
depending on the material being welded.

Equipment
Power source
Gas tungsten arc welding power sources can be obtained to operate on domestic or
industrial mains supply voltages. Most industrial machines operate on a 440 volt supply
and provide current in the range 200–500 amperes with 60% duty cycle.
Any AC or DC manual metal arc welding machine (constant current) can be used to
supply the current for GTAW. It is important, however, that the machine has a good
current control for low amperages in order to maintain a steady arc when welding
thin material. When using DC for welding, a high frequency unit is desirable for easy
arc starting, but not essential. With AC, a high frequency unit is definitely required;
this will be discussed later. The ideal power source for GTAW is one that has been
specially designed for the process (refer to Fig 15.2). These welding machines are
typically transformer rectifiers or inverters that supply both AC and DC and have a high
frequency unit incorporated in them. They also usually have other controls peculiar to
the GTAW process, such as:
zz a selection of current ranges or digital current control to give the operator better
control over the amperage
zz remote current control, usually hand or foot-operated, enabling the welder to alter
the amperage whilst welding
zz a soft-start switch, which reduces the current when starting the arc. This is
an advantage when welding aluminium or magnesium. A better GTAW power
source will also provide the ability to control upslope and down slope on the main
current, as well as pulsing options
zz high frequency spark intensity control, which is useful when welding aluminium
and magnesium
zz pre and post-gas flow timer to allow the shielding gas to flow before the arc is
started and then provide a gas (and water if used) flow for a set time after the arc
is extinguished. This prevents atmospheric contamination of the weld pool and
electrode and also assists in torch and tungsten electrode cooling.
Cooling water Gas

supply Power source
supply
Torch
Filler
metal
Water
drain
Base Gas
metal
Work
lead
Foot pedal
(optional)
Electrode lead
Fig 15.2 – Equipment used in gas tungsten arc welding

Current type is important in GTAW and the choice depends mainly on the metal to be
welded and its thickness, which in turn decides the current level required.
Choice of current
With GTAW, the operator has the choice of three types of welding current.
1. DC(-) electrode negative.
2. DC(+) electrode positive.
3. AC(hf) AC with superimposed high frequency.
DC electrode negative
In the GTAW process, two-thirds of the heat generated at the arc occurs at the positive
terminal and one-third of the heat at the negative terminal. Therefore, it is beneficial
(whenever possible) to connect the tungsten electrode to the negative terminal, since
higher amperages can be used without the tungsten becoming overheated. Also,
because most of the heat is concentrated in the parent metal, deeper penetration is
obtained.
With electrode negative, the flow of electrons is from the tungsten electrode to the
parent metal (from negative to positive). The shielding gas, as it passes through the
arc, becomes electrically charged (ionised) and the ions of gas that are positively
charged are attracted to the negative electrode (Fig 15.3). No cleaning action occurs
with this polarity, but this is only needed when welding metals with a high melting point
surface oxide. Electrode negative is preferred for most of the common fabrication
metals, except aluminium.
GTAW with electrode negative produces deep penetration because it concentrates the
heat in the joint area. No cleaning action occurs with this polarity.
DC welding
power supply
1
3 heat at
electrode
Surface
oxide
Electrons
Gas ions
Deep
penetration
2 heat at work
3
DC straight polarity (Electrode neg.)
Fig 15.3 – Direct current electrode negative

DC electrode positive
With electrode positive, the gas ions are still positively charged but are now attracted
to the negative parent metal. They bombard the plate surface, causing any oxide on
the plate surface to be chipped away, exposing bare metal that is easily melted. This
cleaning action is most useful when metals with a high melting point surface oxide have
to be welded, eg aluminium, magnesium and titanium.
With electrode positive, the bulk of the heat is now concentrated at the tungsten
electrode, which can become overheated unless a sufficiently large electrode diameter
is used. The penetration is wide and shallow and the arc tends to be erratic due to the
large electrode and relatively low amperage being used (Fig 15.4). Therefore, electrode
positive is not recommended for GTAW.
GTAW with electrode positive produces good cleaning action, as the argon ions flowing
towards the work strike with sufficient force to break up oxides on the surface of the
material. Since the electrons flowing towards the electrode cause a heating effect at
the electrode, weld penetration is shallow.
DC welding
power supply 2
3 heat at
electrode
Surface
oxide
Electrons
Gas ions
1 heat at work Shallow

3 penetration
DC reverse polarity (Electrode pos.)
Fig 15.4 – Direct current electrode positive
AC alternating current
The ideal type of welding current for metals with a high melting point surface oxide
would be one that gives the good cleaning action of the electrode positive cycle and
then the deep penetration, cooler electrode of the electrode negative cycle. AC is
actually a combination of electrode negative and electrode positive. One half of the
cycle is negative and the other half positive (Fig 15.5). The heat is equally distributed at
the electrode and the work piece.

1 cycle
DC electrode positive
Zero line
DC electrode negative
Fig 15.5 – AC cycle
Unfortunately, the strong surface oxide on metals such as aluminium prevents the
full flow of current in the reverse polarity (positive) direction of the cycle, causing the
arc to become unstable. Also, as the cycle passes through the zero voltage point, the
arc goes out and must re-ignite. To prevent instability or complete loss of the arc, a
continuous high frequency spark is required. The high frequency current is able to jump
the gap between the electrode and the parent metal during the period of arc shut down,
and assists to penetrate the oxide film and form a path for the welding current to follow.
Because continuous high frequency voltage is needed with AC, this type of current is
usually identified as AC(hf) (Fig 15.6).
AC welding
power supply
1
2 heat at
electrode
Electrode
work
1 heat at work
2
Fig 15.6 – Alternating current high frequency
AC square wave
A variation on true AC is also available with modern GTAW welding equipment, where
the top and bottom of the AC sine wave are flattened by electronics (Fig 15.7). With
modern electronic control, the AC wave can also be altered to give more positive or
negative arc time and/or current. The fact that these parameters can be changed can
be used to advantage by a skilled operator to alter arc cleaning or heating time.

Conventional
AC sine wave
Hertz 50 Hz/sec
Fig 15.7 – AC square wave
Electrode current carrying capacity

The electrode diameter required for a given amperage will vary, depending on the
current type being used. A 1.6 mm tungsten on DC electrode negative will carry the
same current as a 2.4 mm tungsten on AC(hf), while a 3.0 mm electrode would be
required to carry the same current on DC positive.
Electrode cooling is provided by the torch through the copper collet, gas diffuser
and torch body.
Direct current electrode negative is the most common type of current used for welding
materials such as mild steel, stainless steel and alloy steels. Direct current electrode
negative is used also to obtain narrow, deep penetrating welds.
Direct current electrode positive may be applied to welding very thin aluminium and
magnesium parts, but is not commonly used because a large diameter electrode is
required to carry low current values and the arc may be unstable.
Alternating current, with a superimposed high frequency current, is most commonly
used for aluminium and magnesium, as it combines good oxide clearing when the
electrode is positive with good penetration when the electrode is negative.
Pulsed current
Pulsed current is also available on some GTAW equipment. The welding current is set
to fluctuate between a high fusion current level and a low background current, both
of which are adjustable, as is the time for which each current level is effective. The
number of pulses can be varied from ten per second down to about one per second.
Pulsed current, which may be AC or DC, is particularly useful for welding very thin
materials, providing good penetration during the high current cycle with cooling of the
molten pool and solidification during the low current cycle. In effect, pulsed current
produces a series of spot welds, penetration is good, distortion is minimised and heat
control is improved for difficult welding situations involving thin materials and positional
welds.
CURRENT
Welding current
High Low
pulse pulse
time time
current
weld
%
Cycle time
TIME
TIME
Fig 15.8 – Pulsed current
Shielding gases
Generally, an inert gas is used in GTAW as the shielding medium to protect the
tungsten, molten weld pool, weld zone and filler material from contamination and
oxidation by the atmosphere.
Argon
Argon is the inert gas most commonly used in Australia – in preference to helium
because of its lower cost and its general suitability for a wide variety of metals. Argon
is an electron carrier and also exhibits better oxide removal characteristics than helium.
It aids the welding operation, as heat input to the weld puddle is less affected by
variations in arc length.
Helium
Helium is also an inert gas, but it is not as easily obtained and therefore is more
expensive than argon. On the other hand, because it does not carry electrons as well
as argon, the power source is not loaded up as well and therefore arc voltages are
higher. This means more heat is available, which increases penetration and travel
speeds.
Others
Oxygen is an oxidizing gas and small amounts may be introduced into the gas mixture
to stir up the weld pool and increase heat in the arc. Carbon dioxide is a cheap
insulator gas that may also be added in small amounts to help decrease costs and
stimulate weld fusion. It should not be used on stainless steel.
Mixtures
Mixtures of the two main gases of argon and helium may prove advantageous, in
some special applications. An increase in helium content will bring about increased
temperature, better fusion and faster weld speeds on most materials, but there would
be a corresponding increase in costs. Gas suppliers have developed numerous
combinations of the various gases (brews) to suit particular situations or applications.
Those seeking further information should contact the local supplier.

Gas regulators and flow meters

Fixed pressure reduction regulators are used to supply gas to the torch, together with
a flow meter, to give a precise indication of the gas flow rate being used. Gas flows are
adjusted between 5 and 14 litres per minute to suit the particular application. Flow rates
above the recommended value may not necessarily provide better gas shielding.
Welding torches
Handheld GTA welding torches may be air cooled for low to medium amperage
applications (these are also gas cooled by the gas supply). Water cooled torches
are required for industrial operations involving higher amperages and longer welding
periods. The electrode is held by a collet in a collet holder/gas diffuser that assists in
electrode cooling and allows for removal and setting of the electrode in relation to the
nozzle, or gas shroud.
Projection of the electrode should not be excessive, as this makes touching onto the
work and contamination of the electrode more likely. Minimum projection of electrode
consistent with good control, normally 2–5 mm, will provide good welding conditions
and satisfactory gas coverage of the electrode and work. The collet is tightened by
screwing in the torch back cap, which also provides insulation for the electrode.
Insulating Collet Back

Nozzle
ring cap
Collet body/
gas diffuser
Handle
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 15.9 – Welding torch parts
A control knob for gas flow may be located on the torch and this often incorporates a
current on/off control. Most welding torches have now removed the gas control and
modern GTAW equipment provides one-touch control over pre and post-gas flow and
all other welding parameters.

Gas nozzles
Gas nozzles (or gas lenses) are used to protect the tungsten electrode from the
atmospheric gases and to deliver the shielding gas to the weld area. They may be
made from cheap compressed and fused alumina type material. Ceramic material gas
cups are able to withstand higher temperatures than the alumina type, but they are
more expensive and more susceptible to damage. Metal or fused silica (glass) gas
lenses are also available. The gas lens is available in a variety of sizes ranging from
8 mm to 20 mm.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 15.10 – Various gas nozzles/lenses
The general rule for the gas lens size is four to six times the electrode diameter. This
may be altered however, depending on the type of joint being welded and the material
being welded. For example, an outside corner weld may require a larger gas lens size
to give more shielding, while an inside corner can be achieved easily with a small gas
lens because the gas will be trapped in the corner. Typically, aluminium or stainless
steel may also need one step larger gas lenses to give a better gas cover.
Electrodes
Different types of tungsten electrodes are available and provide a comprehensive
range for specific applications. Tungsten electrodes are identified on the tip by a colour
code. This colour code should be preserved, as identification of a tungsten electrode
that has lost its code can be difficult.
Pure tungsten electrodes (green tip)

Tungsten has the highest melting point of all metals, typically 3400 °C for pure
tungsten. These electrodes are recommended chiefly for use with balanced wave
alternating current power sources on the welding of aluminium where other electrode
types are not generally used due to their emission characteristics. When used with
standard power sources, they provide good stability with direct current and high
frequency stabilised alternating current with argon, helium or a mixture of both as a
shielding gas.
Pure tungsten electrodes have a lower current carrying capacity and poorer arc
starting characteristics than other electrodes, but have a reasonably good resistance
to contamination and maintain a clean balled end which is preferred for aluminium and
magnesium welding. They are a general purpose electrode for less critical work.

Thoriated tungsten electrodes (red tip)

These electrodes contain 1%–2% thorium as an alloy. This gives the electrode a
greater ability to resist transfer across the arc and thus help to maintain the point when
using them chiefly for direct current electrode negative DC(-) work, because they offer
increased life compared with that of the pure tungsten type due to their higher electron
emission. They offer better arc starting, particularly at low open circuit voltages, and
good arc stability. The thoriated tungsten range of electrodes have a higher current
carrying capacity and greater resistance to weld pool contamination.
Thoriated tungstens are generally used when DC electrode negative is selected for
welding of ferrous materials and alloys such as mild steel, alloy steel and stainless
steel. They may be used on high frequency stabilised alternating current work, but
difficulty can be experienced in maintaining the satisfactory balled end required for
good arc stability when welding aluminium and magnesium. This condition frequently
produces arc wander and tungsten emission, resulting in contamination of the weld
metal.
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes (white tip)

These electrodes are treated with zirconium and are preferred for applications where
tungsten contamination of the weld metal must be minimised. They are recommended
for use with high frequency stabilised alternating current (AC(hf)) for the welding of
aluminium and magnesium, due to the fact that they retain a clean balled end during
welding and have a high resistance to contamination. They have a longer life and
higher current carrying capacity than that of pure tungsten electrodes.
In recent studies related to health issues for welding operators, the thoriated
and zirconiated type electrodes have been found to produce a slight amount of
radiation when they are ground up. For this reason, they should be used only when
special precautions are used. Because of this problem, new types of electrodes for
GTAW have been developed.
Ceriated tungsten electrodes (orange tip) and lanthanated tungsten electrodes

(grey tip)
These are relatively new types of non-radioactive alloy tungsten electrode. These
electrodes can be used in situations where either thoriated or zirconiated tungsten
electrodes would normally be used. The tip may be ground to a point when using
DC -ve, or to a ball if AC(hf) is to be used and they demonstrate good welding
characteristics in all applications. The only drawback is that these electrodes are more
expensive to buy than the thoriated or zirconiated electrodes. However, if a welder
has been instructed to use the GTAW process on a particular job but does not know
what type of metal or alloy the item is made from, ceriated or lanthanated tungsten
electrodes may be selected. This will ensure that a sound weld can be produced, no
matter what welding current is required.

The chart below sets out general recommendations for choosing operating conditions.
Electrode Gas cup

AC(hf) DC -ve
diameter size
0.5 mm 6 mm 5–15 5–20
1.0 mm 6 mm 15–40 15–70
1.2 mm 6 mm 20–60 40–90
1.6 mm 6 mm or 10 mm 20–90 65–120
2.4 mm 10 mm 60–160 140–250
3 mm 12 mm 120–220 250–380
5 mm 15 mm 160–340 300–550
6 mm 15 mm 280–470 500–700
Table 15.1 – Typical operating conditions for tungsten electrodes
Before assembling the electrode in the torch, one end should be prepared to suit the
type of welding current being used. For DC -ve, it should be ground to a taper with the
nose section having approximately 30° included angle; do not grind it to a sharp point,
but leave approximately one-third of the electrode diameter unground as a sharp point
can be lost from the electrode into the weld pool during welding. For AC welding, grind
with a chamfer to provide rapid formation of the balled end necessary for AC welding.
DC-ve AC (hf)
(a) (b)
Fig 15.11 – Electrode tip preparation
Gas tungsten arc welding techniques

Starting the arc
After a gas flow is established and providing high frequency current HF is used to
initiate the arc, the electrode does not have to touch the work or starting block to effect
arc initiation. The superimposed high frequency current jumps the gap between the
electrode and the work or starting block and thus establishes a path for the welding
current to flow. On some machines, there is facility for the current rate and rise time to
be adjusted (up slope).

When DC is employed without HF, it will be necessary for the electrode to make actual
contact with a starting block. At the moment of contact and when the arc is struck, the
electrode should be raised 3 mm above the starting block. The torch is then moved
quickly towards the work area.
To stop an arc, the current should simply be switched off and the torch held over the
cooling weld to provide a protective gas shield (post-purge) whilst the electrode and
work are cooling. The current may gradually be decreased (down slope) at the end of
a weld pass, thus allowing the crater to be filled, instead of being finished in a concave
contour.
Some care will be necessary, particularly with high-quality work and in pipe preparations
when breaking the arc when a simple power source is used. In some instances, it
can be advisable to run-off on to a tab or up the side of the pipe preparation when
completing a pass.
Arc wander
Occasionally, the point from which the arc leaves the electrode can move and waver
without any apparent reason. This is termed ‘arc wander’ and is generally attributed to
one of the following causes:
zz low electrode current density (too large an electrode for the current being
employed)
zz contamination of the electrode
zz magnetic effects.
With AC welding, due to the fact that a ball ended electrode is used, when the current
density of the electrode is of a sufficiently high level, the entire end of the electrode will
be in a molten state and completely covered by the arc. When too low a current density
is used, only a small area of the electrode becomes molten, resulting in an unstable arc
that has poor directional characteristics and is difficult for the operator to control. Too
high a current density results in excessive melting of the electrode end.
Arc wander in GTAW can be reduced by careful selection of the electrode diameter and
is much less serious in DC welding, due to the fact that a tapered point is ground on
the electrode.
Electrode contamination can be caused by excessive amperages or careless striking
of the arc. It may be preferable to use a piece of copper for starting purposes. Carbon
blocks are not recommended because of carbon pickup producing arc instability.
Contamination may also result from allowing the electrode to enter the molten pool or
from being touched by the filler rod. In AC welding, contamination of the electrode can
also occur when the filler material is not kept at the leading edge of the weld pool. If the
electrode is allowed to wander into the arc zone then, filler may transfer to the tungsten
on one half of the AC cycle. When contamination does occur, the only course of action
is to remove the electrode and either replace or clean it by grinding or breaking off the
contaminated end.

Performing butt welds
After the arc has been struck, the torch should be positioned at about 70° to the work.
The starting point of the work is first pre-heated by moving the torch in small circles
until a molten pool is formed (see Fig 15.12).
70° approx.
Work
Fig 15.12 – Formation of weld pool
When filler metal is required to provide adequate reinforcement, the filler rod is held at
about 15° to the work and about 25 mm away from the starting point. When the puddle
becomes bright and fluid, move the arc to the rear of the puddle and add filler metal
by quickly touching the rod to the leading edge of the puddle. As soon as the puddle
is again bright, repeat the same procedure. Care should be taken to ensure the filler
rod end is not permitted to leave the protection of the gas shroud during the welding
process.
The rate of forward speed and amount of filler metal added will depend on the desired
width and reinforcement of the weld bead. Fig 15.13 illustrates the filler rod movement.
Direction
of
travel
45°
45°–90°
45°
15°
Fig 15.13 – Method of adding filler rod

Performing fillet welds

The torch should be held at approximately 45° to 90° to the work, with the electrode
bisecting the angle between the joint members. All fillet welds require the addition of
filler rod to provide the necessary build up, with the filler rod being added to the weld
pool in a similar manner as described in butt welds.
After establishing the arc, the weld pool should be developed on both members of the
work by using an oscillating movement, similar to that used for butt welding, before the
addition of filler metal is applied. In awkward corners, it may be desirable to extend the
electrode or use a smaller gas cup to provide better visibility and complete root fusion.
Fig 15.14 illustrates torch and filler rod relationship to the work.
Direction
of
travel
45°
45°–90°
45°
15°
Fig 15.14 – Fillet joint torch and filler rod relationship
Performing pipe welds

The GTAW process is commonly used for pipe welding. High quality welds with
uniform penetration may be readily made on metals such as mild and low alloy steels,
stainless steels, aluminium and copper. The welds may be root passes in heavy pipe or
completely welded joints with root, fill and capping passes.
In GTAW pipe welding, you can gauge the success of the process by observing the
weld puddle. The shape of the puddle and its size clearly indicates the degree of
penetration being achieved inside the pipe. By manipulating the torch properly, the weld
puddle can be controlled at all times so that it has the correct shape for the pipe joint
being welded. Thus smooth, fully penetrated porosity free welds can be produced.
Argon is recommended as a backing gas for pipe welding, since it is most effective in
preventing oxidation of the back side of the weld.
The argon backing may be confined to the weld areas by paper baffles, by completely
filling the pipe or by the use of a removable backing device. Joint designs include ‘V’
and ‘U’ groove preparations for horizontal and vertical applications.
The relative position of the torch and filler rod to the pipe is illustrated in Fig 15.15
through to Fig 15.19.

15°–0°
Fig 15.15 – Relative position of torch and filler rod to pipe
5 3
Start
Stop
4 2
Fig 15.16 – Welding sequence of pipe in the fixed horizontal position

Vertical
down
15°
45°–90°
Direction of
welding
Direction of
welding
45°–90°
15°
Vertical
up
Fig 15.17 – Vertical joint torch and filler rod relationship
Direction of
welding
45°–90°
15°
Fig 15.18 – Overhead joint torch and filler rod relationship
of
t i on 45°–90°
ec g
Dir eldin
w
15°
Fig 15.19 – Horizontal joint torch position

Weld backup
On many GTA welding applications, the joint should be backed up, particularly on
light gauge material. Backing is usually used to protect the underside of the weld
from atmospheric contamination resulting in possible weld porosity or poor surface
appearance. In addition to these functions, weld backup prevents the weld puddle from
dropping through by drawing some of the heat generated by the intense arc away from
the work and can also physically support the weld puddle.
A weld can be backed up by:
zz metal backing bars
zz introducing an inert gas atmosphere on the weld underside, or
zz a combination of both methods.
Weld backing bars may be of a temporary or permanent type. The former does not form
part of the welded joint and can be copper, stainless steel, mild steel, etc, depending
on the material to be welded and may be removed on completion of the weld. The latter
is usually of the same composition as the material to be welded and becomes part of
the welded joint as illustrated in Fig 15.20. They are generally used where access does
not allow the removal of the temporary type.
Work
Permanent
backing bar
Fig 15.20 – Permanent backing bar
A type of temporary backing bar commonly used is that shown in Fig 15.21, where the
surface is cut or machined out directly below the joint. A bar of this type will protect the
bottom of the weld from excessive contamination by the atmosphere, as well as draw
heat away from the weld zone.

Hold down bars

or clamping
Work fingers
Work
Temporary Relief
backing bar groove Backing bar Channel to allow
free flow
of underbead
Hold down bars

or clamping
fingers
Work
Backing bar
Channel to
Insert support molten
underbead
Fig 15.21 – Temporary backing bar
On applications where the final weld composition must conform to extremely rigid
specifications, extra care must be taken to exclude all atmospheric oxygen from the
weld underside using temporary backing bars that will trap gas on the underside. A
supply of inert gas can also be offered up to the underside. Nitrogen may be used for
the stainless steel. Argon should be used for aluminium, magnesium and other metals
that oxidise readily or react with nitrogen at high temperatures.

Chapter 16 – GMAW/FCAW and
equipment
Introduction
Since its introduction in the 1940s, gas metal arc welding (GMAW) has become a very
popular welding process in the metal fabrication and welding industries. The flux-cored
arc welding (FCAW) process has also become very popular since new gas shielded
wires have been developed.
The GMAW solid wire process is suited to a wide range of light and general fabrication
applications. Gas metal arc welding is a semi-automatic process where the wire is
automatically fed into the weld pool. This produces higher deposition rates and greater
efficiency over the manual metal arc welding process.
zz Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) principles
{{ specific safety related to gas metal arc welding
{{ wire feed systems
{{ metal transfer
{{ classification of consumables
{{ gas metal arc welding variables
{{ gas metal arc welding defects
zz Flux-cored arc welding

{{ equipment
{{ techniques for gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding
{{ effects of the operating variables with flux-cored arc welding
{{ flux-cored arc welding consumables classification
{{ safety recommendations with flux-cored arc welding.

Chapter 16 – GMAW/FCAW and equipment
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) principles

Gas metal arc welding is an arc welding process where the necessary heat for fusion is
produced by an electric arc that is created and maintained between a continuously fed
wire electrode and the part to be welded. The parent metal and heated weld zone, the
molten weld metal and the consumable electrode end are shielded from the effects of
atmospheric gases by a shroud of inert or slightly reactive gas, fed through the welding
torch.
Direction
of travel
Wire guide and contact tip
Gas nozzle
Solidified
weld metal
Shielding gas
Work
Arc Molten weld metal
Fig 16.1 – The gas metal arc welding process

The GMAW solid wire process can be applied to a wide range of materials, because
a fairly good range of filler material is now available. Some of the welding machine
suppliers provide welding machines that specialise in either thin or thick materials,
however all good welding machines will adapt to a wide range of thicknesses in the
hands of a good operator. The process is applicable to either fillet or butt weld joints in
the flat or various welding positions.
Typical industrial uses are automotive repairs and vehicle body building, sheet metal
work, mining support industries, transport and marine industries, heavy fabrication and
general engineering work.

The major advantage of the GMAW process is its high deposition rate compared with
the manual metal arc and gas tungsten arc welding processes. This is brought about
by the automatic wire feed, the high ratio of current to wire diameter and the elimination
of the need for the operator to stop to change electrodes, chip slag etc.

The advantages of this are summarised as follows:
zz high deposition rates when compared to manual metal arc welding
zz high operating factor (duty cycle)
zz no wastage from electrode stubs
zz elimination of slag removal
zz less operator skill required
zz has a wide range of applications
zz low hydrogen deposit
zz reduced distortion on thin materials.

Whilst GMAW is a popular and versatile welding process offering the advantages
already listed, it is also limited by the following:
zz high initial equipment cost
zz high maintenance requirements
zz it cannot be used in windy conditions, making the process generally unsuited to
site work
zz lack of fusion defects can be a major problem under some circumstances.
Specific safety related to GMAW

Darker welding filters
The primary concern in regard to safety when using the GMAW plant is the open
arc and high arc intensity, which is much greater than that associated with MMAW
electrodes. Thus a darker welding filter than is normally used will be required for
GMAW. A filter one shade darker than that used for welding at the same amperage with
the MMAW process is required, ie:
zz up to 200 Amps: a shade 11 is recommended
zz 200–300 Amps: a shade 12 is recommended.
Clear safety glasses must be worn at all times, as the higher current density and
emission of UV radiation results in increased risk of arc flash and more severe arc
flashes if safety is ignored.
Body protection
This same arc intensity will also require the operator to ensure his/her body is
completely covered with protective clothing. Even extraneous light from the arc (ie UV
radiation bouncing from a reflecting wall) can result in a rather uncomfortable ‘ray burn’.
Experience has shown that cotton materials have a lesser degree of resistance to UV
rays than woollen materials. Cotton and particularly synthetics, will quickly break down
and eventually disintegrate. Consequently, it is preferable to wear leather or woollen
materials.

Ventilation
When using GMAW, a toxic gas called ozone (O3) is given off in the vicinity of the arc.
Processes that employ higher current densities produce more ozone. Although ozone is
not normally dangerous under most conditions, it is advisable to use exhaust extraction
when working in confined spaces where ventilation is restricted. Natural ventilation and
exhaust fans can also be advantageous. Any ventilation system used must not interfere
with the gas shielding of the weld zone.
Equipment required
The major equipment items that make up a GMAW plant are the:
zz power source
zz wire feeder
zz cable assembly and welding gun
zz gas supply system
zz inter-connecting cables.
Power source Wire feeder

Transformer Wire
rectifier reel Feed Flow meter
rolls Heater
(if required)
Inductor
Power cable Regulator
Welding wire Cooling water

Work lead (if required)
Shielding
gas
supply
Contact tip Shielding
gas
Nozzle Work
Fig 16.2 – Gas metal arc welding equipment

Power source
A constant voltage (constant potential) power source with a high duty cycle rating is
required for GMAW. This is commonly a transformer/rectifier or an inverter. The output
requirement is for direct current with a constant voltage type characteristic, but this may
be varied to suit different applications. All solid wires for GMAW run on DC electrode
positive (DC +ve).
The GMAW process is intolerant of any variations in arc voltage and the constant
voltage type output provided by the power source ensures that the arc length is
self-adjusting and the wire burn off rate remains constant, despite uneven torch
movement and variations in arc length.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 16.3 – Gas metal arc welding power source
Wire feed unit

The primary function of the wire feed unit is to feed wire to the arc. The unit houses a
reel of wire and a DC motor to which feed rollers are attached. The feed rollers feed
wire to the arc down through a hollow steel conduit to the torch. The speed of the drive
motor is governed by a potentiometer (the wire feed control). Increasing the wire speed
rate usually increases amperage, because the increased wire feed rate effectively
decreases the arc length slightly; this loads up the arc voltage and the machine will
then increase welding current to compensate.
Incorporated into the wire feed unit are the shielding gas supply and connections, gas
control solenoid and water connections (in the case of a water-cooled torch). Most wire
feed units also have a gas purge control so that the gas flow can be set without any
current or wire flow and a wire inch control so that wire may be fed through without the
welding current being turned on. Some wire feeders may also have a pre-gas and
post-gas flow timer (useful for aluminium and stainless steel). Some wire feeders may
also incorporate spot welding timers and controls.

BOC Limited ©2006

Fig 16.4 – Wire feed unit
Cable assembly and welding gun

The cable assembly and welding gun is the medium by which wire, current and
shielding gas are conveyed to the welding arc. It connects to the wire feeder and
terminates with the ‘gun’ or ‘torch’.
The electrode wire generally travels through the steel wire conduit or ‘liner’, which
runs through the centre of the gun cable. Welding current is carried through the cable
assembly by a heavy copper lead incorporated within the cable assembly.
Shielding gas is also carried through the cable and is distributed at the weld via the gas
diffuser and gas nozzle.
BOC Limited ©2006
Fig 16.5 – Cable assembly and welding gun

Welding is commenced by depressing the torch trigger. This initiates three separate
functions, as follows.
1. The gas solenoid valve opens and allows shielding gas to flow through to the gas
nozzle.
2. The welding current contactor is ‘pulled in’ (closed) and welding current becomes
available. Welding current is transferred to the wire through the wire feeder, the
cable assembly and from the contact tip.
3. The wire feed motor starts up and feeds wire at the pre-set constant speed
through the torch conduit.
Because of the heat generated in the weld pool and the heat generated through
electrical resistance at the contact tip, torches have to be efficiently cooled. The
majority of torches are gas-cooled; however, water-cooled torches may be required
when high amperages are used on a continuous basis.
Welding guns are usually provided with a bent neck to improve operator comfort, but
some guns may have a straight neck, which allows better wire feed.
(a)
BOC Limited ©2006

(b)
Fig 16.6 – Gas metal arc welding guns (a) goose neck, (b) push pull
Gas supply system

Shielding gases for GMAW are usually supplied from a single cylinder; however, large
consumers may use two cylinders or manifolded systems. The components of the gas
supply system are a:
zz cylinder of gas CO2 or Argon/CO2 mixtures for carbon steels
zz regulator to reduce cylinder pressure
zz flow meter to accurately control shielding gas flow rate
zz heater – when CO2 is used as a shielding gas, a heater is fitted between the
cylinder and the regulator to prevent freezing at the regulator
zz gas diffuser to distribute gas evenly and prevent turbulence
zz gas nozzle to surround the welding wire and provide shielding gas around the
weld zone.

Interconnecting cables
These consist of:
zz the work return lead and work clamp
zz the welding current cable from the power source to the contact tip via the wire
feeder and cable assembly
zz the control cables from the activation switch to the wire feeder and from the wire
feeder to the power source.
Wire feed systems

There are three basic types of GMAW wire feeding systems, each requiring different
welding guns.
The push system

The push system is by far the most popular wire feed system. The wire feed unit
pushes the electrode wire from the drive rolls along the cable conduit, through the gun
and contact tip and to the weld pool. Push systems are generally robust, lightweight
and very functional (also the least expensive). The system works very well with hard
wires (steel, stainless steel, etc). Wire on spools of 15 kg or larger are usually used
with this system. This keeps costs down and increases convenience.
The major disadvantage of the push system is the unreliability of wire feeding over
anything other than short cable assembly distances. This unreliability is caused by a
number of factors, such as friction which may cause dust to accumulate in the conduit.
Wires may also become kinked over long distances due to internal friction; this is a
particular problem when feeding soft wires such as aluminium. Nylon or Teflon® liners
are used to try to reduce this problem when aluminium wires are being pushed.
Because the conduit in most wire feed systems is live (connected to the wire feeder
and/or the contact tip), the conduit may experience internal arcing and wire feed
problems caused by dust, or a faulty or dirty contact tip. Any wire feed rate problem
caused by dust, a dirty contact tip and/or faulty wire feed will reflect itself in altered or
changing weld parameters (voltage/amperage).
Drive
rolls
Welding
torch
Fig 16.7 – Push system

The pull system
The pull system is sometimes known as spool on gun and is ideally suited to feeding
soft wires such as aluminium, or where welding is to be carried out at a location remote
from the power source. The drive motor and drive rollers are built into the handle of the
gun. This offers a short, direct wire travel, with little friction through the conduit.
The drawbacks of this system are the high initial cost of equipment and the welding
gun is delicate and susceptible to damage. Consumable wire on small spools is also
more expensive. The size of the assembly and weight of wire carried on the gun can
also be a disadvantage. Though this system is mainly used for aluminium work, mild
steel and stainless steel wires can also be used.
Guide tube
locking knob Wire feed
Welding
current rolls
Wire spool/reel
Shielding gas
Trigger
Wire feed
motor
Itching
switch
(a)
Drive
rolls
Welding Wire
torch reel
(b)
Fig 16.8 – Pull systems (a) and (b)

The push/pull system

As the name implies, both the push motor at the wire feeder and a pull motor at the
torch are employed. In the best brands the motors are synchronised to feed the wire at
the same speed, although there are some cheaper brands on the market that allow the
torch motor to only apply a set tension to the wire feed whilst all the speed control is
maintained at the main wire feeder.
The push/pull wire feed system enables the feeding of both hard and soft wires up
to ten metres from the welding machine and still offers the economy of 15 kg (or
larger) spools of wire. The push/pull system is a versatile system, particularly suited
to aluminium but may also be used for hard wires as well. Obviously there is a greater
initial purchase penalty and higher maintenance costs.
Drive Drive
rolls rolls
(pull) (push)
Wire
Welding
reel
torch
(a)
(b)
BOC Limited ©2006

Fig 16.9 – Push/pull systems (a) and (b)

Drive rollers
Friction, caused by pressure applied to the welding wire as it passes through the
rotating drive rolls, is the mechanism by which the wire is fed. Resistance in the gun
cable may cause the wire to slip as it passes through the drive rolls. Increasing the
pressure of the top roller increases friction and prevents this slippage. However,
excessive pressure can deform the wire, making it more difficult to feed (Fig 16.10).
Top roll
Vee drive roll
Fig 16.10 – Deformation caused by excessive roll pressure
Wire feeders use either a two or four-roller drive system. Two-roll systems are cheaper
to manufacture and purchase and are best suited to feeding hard wires such as carbon
and stainless steels through short gun cables. Most two-roll wire feeders have the two
rolls geared to drive together, however some cheap machines have only one roll driven
and this will inevitably give trouble and should be avoided.
Four-roll feeders (especially the all-geared type) allow positive drive between the rollers
and the wire with less roller pressure, giving a smoother feed with less slippage and
less distortion of the wire.
The four-roll system offers advantages for:
zz feeding soft wires such as aluminium
zz feeding wires through longer cable assemblies
zz use with cored wires.

Wire direction
Drive
rolls
Fig 16.11 – Two-roller feeder
Wire direction
Drive
rolls
Fig 16.12 – Four-roller feeder
The cross sectional shape of the rollers used with any particular wire feeder, for any
particular application, varies according to the manufacturer.

Common configurations/sections of drive rolls and their uses are as follows.
Flat top roll/’V’ Used for

bottom roll general
Top (three point purpose
universal feeding of
system) hard wires
such as steel
and stainless
steel
Drive
Bottom
rolls
Fig 16.13 – (a)
Flat top roll/‘U’ Used mainly

bottom roll for aluminium
Top (contour wires. The
system) (the ‘U’ profile
rolls must suit reduces
wire size) deformation of
the soft wire
Drive
Bottom
rolls
Fig 16.13 – (b)
Top and Used for

bottom rolls cored wires
Top Serrated have serrated and large
vee grooves diameter solid
wires
Drive
Bottom
rolls
Fig 16.13 – (c)
This list is not exhaustive, but these are the ones in the most common use.

Wire conduit (liner)

The liner is used to guide the wire through the gun cable to the torch and through to
the contact tip. The liner is made of spiral steel wound wire for feeding hard wires such
as carbon and stainless steels and of nylon or Teflon® for feeding aluminium wire. To
ensure reliable wire feeding, it is imperative that the liner is cut to the correct length and
properly fitted into the cable assembly at the wire feed end and the gas diffuser at the
gun end. Additionally, the cable assembly and conduit should be kept free of dust and
as straight as possible when in use.
Contact tip
The contact tip serves two functions, to:
zz guide the wire to the arc
zz transfer welding current to the wire.
The contact tip is the most important component of the welding torch. It is here that the
filler-wire is energised or ‘picks-up’ the welding current. The contact tip is usually made
from copper and is, via the gas diffuser and torch body, directly attached to the power
lead and power source. Contact tips are matched to each wire size.
It is important that the contact tip is maintained in a clean condition, free from spatter
on the end and with a smooth internal bore. Worn contact tips reduce the efficiency
with which current is transferred to the wire and contribute to uneven wire feeding.
They should be replaced when worn.
Metal transfer
With most of the commonly used welding processes, the operator has little control
over the way metal is transferred across the arc. With GMAW, the operator can select
and control the type of metal transfer. This is done essentially by a combination of arc
voltage selection, wire feed rate and shielding gas type being used. Wire type and
size being used will also influence the effect these parameters have on the final metal
transfer mode.
The metal transfer mode determines the welding characteristics of the GMAW process.
The operator must select the most appropriate mode of transfer and set the machine
according to a specific application prior to commencing welding.
Apart from the pulsed transfer mode, which requires sophisticated power sources, the
welding operator can select from three transfer modes, which are:
zz dip (or short arc) transfer
zz globular transfer
zz spray transfer.
Dip transfer
Dip transfer is also known as short arc transfer (short for short circuiting arc). In the dip
transfer mode, low voltage and wire feed settings are used. The low voltage employed
is easily overcome by electrical resistance across the arc, preventing continuous
current flow as arc length increases.

Dip transfer can occur anywhere from 12–20 volts and 50–170 amps when using
0.9 mm steel wire and argon/15% CO2 shielding gas.
When welding commences, the tip of the electrode wire contacts the plate and a short
circuit occurs, causing a rapid rise in current from the constant voltage power source. If
this rate of current rise is too rapid, the wire can simply explode or vaporise much the
same way as a fuse wire does when exposed to excessive current. The rate of current
rise is controlled by fixed or variable inductance that can sometimes be altered (pinch
control). The rapid current rise leads to a temperature rise in the wire (caused by the
short circuit current flowing through to the work) and the end of the electrode wire is
heated and melted off. An arc is immediately formed between the tip of the wire and the
parent metal, creating heating and a weld pool. The arc is maintained by the electrical
circuit for a short time. The electrode wire continues to feed at a rate greater than burn
off, until the decreasing arc gap causes the arc to be extinguished.
The wire tip once again dips into the pool and the cycle is repeated. This sequence of
events is repeated at a frequency of up to 200 times per second. It produces sufficient
heat for fusion and to keep the weld pool fluid.
This method is suitable for positional welding, due to rapid freezing of the weld pool
and has the advantage that the heat input to the work is kept to a minimum. This limits
distortion and enables thin sheet material to be welded. However, on thicker material,
the low heat input tends to give rise to lack of fusion defects on material above 5 mm in
thickness if care is not taken with machine adjustment and technique.
Direction of
wire travel
1 2 3 4 5 1 2
Work
Fig 16.14 – Schematic diagram of short arc transfer
1. Trigger depressed wire starts to feed.

2. Wire contacts; the work piece heats up due to electrical resistance and starts to
melt.
3. Wire melts off and an arc is established.
4. Arc length decreases as the end of the wire melts and wire feed continues.
5. Arcing ceases due to the low arc voltage being unable to overcome the electrical
resistance across the arc gap.
6. Wire is fed into the weld pool that has been created and the cycle begins again.

Features of dip transfer

zz low currents are used
zz low heat input
zz low penetration
zz moderate spatter
zz low deposition rate
zz relatively cold weld pool
zz ideal for thin materials
zz used for positional welding
zz suffers from lack of fusion defects, particularly when plate thickness
exceeds 5 mm.
Globular transfer
Globular transfer can occur anywhere from 18–23 volts and 100–175 amps when using
Globular transfer occurs at voltage and current levels between those used for dip and
spray transfer. Voltages are high enough to ensure a constant arc, but amperage is
set below the threshold current that produces spray transfer. The result is that the wire
melts in the arc and a molten globule forms on the end of the wire.
As melting continues, the size of the globule grows until its own weight causes
detachment of the droplet due to gravitational forces. This droplet detachment is erratic
and, along with the influence of arc forces repelling the droplet away from the wire, high
spatter levels result. Droplet size is considerably larger than the wire diameter.
Shielding gas
Globular
metal drops
Fig 16.15 – Globular transfer

The features of globular transfer include:
zz moderate amperages are used (medium heat)
zz low/moderate penetration
zz moderate/high spatter levels
zz coarse appearance
zz metal droplets are detached by gravitational forces
zz largely unsuitable for positional welding
zz occurs even at high amperages when the shielding gas contains in excess of
approximately 23% CO2.
Spray transfer
Spray transfer can occur anywhere above 23 volts and over 170 amps when using
Unlike dip transfer, where the low arc voltage used precludes the use of a continuous
arc, spray transfer employs an arc that burns continuously. To achieve this, the arc
voltage when welding steel must be above approximately 23 V, depending on wire size
and shielding gas composition.
Additionally, the amperage used must be above the ‘threshold current’, which is the
current above which tiny droplets are pinched off and projected axially across the arc
gap. Below the threshold current, droplet detachment is brought about by the molten
droplet of wire growing in size until it is heavy enough to be detached by gravitational
forces.
Fig 16.16 – Spray transfer
Spray transfer offers greatly increased deposition rates compared to dip transfer
and minimal spatter and is not accompanied by the lack of fusion defects sometimes
associated with dip transfer. Because of the hot, fluid weld pool associated with spray
transfer, it is only suitable for use on plates above approximately 5 mm thick and in the
downhand (flat) position.

Features of spray transfer

• high currents are used
• high heat input
• moderate/deep penetration
• high deposition rates
• low spatter
• good appearance
• fluid weld pool
• unsuitable for positional welding
• requires a shielding gas with high argon content.
40
30
voltage
dip
20 globular
10 spray
0 100 200 300 400 500

amperage
Fig 16.17 – Volt/amp ranges for GMAW
Voltages and currents shown are due to the graph applying to 1.2 mm steel wire
and argon/15% CO2 shielding gas.

Pulsed current
Pulsed current may be available on some GMAW power sources. The welding current
is set to fluctuate between a high peak current level for fusion and deposition and
then a low background current level for weld pool solidification and cooling. The peak
and background currents are adjustable and the time for each current level can also
be adjusted. On some GMAW welding power sources, the number of pulses per
second can be varied from ten per second (or higher) down to about one per second,
depending on the time set for the peak and background current.
Pulsed current is particularly useful for welding very thin materials, providing good
penetration during the high current cycle with cooling of the molten pool during the low
current cycle. In effect, pulsed current produces a series of spot welds, penetration
is good, distortion is minimised and control is improved for difficult welding situations
involving thin materials and positional welds.
A number of machine manufacturers are now providing a droplet transfer option. In this
mode, the variables related to background current, pulse frequency and pulse current
are controlled to provide a cool/heat cycle that produces sufficient current and voltage
to melt off a droplet of wire at each pulse cycle. Refer to Figs 16.18 and 16.19.
Pulse peak
current
Streaming
current
Threshold
current
Globular
Pulse
average current
Pulse
background
current
time
Fig 16.18 – Pulsed current terms graphic

amps
Aver.
amps
amps
Aver.
amps
amps
Aver.
amps
TIME
Fig 16.19 – Increasing pulse rate increases average amperage

Classification of consumables
There are many different types of solid electrode wires commercially available. They
are classified according to a particular standard, which makes it possible to identify
and select the most suitable type of wire for a job. It is important to understand these
classification systems and the information they represent.
Consumable classification systems list a number of essential features about
the consumable; for example, consumables are classified in terms of electrode
construction, filler metal composition, shielding method, mechanical strength of the
weld deposit and so on.
Solid wire electrodes classification system

AS/NZS 2717.1 classifies solid wire electrodes under three groups of elements,
separated by hyphens. Each group consists of a number of letters or letters and
numbers.
An example of the full classification system is shown below.
page 6 of AS/NZS 2717.1:1996.
The classification system consists of three groups, separated by a hyphen. Each group
consists of a letter or letters and figures. To assist with the above explanation, the
symbols X1, X2, X etc are used to represent the variables.
eg AS/NZS 2717.1 ES2-GM-W502H
AS/NZS 2717.1 – Welding – Electrodes – Gas metal arc – Part 1: Ferritic steel
electrodes
Represents the code for ferritic steel electrodes.
Group 1 (ES2)
The first group of letters relates to the filler metal. ES stands for ‘electrode solid’. After
ES, a number indicates the chemical composition of the wire. From the following chart,
you can see that a wire ES2 contains 0.07% carbon and 0.9 to 1.4% manganese.

Chemical composition chart
This table has been removed. It was reproduced from Table 2.2 on page
8 of AS/NZS 2727.1:1998.
Electrodes can also contain very small additions of copper, titanium, zirconium and
aluminium.
Group 2 (GM)
The second group relates to the shielding method. G represents gas shielded and then
two letters that indicate the type of shielding gas used during qualification tests and the
welding current required, for example:
C = shielded with carbon dioxide (CO2)
M = shielding with a mixture of gases
I = shielded with an inert gas
For example, GM indicates that the wire is to be shielded by use of mixed gas.
Group 3 (W502H)
The third group relates to deposited weld. W means weld metal followed by a
three-digit number. The first two numericals refer to one-tenth of the minimum strength
of the deposited weld, which is measured in megapascals (MPa). The third numerical
refers to the minimum impact test or value. The letter H generally completes the
classification, which indicates that the process is hydrogen-controlled.
W = weld metal properties
50 = 500 MPa (minimum specified tensile) strength
2 = degree of impact test
H = hydrogen-controlled
For example, W502H indicates the weld strength is 500 MPa, impact tested to achieve
a minimum 47J @ 0 °C and low in hydrogen content.

Typical minimum Charpy impact test values expressed in joules (J) are as follows.
Required minimum average

Weld metal designation
Charpy V-notch impact energy value
(designer’s requirements)
J
Carbon steel electrodes
W50ZXH-X Not required
W50AXH-X 47 at +20 °C
W500XH-X 47 at 0 °C
W502XH-X 47 at -20 °C
W503XH-X 47 at -30 °C
W504XH-X 47 at -40 °C
W505XH-X 47 at -50 °C
W506XH-X 47 at -60 °C
Here are some examples of the system.
ES2-GM-W502H
A plain carbon steel wire electrode.
The chemical composition can be found in the previous chart. When deposited with an
Ar/CO2 gas shield, the weld metal will have a minimum tensile strength of 500 MPa and
an impact value 47J @ 0 °C. The weld is hydrogen-controlled.
ES4-GC-W503H
A plain carbon steel wire electrode.
The chemical composition can be found in the previous chart. When deposited with
CO2 shielding gas, the weld metal will have a minimum tensile strength of 500 MPa and
an impact value of 47J @ -20 °C. The weld is hydrogen-controlled.
Filler wires for welding of steels are de-oxidised with manganese and silicon and are
generally copper coated (nickel is sometimes used). The copper coating of the wire
serves three purposes:
• prevents corrosion of the wire
• improves current pickup
• improves feeding characteristics.
Common wire sizes for GMAW of steels are as follows.

0.6 mm generally used for sheet metal

0.8 mm and other light applications
0.9 mm
1.0 mm general purpose GMAW
1.2 mm
1.6 mm welding of heavy plates
Gas metal arc welding variables

The variables affecting the GMAW process are as follows:
zz arc voltage
zz wire speed/amperage
zz travel speed
zz electrical stick-out
zz torch angle
zz shielding gases and flow rate.
Arc voltage
Arc voltage determines the mode of metal transfer, arc length (and therefore width) and
also the weld shape when GMA welding. At low arc voltages, resistance across the arc
causes extinguishment of the arc, which results in short circuiting (dip transfer). Higher
arc voltages may be enough to maintain an open arc by overcoming the electrical
resistance.
As the arc voltage is increased, arc length is increased. This enables more wire to be
melted off without ‘stubbing’ as sometimes occurs when high wire feed speeds and low
arc voltages are used. Increased arc length also increases the width of the weld bead.
Increased voltage
Fig 16.20 – Effect of arc voltage
It can be seen therefore that if arc voltage is increased without changing the wire speed
or travel speed, a wider, flatter bead will result.
Wire speed/amperage

Wire speed and amperage are controlled by the same control at the wire feeder on a
GMAW plant. Consequently, these variables cannot be adjusted independently of each
other.
As the wire feed rate in increases, the wire is driven closer to the work and the arc
voltage is loaded up. This produces a current rise as the constant voltage power source
responds to the voltage drop. The current density in the wire increases and the
melt-off rate of the wire increases. Amperage is the most important factor when
determining heat input into the metal being welded.
As previously explained, voltage and wire feed rate are linked together to
produce the various modes of metal transfer. A minor change in one may have an
insignificant effect on the weld characteristics. More commonly, a change in any
parameter may require the operator to also adjust another variable to compensate.
Increasing wire speed/amperage control will:

zz increase the wire feed rate
zz reduce arc voltage slightly (C/V machine will compensate)
zz increase amperage
zz increase deposition rate
zz increase penetration
zz increase heat input
zz for a given travel speed, increase the size of the weld bead.
Decreasing wire speed will have the opposite effect.
Weld profile and

penetration
Increased amperage
Fig 16.21 – Effect of amperage
Travel speed

As travel speed is increased, the weld bead becomes smaller and stringy in appearance
due to the lesser amount of filler wire being deposited in the same place. Heat input is
also reduced, due to the fact that the arc does not remain above any particular point for
very long. A decrease in travel rate will have the opposite effect and produce a larger
more convex weld shape. In GMAW, the travel rate can also affect penetration, due to
the effect that the arc has on the parent metal.
For example, an operator may actually get better penetration by increasing the travel
rate, because this action allows the arc to directly heat the parent metal. Conversely,
an operator who slows the travel rate down (and thus allows the weld metal to build up
under the arc) may in fact produce lack of fusion in a weld.
Increased speed
Fig 16.22 – Effect of travel rate
Electrical stick-out
When discussing GMAW, two types of stick-out are referred to.
1. Visible stick-out – The distance that the electrode protrudes beyond the gas
nozzle.
2. Electrical stick-out – The distance that the electrode protrudes from the contact tip.
Contact
tip
Nozzle
Visible stick-out
Electrical stick-out
Fig 16.23 – Stick-out length

Visible stick-out has little effect upon welding conditions except that, if excessive,
shielding efficiency will be reduced. However, electrical stick-out is an important
consideration. Welding current is transferred to the wire via the contact tip. The wire
between the end of the contact tip and the arc offers electrical resistance. As the
electrical stick-out is increased, so is the electrical resistance (Fig 16.24).
Work
Wire
Work
Increase in
arc length
Higher
electrical
resistance
Fig 16.24 – Increased resistance due to increased electrical stick-out
The effect of this increased resistance is:

zz reduced amperage
zz reduced penetration
zz reduced heat input
zz higher deposition rate.
The increased deposition rate is brought about by:

zz pre-heating of the wire
zz the wire feed rate being adjusted to compensate.
As the increased electrical resistance due to the increase in electrical stick-out

pre-heats the wire, it tends to melt off sooner. This has the effect of increasing the
arc length, which in turn tends to increase arc voltage. Because of the power source
characteristics (constant voltage), the current reduces and thus compensates. If the
drive motor speed is now increased, there will be an increase in wire deposition rates.
A good operator can also use arc length to control heat, because when the operator
increases arc length there will be an increase in arc length and voltage. This has the
effect of reducing the heat, because the CV power source compensates for the voltage
increase by reducing current.

Torch angle
As with any welding process, the angle of approach must be adjusted to distribute the
weld metal evenly in the joint. The torch should typically dissect the angle between the
two parts to be joined. The theoretical torch angle may be varied to compensate for the
various heat sink paths of different joint configurations (Fig 16.25).
90°
45°
Fillet weld Butt weld
Fig 16.25 – Angle of approach
Angle of travel
The angle of the gun is maintained such that it is ‘pushed’ in the direction of travel
(Fig 16.26).
10° to 30°
Direction Nozzle
of travel Weld
Work
Fig 16.26 – Angle of travel
The exception to this is when making heavy welds in spray transfer where the gun is
‘dragged’. This is done to direct shielding gas over the solidifying/cooling weld metal,
which remains hot for an extended period of time.
The operator determines the actual angle of travel used by seeking the best
compromise between good visibility and efficient shielding.
As the torch angle is lowered, shielding efficiency is reduced due to the venturi effect,
which draws air into the gas shield.

(a) (b)
(c)
Air Note: Angle varies with
direction of travel drag
or push
Fig 16.27 – Nozzle angle
Shielding gases
In Australia, GMAW was also commonly known as ‘MIG welding’ (metal inert gas).
This is in fact misleading, as it suggests that the shielding gas is inert. All GMAW of
carbon and low alloy steels employs the use of an active shielding gas, ie there is a
reaction between the shielding gas and the metal droplets as they travel across the
arc. Inert shielding gases are used for welding stainless steels and non-ferrous metals.
To achieve the desired arc stability when welding carbon and low alloy steels, some
oxidising action is required in the arc. This can be achieved in one of two ways, using:
zz CO2 (carbon dioxide) as a shielding gas, or
zz Ar (argon) as the base with the addition of CO2 and/or O2 (oxygen).
Carbon dioxide
CO2 is easily produced and large quantities can be stored in a gas cylinder, because
the gas liquifies at low pressures. CO2 is therefore cheap when used as a shielding
gas. CO2 gas breaks down into carbon monoxide and oxygen in the arc and this
produces a highly reactive arc. CO2 promotes the following characteristics to the
welding arc:
zz deep penetration
zz high spatter levels
zz high deposition rates
zz high heat input.
However, true spray transfer cannot be achieved.

CO2 is best suited to the making of welds using dip transfer or for production-type
welds on mild steel. The additional heat of CO2 helps to overcome the tendency
towards lack of fusion and increases deposition rates. CO2 tends to produce a convex
bead shape, with a rough appearance and high spatter levels. Typically, CO2 requires a
dedicated flow meter and higher flow rates, because the gas has different density and
flow characteristics when compared to argon.

Argon
Argon is a true inert gas that is often used to weld non-ferrous metals. Argon ionises
easily to promote electron flow, however argon is more expensive than CO2 and is
rarely used by itself to weld carbon and low alloy steels. When used to weld mild steel,
argon produces arc characteristics that have the following features:
zz smoother arc
zz lower penetration
zz lower heat input
zz lower spatter
zz improved bead shape
zz promotes spray transfer.
However, costs will increase.
Oxygen
Oxygen is an oxidising gas and when used in small quantities in the GMAW of steel will
improve weld finish and arc transfer characteristics.
Gas mixtures
Gas mixtures for welding steel employ the use of argon as a base to promote a
smooth arc, combined with differing levels of CO2 and/or O2 to achieve desirable arc
characteristics.
The greater the CO2 addition, the lower the cost and the more the arc characteristics
align to the characteristics of CO2. The lower the addition of CO2, the more the arc
aligns toward characteristics produced by argon shielding gas.
Shielding Chemical
Effect/uses
gas behaviour
argon inert for welding all metals (mainly non-ferrous)
produces high spatter and deep penetration

CO2 oxidising
used with de-oxidised wire on carbon steels
for welding carbon and low alloy steels

argon/CO2 oxidising
produces low spatter and moderate penetration
additional oxygen increases penetration and improves finish

argon/CO2O2 oxidising
used with de-oxidised wire to weld carbon and low alloy steels
Each gas company will supply mixtures of their own formulation. However, as a rough
guide for welding carbon and low-alloy steels, uses for mixtures approximating the
following compositions are as follows.

CO2 Cheap reliable production welds using globular transfer particularly

on thicker plates, or positional welds using dip transfer.
Ar + 25% CO2 General use in dip transfer up to 5 mm in thickness or positional
welds.
Ar + 15% CO2 Multi-purpose for dip and spray transfer.
Ar + 5% CO2 Quality welds using spray transfer in the flat position.
The choice of shielding gas influences bead shape, as well as the amount of
penetration obtained. The effect of shielding gas upon bead shape can be seen in
Figs 16.28 (a) and (b).
(a)
Argon Helium
Work
Weld
(b) penetration Weld
profile
Fig 16.28 – (a) Effect of a change from argon to helium and

(b) effect of various shielding gases on bead shape
Flow rates
Gas flow rates should be set so as to provide adequate shielding.
zz The recommended rate of flow for argon/CO2 mixtures = 12–14 litres/min.
zz The recommended rate of flow for CO2 mixtures = 18–20 litres/min.
It should be kept in mind that excessively high flow rates cause turbulence and
increase the venturi effect, which will in fact drag in atmospheric gases when torch
angles are too low.
Other machine controls
Spot timer
Spot timers allow the weld time and reset time to be preset as a means of making
consistent weld sizes for spot welding. The timer is activated when the gun trigger is
depressed.

Burnback control
Enables wire to feed for a small amount of time after current flow is terminated when
the torch trigger is released. This can be adjusted to prevent the wire fusing to the
contact tip, or to stop it sticking to the weld pool when welding is terminated.
Pre and post-gas purge control

Pre-gas timers allow the gas to flow before the arc is started and a post-gas timer
allows the gas to flow for a set time after the arc is finished. Used to protect the end of
wire, particularly when welding aluminium and steel.
Spool brake
The wire spool carrier employs a braking device to prevent over-run of the wire due
to the inertia of the spool of wire. It should be adjusted to provide enough braking to
prevent over-run, but with no unnecessary drag that would cause slippage of the wire
at the drive rollers.
Joint design for gas metal arc welding

Pre-qualified joint preparation for GMAW of steel structures can be found in
AS/NZS 1554.1. It can be seen that joint design is similar to that used for MMAW butt
welds in steels, but with the following variations.
zz Included angles of butt welds are reduced by 10°. This is because the thinner
electrode and lack of flux provides easier access to the root of the joint.
zz The root face for butt welds is decreased when dip transfer is used, due to the
fact that penetration is limited and increased when spray transfer is used as a
means of preventing burn-through.
GMAW defects
Apart from slag inclusions (silicon can be trapped in the weld), all the common weld
defects that occur with other processes may also occur with GMAW. Defects such as
porosity and lack of fusion can be a particular problem with GMAW.
The defects commonly encountered in GMAW are:
zz porosity
zz cold lap/lack of fusion
zz lack of root penetration
zz excessive penetration
zz contour defects
zz undercut
zz weld cracking
zz stray arcing.

Porosity
Defined as a pore or group of gas pores in the weld metal, porosity may be
conveniently differentiated according to size and distribution. A number of different
terms are used, related to size.
zz Gas pore – A cavity (usually spherical), formed by entrapped gas during the
solidification of molten metal.
zz Wormhole – An elongated or tubular cavity in the weld metal, caused by
entrapped gas being forced away from the solidifying weld metal.
zz Cluster – A group of pores in close proximity to each other.
As is the case with other welding processes, porosity may be caused by moisture, or by
surface contaminants on the plate. The GMAW process has no hydrogen source itself
but is particularly susceptible to contamination and the parent metal and filler must be
clean. By far the greatest cause of porosity is due to inadequate gas shielding.
This may be due to:
zz flow rate set too low
zz flow rate set too high
zz no gas flow at all
zz excessive wind or air movement at the gun
zz contaminated shielding gas
zz stick-out length too long
zz gun angle too low.
Lack of fusion
Defined as portions of the weld deposit which do not fuse to the surface of the metal
or edge of the weld joint. With GMAW, lack of fusion is commonly referred to as ‘cold
lapping’, as it usually takes the form of lack of sidewall fusion over an extensive part of
the joint.
Cold lapping is common when welding in the dip transfer mode, particularly when the
plate thickness exceeds 5 mm. Welding downhill, or with high wire speed and low arc
voltage settings, further increases the risk of occurrence. Plates that are dirty or heavily
scaled further exacerbate the problem.
Cold lapping does not generally occur when welding in the spray transfer mode.
Therefore, to minimise the likelihood of cold lapping, one or more of the following
should be employed:
zz weld in the spray transfer mode
zz clean plates
zz if in doubt, set the arc voltage slightly high
zz set enough amperage to ensure sufficient heat for fusion
zz keep the electrical stick-out short
zz use CO2 shielding gas or a mixed gas high in CO2.

Lack of root penetration

Defined as the failure of the weld metal to completely fill the root of the joint. Root runs
in butt welds are normally made in the dip transfer mode, except for those in heavy
plate, in which case spray transfer would be used. The dip transfer mode is inherently
‘cold’, employing low amperages and voltages. This means that root penetration is
limited in this mode.
The solution to overcoming lack of root fusion is to use thinner root faces on butt welds
than would be the case with other processes, ie typically in the range of ½ to 1 mm.
In fillet welds, the solution is to use comparatively high amperage settings when in the
dip transfer mode. Additionally, CO2 or a gas mixture high in CO2 will help.
Excessive penetration
Defined as excess weld metal protruding through the root of a butt weld, this defect
normally only occurs on thin (sheet) materials or when excessive heat (current) is
used. Adjustment of wire speed, arc voltage or travel speed will usually overcome this
problem with relative ease.
Another form of this defect is electrode wire protruding through the root of the butt in
the form of ‘spikes’ or ‘icicles’. This is caused when arcing to the root face of the butt
weld momentarily ceases, a small amount of wire penetrates the butt and the arc is
re-established when the wire contacts the parent metal.
The solution to this problem is to limit the width of the root gap and/or to increase the
arc voltage, which results in a wider spread of the arc so that arcing to one or both
sides of the weld is always present.
Contour defects
Contour defects may be in the form of overroll or overlap, excessive convexity or
concavity of the bead, or simply rough, uneven appearance.
Travel speed and torch angle adjustments may fix many of these problems, but the
GMAW operator has an advantage in that he/she can control weld profile by adjusting
the arc voltage.
Excessive convexity may be remedied by increasing arc voltage. Beads that are too
wide or too concave may be remedied by decreasing arc voltage.
Undercut
Defined as a groove or channel in the parent metal, occurring continuously or
intermittently along the toes or edge of a weld.
Undercut is not a common problem in GMAW; however, it is likely to be encountered in
two situations.
1. When fillet welding in spray transfer – This is normally caused by setting the arc
voltage too high, causing a long arc length that results in undercutting of the toe
of the weld of the vertical plate. The solution to this is quite simple and is good
practice for all welds in spray transfer: set a smooth spray transfer mode using
the lowest arc voltage that will facilitate this.

2. Vertical-up welds – Solid wires are largely unsuitable for making stringer beads
in the vertical-up position. Convex beads with some undercut generally result.
When a weave technique is used, a bead that is convex in the middle with
undercut toes may result. The solution is to:
a) reduce the arc voltage, or
b) reduce the overall heat of the welding, or
c) pause longer at the toes.
Cracking
Defined as discontinuities produced either by tearing of the metal in the plastic
condition (hot cracks) or by fracturing when cold (cold cracks), cracking in GMAW is
not common but may be related to parent metal susceptibility or stress. Cracking is
considered to be a serious defect and rarely is any amount of cracking tolerated.
Hot cracks are common in materials with high co-efficients of expansion and/or which
suffer from hot shortness. Hot cracking occurs at elevated temperatures soon after
solidification. This mode of cracking is common in aluminium and stainless steel.
Cold cracking is most common in hardenable materials, particularly when cooling rates
are rapid.
Cracks may also be described depending on how, when and where they occur, eg
longitudinal, transverse, crater, centre line, hot, cold, toe and underbead. Cracks may
occur in either the parent metal, usually as fusion or HAZ cracks, or in the weld metal.
Crater cracks
These come from hot shrinkage. The crater solidifies from all sides toward the centre,
leading to a high concentration of stress at the centre. If the metal lacks ductility, or the
hollow crater cannot accommodate the shrinkage, cracking may result. Crater cracks
may, under stress, propagate from the crater and lead to failure of the weldment.
Cracking in GMA welds is not generally a major problem due to the following factors.
zz GMAW is a ‘low-hydrogen’ process.
zz Hollow craters are not usually a characteristic of GMA welds.
zz The inherent low heat input is ideal for stainless steels and other metals that are
prone to hot cracking.
Stray arcing
Stray arcing is defined as damage on the parent metal resulting from the accidental
striking of an arc away from the weld. Stray arcing is not a major problem associated
with GMAW, as the electrode is usually only live when the gun trigger is depressed.
Care should be taken that the gun is not put down with the weight resting on the
trigger and also that arcing does not occur between the job and the work return lead
connection.

Excessive spatter
Defined as the metal particles expelled onto the surface of the parent metal or weld
during welding and not forming part of the weld.
This usually occurs due to one of the following factors:
zz shielding gas or plate contaminated with moisture
zz high levels of CO2 or O2 in the shielding gas
zz excessive arc voltage in the dip transfer mode
zz welding in the globular transfer mode.
Spatter is not usually present in the spray transfer mode.
Trouble shooting/equipment malfunction

Compared to the manual welding processes, GMAW requires higher levels of care and
maintenance. Major sources of frustration are the problems associated with feeding
of the electrode wire. This is a particular problem when welding with aluminium wire,
feeding wire through long gun cables, or when using a gun cable that has been poorly
maintained.
Equipment malfunctions with GMAW fall into two main categories:
1. electrical
2. mechanical.
The main problems with regard to electrical malfunctions and their likely causes are as
follows.
Problem Likely cause Rectification

No power at machine mains switch off check switches and fuses.
If intact, call electricians
machine switched off
blown fuse
Mains power on but no trigger switch not working check − if trigger is working,
welding power wire feeder will operate,
wire feeder not connected
wire will feed
Wire feeds, but no arc work return not connected check work return
blown fuse check fuses

Mechanical problems manifest themselves in the form of wire feeding problems.
Common wire feeding problems and their likely causes are as follows.

No wire feed at all spool brake excessively tight check tension on spool brake
no friction at drive rolls check drive rolls and adjust
as necessary
wire jammed at drive rolls or check guide tubes
in gun cable
check wire conduit

Uneven wire feed dirty or damaged liner clean or replace
slippage at drive rolls increase pressure
liner cut too short replace
kinks in gun cable keep as straight as possible
insufficient roll pressure tighten drive rolls
wire distorted due to reduce roll pressure
excessive roll pressure
wire is kinked or twisted misalignment of drive rolls
damaged liner
contact tip worn or dirty inspect and replace

spool brake excessively tight check tension on spool brake
Spool overrun spool brake too loose tighten
Wire fused to contact tip excessive arc voltage reduce arc voltage
excessive burnback time reduce burnback time
intermittent wire feed see above
GMAW equipment requires a regular inspection and maintenance schedule, such as:
zz contact tips inspected at least daily
zz liners, drive rolls and spool brake inspected weekly
zz gas and electrical connections inspected monthly.

Flux-cored arc welding

The introduction of flux-cored wires (creating the process of flux-cored arc welding)
extended the range of work carried out by hand-held semi-automatic welding.
Flux-cored welding brought with it the advantages of greater penetration, higher
welding speeds, site-welding capability, and its ability to be applied to a greater range
of plate thicknesses. Modern flux-cored wires have reduced lack of fusion faults and
also have improved weld finish.
Principles
As the name implies, the FCAW process employs an electrode which is essentially a
hollow formed steel sheath containing a core of flux. The flux-cored electrode has been
described as a ‘stick’ electrode turned inside out and made into a continuous wire.
There are two distinct types of FCAW welding.
zz Self-shielding FCAW process in which all of the shielding is provided by the
decomposition of the flux-core.
zz Gas-shielded FCAW, which uses additional shielding gas to assist or take over
the role of shielding the arc from the atmosphere.
Self-shielding wire has the advantage that it is suitable for use in windy conditions
and is therefore ideally suited to site work. Further to this, no shielding gas system is
required.
Gas-shielded wires have the disadvantage of requiring a shielding gas system, but they
produce lower levels of fume.
Direction
of travel Thread
protector
Current carrying
Molten slag contact tip
Powdered metal, vapour

or gas forming materials,
Solidified deoxidisers and scavengers
slag in the wire core
Arc shield composed of

vaporised and slag forming
compounds protects metal
transfer through arc
Metal droplets covered

Molten
with thin slag coating,
Solidified weld metal
forming molten puddle
weld metal
Fig 16.29 – Flux-cored arc welding

A major advantage of both FCAW processes is that high current densities are used.
This means that the mode of metal transfer across the arc is always spray transfer.
The advantages of this when compared to GMAW are:
zz higher deposition rates
zz deeper penetration
zz excellent fusion to the base metal.
The downside of this for the operator is:

zz higher emission of UV
zz higher fume levels
zz more heat is generated.
The flux-core also serves as a medium to introduce deoxidants and other alloying
elements into the weld. The flux is low in hydrogen and the process is therefore
suitable for welding hardenable steels and other carbon and low alloy steels.
Due to the limitations of the manufacturing technology available at the time, early
flux-cored wires were produced by applying the flux to a strip of metal and then forming
it into a tube. Wires smaller than about 2 mm to 2.4 mm diameter could not easily be
produced by this method. This meant that when low welding currents were required,
the current density in the wire was relatively low and the metal transfer across the arc
was relatively coarse and rough.
Currently, flux-cored wires are produced in a number of configurations designed to
improve burn-off, as shown in Fig 16.30. They are also being manufactured by filling a
tube with flux and drawing the wire to produce a seamless electrode in sizes down to
0.9 mm diameter. This is a major advantage in that even though welding current used
may be low, the current density is high enough to ensure ideal transfer characteristics
across the range.
Steel sheath
Flux-core
Fig 16.30 – Flux-cored wire


Penetration
Compared with other processes, the depth of penetration is much greater. This makes
it possible to reduce the fillet leg length without decreasing the strength of the weld
(Fig 16.31).
Tubular IP
electrode electrode
Fig 16.31 – Comparison of penetration
Deposition rate
Compared with manual metal arc electrodes, the deposition rate is very high.
Slag detachability
Providing that the operating conditions are correct, the slag is virtually self-detaching.
In a deep groove, the slag is removed easily when the weld has cooled.
Appearance
Providing the operating conditions are correct, the weld appearance is bright and neatly
rippled with a good ‘wash’ into the parent metal at the toes. Fillet welds tend to be mitre
or slightly concave rather than convex.
Weld quality
The weld deposit is low in hydrogen content and has good mechanical properties.
Sound radiographic quality welds can be achieved.
Low spatter
Assuming the correct operating conditions have been selected, spatter should be
minimal.
Visibility
Because of its high deposition and high penetration characteristics, gas shielded
FCAW is often compared with submerged arc welding, which can offer similar
advantages. With the FCAW process, however, the operator can see the arc and be in
a position to allow for variations in the joint fit-up.


Limited applications
The range of FCAW consumables currently available is limited to ferrous-based alloys
such as steel. Constant development means there is potential for a much greater range
of materials that may be welded with FCAW in the future.
Loss of gas shielding

The gas-shielded FCAW is only suitable for sheltered conditions away from any wind
that will interfere with the gas shielding. For this reason, the process is not usually
suitable for outdoor work unless adequate steps are taken to screen the arc from the
wind. Loss of gas shielding can cause severe porosity in the weld.
Self-shielding wires do not suffer from this problem.
Operator fatigue
With the smaller diameter of all positional wires, operator fatigue is no greater than
that experienced with GMAW. However, when used as a high deposition process, the
welding gun and cables must be robust enough to withstand the heat generated and
are usually rather heavy. This, together with the hot conditions, makes operator fatigue
a significant factor. This problem can be overcome by mechanising the process.
Fumes
Many FCAW wires (particularly self-shielding wires) emit a substantial volume of fumes
that can add to the discomfort of the welder. Special precautions may be required to
eliminate these fumes, such as the use of fume extractor nozzles fitted to the gun. In
confined spaces, fume extraction units will be needed to remove fumes from the work
area into filter banks or outside the workshop.
Equipment
The equipment required is essentially the same as that used for GMAW, however the
component parts may be heavier duty. Electrode positive is generally required for gas
assisted wires, whilst most of the self-shielding wires use electrode negative.
A constant voltage DC power source is generally used, however there are some newer
wire feeders that incorporate a wire feed rate compensating circuit. These will operate
successfully on constant current power supplies.
The wire feed unit used for GMAW can usually be adapted for FCAW. The wire reel
holder may need to be changed to carry the spool of flux-core wire, which is usually
supplied in 30 kg reels. The wire drive rolls may be serrated or have a 15° vee groove.
Care must be taken to minimise the pressure on the feed rolls so that the wire is not
squeezed out of round.
The welding torch is the preferred pistol type where the wire is kept straight as it
passes through the torch. Goose-necked torches with a small radius bend tend to
create a ‘drag’ on the wire, thus giving rise to wire feed problems.
Because of the high amperages employed, heat radiation is intense and therefore the
welding torch is sometimes fitted with a heat shield at the handle.

Power Contactor
cable leads
Electrode
Goose neck
Gas line
Water lines
Electrode
Contactor
leads
Pistol
Gas line
Fig 16.32 – FCAW equipment and pistol and goose-necked torches
The welding cable and return lead must be of sufficient size to carry the high currents
without overheating.
Techniques for gas-shielded flux-cored arc welding

A welding operator with a reasonable degree of skill in MMAW or GMAW can readily
adapt to gas-shielded FCAW; however, a few factors need attention.
Electrode stick-out
Recommended stick-out lengths must be adhered to; they tend to be greater than the
stick-out lengths used with GMAW. Stick-out is the length of the wire from the end of
the contact tip to the surface of the work piece. A shorter stick-out could result in a
poorly shaped weld, due to an increase in amps and a decrease in voltage. A longer
stick-out could give rise to excessive spatter and porosity in the weld due to poor gas-
shielding when using gas-shielded wires.
Direction of travel
The direction of travel (whether pushing the torch or dragging it) is usually a matter of
personal preference on the part of the operator. However, where the work is to be of a
particularly high quality, the backhand or drag method is regarded as superior.

Position of torch and angle of torch
2° to 15°
Direction
of travel
Fig 16.33 – Angle of torch to direction of travel
As already mentioned, it is preferable to push the arc with gas-assisted wires and most
self-shielded wires should be dragged (although not always essential). Fig 16.33 shows
the recommended angle of the torch in relation to the direction of travel.
In the flat position, the torch is angled at 90° to the plate (Fig 16.34).
90°
Fig 16.34 – Position of torch for flat butt weld

Self-shielding FCAW
This is probably best regarded as a semi-automatic version of the MMAW process.
Like MMAW, the flux-cored wire generates sufficient vaporised gases around the arc to
completely protect the arc from the atmosphere.
Advantages of self-shielding FCAW

zz No external shielding gas or flux is required; therefore the process can easily be
used outdoors, even in draughty conditions.
zz All positional wires, hard facing and stainless steel wires are available.
zz Deposition rates are high when compared with MMA welding.
zz Slag is easily detachable, except where tacks have been made with cellulose or
rutile electrodes.
zz The weld deposit is low hydrogen and resists cracking in many crack-sensitive
applications.
zz Poor fit-ups (gaps) can be handled easily by increasing wire stick-out.
Limitations of self-shielding FCAW

zz Penetration is not as great as the gas-shielded FCAW process. It is more akin to
that achieved with MMA low hydrogen electrodes.
zz Slag removal is difficult when welding over tacks or a previous weld made
with cellulose or general purpose electrodes. The use of low silicon cellulose
electrodes or certain low hydrogen electrodes can overcome this problem.
zz Fumes can also be a problem and the precautions outlined previously for
gas-shielded FCAW may be necessary.
Techniques for self-shielding FCAW

Welding techniques are similar to those employed with hydrogen-controlled MMAW
electrodes; however, a few additional factors should be considered.
Electrode stick-out
For all-positional self-shielding electrode wires, the recommended electrode stick-out
is usually 18–20 mm. If with these wires no gas nozzle is used, the electrode stick-out
is visible from the contact tip to the work (Fig 16.36). Even though no gas-shielding is
employed, a nozzle is commonly used to give the operator the feel of ‘normal’ electrical
stick-out. When no nozzle is used, the tendency is for the operator to reduce the
stick-out so as to provide the visible stick-out that the operator is used to (Fig 16.35).

Thread
protector
Contact
tip
Electrode
stick-out
Work
Fig 16.35 – Electrode stick-out is visible
Some self-shielding electrode wires are designed to give high deposition rates in the
downhand positions by employing long electrical stick-out (Fig 16.36).
A long electrical stick-out is used to increase the deposition rate by pre-heating the wire
before it is melted at the arc. The recommended electrical stick-out varies, depending
on the type and size of wire. The wire manufacturer’s recommendations should be
observed. To assist the operator in maintaining the correct electrical stick-out for these
wires, the welding gun can be fitted with a nozzle incorporating an insulated extension
guide.

Electrode
guide tube
Insulated
extension guide
Contact
tip
Electrical
stick-out
Electrode Visible
stick-out
Fig 16.36 – Insulated extension guide nozzle for electrical stick-out
Electrode angles
When welding with self-shielding flux-cored wires, the electrode angles are much the
same as for MMAW electrodes, as shown in Fig 16.37.
Drag angle
Travel
Fig 16.37 – Self-shielding wires are dragged similar to MMAW electrodes

For horizontal-vertical welds, the wire is pointed directly into the root of the joint at an
approach of 40° (Fig 16.38).
40°
Fig 16.38 – Recommended electrode angle for H/V fillet weld
Vertical welding
Most all-positional self-shielding wires can be used vertical-down or vertical-up.
Vertical-down is usually preferred for welds in thinner sections, or for the first pass in a
butt weld. The gun is tilted to a drag angle of 10–15° from the horizontal so that the arc
force helps hold the molten metal in the joint (Fig 16.39).
Direction of travel
10°–15°
Fig 16.39 – Electrode angle for welding vertical down
Techniques for welding vertical-upwards are the same as for low hydrogen MMAW
electrodes. Vertical-up welding is recommended for welds in thick sections. The first
pass in a vertical-up fillet or butt is best made using a triangular weave technique and
subsequent passes are made with a side-to-side weave.
Welding procedures for FCAW

There are wide varieties of flux-cored electrode wires for both the gas-shielded and
self-shielding processes. Each wire has its own set of optimum operating conditions
and procedures and therefore it is best to consult the wire manufacturer’s tables
to obtain the recommended welding procedure for a particular wire. However, the
following discussion on the effects of the operating variables associated with the FCAW
process may help to refine the set procedures.

Effects of the operating variables with flux-cored arc welding

With FCAW there are five major operating variables:
zz polarity
zz arc voltage
zz current (wire feed speed)
zz travel speed
zz electrode stick-out.
Polarity
Whereas all solid wires for GMAW run on direct current electrode positive DC +ve,
some flux-cored wires are designed to run on negative polarity.
Arc voltage
If the other variables are held constant, arc voltage variations have the following effect.
zz Higher arc voltage gives a wider and flatter bead shape.
zz Excessive arc voltage can cause porosity.
zz Low voltage causes a convex, ropey bead shape.
zz Extremely low voltage will cause the electrode wire to stub on the parent metal.
zz The arc voltage should be set according to the wire manufacturer’s
recommendations and, if necessary, be fine-tuned to give the desired bead
shape.
Current (wire feed speed)

In setting critical procedures, wire feed speed is a better measure than the welding
current. The wire feed speed is constant, whereas the current reading at the ammeter
tends to fluctuate.
If the other variables are held constant, current variations have the following major
effects.
zz Increasing the current increases penetration and deposition rate.
zz Excessive current produces convex, ropey bead shapes.
zz Current that is too low gives a large droplet transfer and may give porosity.
As the current (WFS) is increased or decreased, the arc voltage must be increased
or decreased to maintain the proper bead shape. The correct current range should be
obtained from the wire manufacturer’s tables.

Travel speed
If the other variables are held constant, travel speed variations have the following
effects.
zz Too high a travel speed increases the convexity of the bead and causes uneven
edges.
zz Too slow a travel speed results in slag interference, possible slag inclusions and
a rough, uneven bead shape.
Electrode stick-out
If the other variables are held constant, variations in stick-out have the following effects.
zz Increasing stick-out decreases the welding current.
zz Decreasing stick-out increases the welding current.
zz With self-shielding wires, the stick-out can be increased to reduce the
penetration, thereby allowing poor fit-ups to be bridged.
zz Decreasing stick-out can lead to spatter build-up on the contact tip or overheating
of the contact tip.
Flux-cored wire electrodes

Early electrode wires developed for gas-shielded FCAW used a basic type flux with low
hydrogen content and required electrode positive polarity. This type of flux-cored wire
electrode is still popular today.
More recent developments have led to the availability of electrode wires with a rutile
flux suitable for more general purpose work. Many of these rutile flux-cored wires
perform better with electrode negative polarity.
Virtually all flux-cored wires, whether gas-shielded or gasless, require a constant
voltage power source; however, there are a few types that can operate satisfactorily
with constant current power sources.
Because of all the variables stated, it became necessary to provide a system of
classification for flux-cored electrode wires, an outline of which follows.
FCAW consumables classification

There are many different types of flux-cored electrode wires commercially available.
They are classified to a particular standard, which makes it possible to identify and
select the most suitable type of wire for a job. It is important to understand classification
systems and the information they represent.
Consumable classification systems list a number of essential features about the
consumable; for example, consumables are classified in construction, filler metal
composition, shielding method, mechanical strength of the weld deposit and so on.
ISO 17632:2004 classifies flux-cored electrodes within this standard as ISO 17632-A
or ISO 17632-B, ie there are two classifications within the standard. Reference should
also be made to ISO 17634 and ISO 18276.
Please refer to Appendices 7, 8, 9 and 10 at the back of this book for further
information.

Safety recommendations with FCAW

zz Because of the greater arc intensity, particularly with the gas-shielded FCAW
process, a welding lens one or even two shades darker than for MMAW should be
used.
zz A heat shield fitted to the torch handle is desirable to protect the operator's hand
from radiated heat. Reflective-backed leather gloves are recommended.
zz Additional care should be taken regarding clothing and protective leathers. Dark
woollen clothing is most desirable and leather gloves, apron, jacket, spats, etc
should be worn.
zz Attention should be given to ensuring adequate ventilation. If natural ventilation is
inadequate, exhaust fans and respirators should be used.
Flux-cored arc welding faults

The defects commonly encountered in FCAW are:
zz weld cracking
zz porosity
zz slag inclusions
zz lack of fusion
zz insufficient or excessive penetration
zz contour faults
zz undercut
zz stray arcing.
Cracking
Cracks may be described depending on how, when and where they occur, eg
longitudinal, transverse, crater, centre line, hot, cold, toe and underbead. Cracks may
occur in either the parent metal, usually as fusion or HAZ cracks, or in the weld metal.
Cracking is considered to be a serious weld fault and rarely is any amount of cracking
tolerated.
Crater cracks occur when the weld solidifies from all sides toward the centre, leading to
a high concentration of stress at the centre of the crater. If the metal lacks ductility, or
the hollow crater cannot accommodate the shrinkage, cracking may result. Crater cracks
may, under stress, propagate from the crater and lead to failure of the weld.
Cracking in FCAW welds on mild steel is not generally a major problem.
Porosity
Porosity in FCAW welds may be the result of welding on a parent metal that is
susceptible, such as steel that contains high amounts of dissolved gases or sulphur.
Porosity may also be caused by welding on dirty material or material contaminated with
moisture, oil, paint or grease. The electrode may have been contaminated, or too much
voltage or current has been used. The shielding gas may not be the correct type to suit
the wire. The gas flow may be set incorrectly or be affected by wind, or too long an arc
length may have been used.

Slag inclusions
Slag inclusions are not generally a problem in FCAW due to the high heat input. If they
do occur in FCAW, they can occur at the weld root, between weld runs, or on the weld
surface. They may occur as a result of low voltage or amperage, or poor electrode
manipulation. Slag inclusions can occur when incorrect joint preparations are used, or
when material is dirty or contaminated.
Lack of fusion/lack of root penetration

With FCAW, lack of fusion or lack of root penetration is not normally a problem, but
may be caused by working with incorrect joint configuration, low amperage, working on
dirty or contaminated material or using wrong electrode angles or travel rate.
Excessive penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a butt weld may occur in FCAW
because of incorrect joint preparation, wrong electrode choice, excessive amperage or
incorrect variables.
Contour defects
Contour defects may be in the form of insufficient or excessive leg size, overroll or
overlap, excessive convexity or excessive concavity of the bead, or simply rough,
uneven appearance.
These are mainly caused by the operator, but using the correct electrode, voltage,
amperage, travel speed and electrode angle adjustments may fix many of these
problems.
Undercut
Undercut in FCAW is defined as a groove or channel in the parent metal, occurring
continuously or intermittently along the toes or edge of a weld.
Undercut is a common problem in FCAW and may be caused by excessive voltage or
amperage, too long an arc length, wrong electrode angles, or wrong travel rate.
Excessive spatter
Spatter is a normal part of welding and FCAW does not normally produce excessive
spatter.
Stray arcing
Defined as damage to the parent metal resulting from the accidental striking of an arc
away from the weld.
Even though stray arcing is not usually a major problem associated with the FCAW of
mild steel, it is good practice to take precautions against accidental arc of the electrode
anywhere other than in the weld zone.
Stray arcing can lead to serious weld failure in a material that is crack sensitive, or that
is going to be put into a stressed situation.

Chapter 17 – Oxy-fuel gas welding
Introduction
Given the efficiency and advantages of other modern welding processes, there would
be few welding applications for which the oxy-acetylene flame is considered to be the
most efficient production process. The gas welding process is characterised by low
heat input, with slow travel speeds and high heat transfer into the parent metal.
However, a competent operator can use the gas welding processes to fuse weld or
repair nearly any material. The gas welding process remains as an occasional back-up
process for situations where other processes are not available, or where portability of
other equipment is a problem.
In the maintenance industries (and for the occasional welding of thin materials and the
welding of small bore pipe), the oxy-acetylene fusion welding process is still a viable
alternative to some other welding processes.
zz Oxy-fuel gas welding (OFGW) principles
{{ oxygen
{{ acetylene
{{ gases – oxy-acetylene
zz Oxy-welding techniques
{{ braze welding
{{ bronze
{{ galvanised iron
{{ silver brazing.

The oxy-fuel gas arc welding (OFGW) principles

The combination of oxygen and acetylene in near equal proportions produces a flame
that has the intense heat (3000 °C) required to melt most metals. The oxy-acetylene
gas combination is the only oxygen/fuel gas combination that burns completely, to
produce a non-reactive secondary flame or envelope suitable for fusion welds. This
secondary flame does not influence the weld pool and also acts as a neutral shield that
protects the weld and weld area from the effects of atmospheric gases such as oxygen
and nitrogen.
If the adjacent edges of two compatible materials are melted and protected by the
flame envelope, then the edges may fuse together. A suitable filler may or may not
be required. Other fuel gases such as LPG or propane produce a reactive secondary
flame that interferes with the molten metal and are therefore unsuitable for fusion
welding.
Applications
• flux-free fusion welding of plain carbon and alloy steel
• fusion welds of pure aluminium and some alloys (flux required)
• fusion welds of some stainless steels (flux required)
• fusion welds of copper and copper based alloys (flux required)
• fusion welds of other metals (requires great skill)
• general repairs
• braze or bronze welding (not fusion welds)
• silver soldering.
Advantages
• equipment set up is simple
• equipment is readily available and portable
• wide range of applications
• cheap consumables
• low skill level required.
Limitations
• large HAZ (distortion)
• slow output
• more suitable processes are available.

Oxygen
Oxygen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas. Oxygen itself does not burn, but
supports combustion. Oxygen is used in welding to make the fuel gases used burn
hotter.
Chemical symbol 02
Can be liquified at -183 °C
Density:
Gas at 150 °C and 100 kPa 1.337 kg/m3
Liquid at B.pt 1.141 kg/L
Oxygen production
Oxygen is distilled from the air around us. Air consists of one-fifth oxygen, the
remainder being mainly nitrogen, with some carbon dioxide, water vapour and traces of
other rare gases.
The air is compressed in stages. Between each compression stage, the heat generated
is extracted in coolers, resulting in a fall in temperature of the air. The air is compressed
and super cooled until it liquifies.
The liquid air is then distilled (nitrogen allowed to boil off) to separate the nitrogen from
the oxygen. Nitrogen forms as a vapour, at the top of the distillation tower. The oxygen,
still in liquid form, collects at the base of the tower.
This oxygen is virtually pure and is drawn off and contained under pressure in large
storage vessels. The oxygen is then distributed either in cylinders as a compressed
gas, or in insulated containers in liquid form.
Oxygen cylinders
An oxygen cylinder is a hollow container of sufficient wall thickness and strength to
withstand much more than the filling pressure (safety factor). Into this container a
cylinder valve is screwed, to which a regulator may be attached.
Oxygen gas is compressed and forced into the cylinder to produce a pressure to a
maximum of 17 500 kPa at 15 °C. One size of cylinder (G) commonly used will hold in
excess of 8.9 m3 (8900 L) of gas under pressure, but if water was to be poured into it
when empty it would hold only 47 litres. It will be seen that oxygen when compressed
will occupy much less space than it does at normal atmospheric pressure. It is
squeezed into the cylinder and reduced in volume approximately 140 times. Oxygen
cylinders are therefore very dangerous and are fitted with bursting discs that are
designed to vent off any excessive increases in cylinder pressure.

Acetylene
Acetylene is composed of carbon and hydrogen (C2H2). Acetylene is a colourless gas
with a distinctive odour and is readily soluble in acetone. It is a popular fuel gas for
cutting and welding as it produces a hotter flame than any other fuel gas.
Chemical symbol C2 H2
Density at 0 °C and 1 atm 1.1709 kg/m3
300:1 by volume
Solubility of acetylene in acetone
175 kPa gauge
Flammability
Acetylene burns in air with a yellow hot and smoky flame. The ignition temperature of
acetylene (335 °C) is much lower than the majority of fuel gases.
Acetylene, when mixed with air, has a very wide flammable and explosive range, from
about 3% acetylene and 97% air to 81% acetylene and 19% air. When submitted to
a pressure exceeding 175 kPa, acetylene becomes unstable; if subjected to a slight
shock, friction or heat, it is likely to explode with great violence. Consequently, the
maximum safe working pressure for acetylene is 150 kPa.
Acetylene production
In contrast to oxygen production, impure acetylene is relatively easy to make but
because of its unstable nature stringent safety precautions must be maintained.
Acetylene gas is produced by feeding solid calcium carbide into water; acetylene is
given off as a gas and the slaked slime remains with the water to form a sludge.
Ca C2 + 2H2O = C2 H2 + Ca (OH) 2
Calcium carbide + water = acetylene + slaked lime.
The acetylene gas given off is washed in water, purified, dried and passed onto the
acetylene compressor.
A characteristic of acetylene is its effect on copper. When acetylene and copper come
into contact, a highly explosive compound (copper acetylide) is formed on the surface
of the copper. This compound may cause an explosion if subjected to heat, friction or a
sharp blow. For this reason, copper tubing should never be used to join welding hoses
– use approved type joiners only.
Acetylene cylinders
An acetylene cylinder is rather different from an oxygen cylinder; the cylinder is not
hollow because acetylene is extremely unstable when compressed in a free area. The
cylinder is filled with a porous material saturated with liquid acetone. Whilst the porous
mass is used to break up the area inside the cylinder into a great number of very fine
holes capable of absorbing the acetone in a similar manner to a sponge absorbing
water, use is made of the established fact that acetone is soluble and acetylene gas
can be absorbed into this liquid. The presence of the porous mass prevents large gas
areas forming and limits any possible explosion to the size of the microscopic pore.

The outside shell of the container is not required to be very strong, as the pressures
involved are not very high. Fusible plugs are provided in acetylene cylinders to vent
off acetylene should any overheating occur (increased temperature would increase
pressure).
When acetylene is forced into the cylinder, it comes in contact with and is absorbed
by the acetone. Heat is produced and as the acetylene dissolves better in acetone at
lower temperatures, the cylinders are sprayed with water while being filled. As acetone
has the property of absorbing many times its own volume of acetylene, it permits the
storage of a greater quantity of acetylene than could normally be accommodated.
The acetylene gas is not present in a free space (which would be dangerous at the
pressures required) but is dissolved into the acetone inside the cylinder at a pressure
of approximately 1500 kPa at 15 °C.
As acetylene is drawn from the cylinder, a reaction similar to the opening of a soft-drink
bottle occurs – you have seen the gas bubbling out from soft drinks when the pressure
is reduced by removing the bottle top. When the acetylene cylinder valve is opened,
the pressure in the cylinder falls and the gas comes away from the acetone. If the rate
of flow from the cylinder is too great, the gas will not have time to separate out from the
liquid and liquid acetone will flow out from the cylinder.
For this reason, on long jobs or continuous work the allowable discharge rate of
acetylene is one-seventh the volume of a full cylinder per hour, eg if a cylinder
containing 7000 litres is used, the maximum draw-off in any one hour would be
1000 litres.
Where it is not possible to obtain sufficient acetylene from a single cylinder without
exceeding the recommended flow rate, several cylinders should be joined together with
a manifold.
Acetone can also be discharged from an acetylene cylinder if the cylinder is operated
whilst lying on its side – therefore, always store and operate an acetylene cylinder in
the upright position.
The passing of acetone into welding or cutting equipment is extremely dangerous,
as it will continue to liberate acetylene and pressures may become excessive. It also
reduces the flame temperature and therefore increases the cost of carrying out the
work.
Gases – oxy-acetylene
Oxygen and fuel gas combined
At the end of the nineteenth century, a discovery was made which was to have a big
effect on the metal fabrication industry in general. The flame produced by burning
acetylene with oxygen was hotter than any previously known. The flame was quickly
adapted to heat and weld metal.
Today, the system is in wide use where welding and cutting operations use oxygen and
acetylene or other fuel gases in a great variety of equipment.
Table 17.1 sets out the flame temperatures of various fuel gases. From this it can be
seen that acetylene is the hottest of all flames in commercial use.

Maximum flame Temperature with

Fuel gas
with air °C oxygen °C
acetylene 2630 3130
hydrogen 2210 2660
coal gas 1920 2450
propane 1925 2700
Table 17.1 – Fuel gases – temperatures
Gas welding equipment

Fusion welding operations require a cylinder of compressed oxygen and acetylene,
correct regulators for both gases, flashback arrestors, correct couplings and hoses,
welding blowpipe, mixer and welding tips.
Oxygen and acetylene gases are generally set at equal pressures of approximately
50 to 75 kPa.
Typical welding equipment required, such as cylinders, regulators, arrestors, hoses,
welding blowpipe, mixer and swaged welding tip are shown in Fig 17.1. The swaged tip
provides smooth gas flow and a soft, quiet neutral flame for all welding purposes.
Fig 17.1 – Gas welding equipment

Oxy-acetylene flames
Characteristics of the oxy-acetylene flame
Oxygen and acetylene blowpipes utilise the Bunsen burner principle of mixing gases
together before they reach the point at which combustion is to take place. This prior
mixing of the gases produces a much hotter and shorter flame than when fuel gases
are simply allowed to flow out into the air and burn.
For example, acetylene when pre-mixed and burnt with pure oxygen produces the
highest temperature gas flame known to man that is safe and convenient for welding.
Theoretically, it requires two volumes of oxygen to burn one volume of acetylene, but
the blowpipe is designed to only supply the oxygen necessary to form the luminous or
incandescent cone for which the volume is 1:1. When the flame is adjusted to neutral
(see Fig 17.2) – the extra volumes of oxygen are obtained from the atmosphere.
Chemistry of the oxy-acetylene flame

The maximum temperature obtainable from the oxy-acetylene flame is approximately
3300 °C, (oxy/coal gas flame: 2000 °C, oxy/hydrogen flame: 2300 °C, air/acetylene:
2400 °C, air/liquid petroleum gas: 2700 °C), and the heat concentration is 1–2 mm in
front of the extreme tip of the inner cone. Combustion is recognised as taking place in
two main stages.
1. Oxygen and acetylene (O2 and C2H2), in a 1:1 ratio, burn in the inner white cone.
In the inner cone, two separate reactions take place; the oxygen combines with
the carbon of the acetylene to form carbon monoxide (CO), while hydrogen (H2)
is liberated.
2. Two more separate reactions take place in the outer envelope to complete
combustion. The carbon monoxide takes up oxygen from the atmosphere to
form carbon dioxide (CO2) and the hydrogen burns with oxygen, also from the
atmosphere, to form water vapour (H2O).
Flame adjustment
Three types of flame adjustment can be obtained when using the oxy-acetylene gas
welding plant:
1. neutral
2. carburising
3. oxidising.
It is essential that the operator learns to recognise the three types of flame, because
incorrect flame setting could lead to weld problems or failure of the weld.
Neutral flame
A neutral flame is produced when acetylene and oxygen burn in the proper proportions,
ie equal volumes. It is made up of a distinct and clearly defined incandescent cone or
jet, surrounded by a faint secondary flame or envelope. The length of the inner cone
should be between three to five times its own width. The flame desired is what may
be termed as a gentle or soft flame, not a harsh flame. A harsh flame increases the
agitation of the molten metal and causes metal to be forced over unfused areas.

Temperature 3000 °C – Uses

zz Fusion welding of:
{{ mild steel and alloys
{{ cast iron
{{ aluminium and alloys
{{ stainless steel
{{ chrome-nickel alloys
{{ copper and alloys
{{ lead.
zz All heating applications and cutting pre-heating flames.
Outer
Inner envelope
cone
Acetylene and oxygen

in equal proportions
Fig 17.2 – Acetylene and oxygen in equal proportions (neutral flame)
Carburising flame
This flame is produced when there is an excess of acetylene and can be readily
recognised by a luminous intermediate cone or ‘feather’ around the inner cone; caused
by unburnt particles of carbon that are burnt and disappear as they reach the outer
edge of the feather.
The carburising flame has an excess of carbon and will add carbon to the surface of
the material. It is also sometimes referred to as a ‘reducing flame’. A reducing flame is
one that, because of its need for oxygen, will reduce oxides such as iron oxide.
The temperature of the carburising flame is lower than that of the neutral flame. It
causes mild steel to seemingly sweat or look greasy. This is brought about by the
unburnt particles of carbon in the flame reacting on the steel’s surface and lowering the
melting point of the steel before it melts to any depth.

zz fusion welding high carbon steels
zz hard surfacing operations.

Acetylene
Outer envelope
Inner feather
cone
Excess of acetylene
2x
Fig 17.3 – Excess of acetylene (carburising flame)
Oxidising flame
This flame is produced when there is an excess of oxygen in the flame and is so
named because of its oxidising effect on the molten metal. The effect of too much
oxygen is to decrease the length and width of the outer envelope and to shorten the
inner core.
An oxidising flame is very harmful in certain welding applications, such as in the
welding of mild steel, aluminium and stainless steels.
When welding mild steel, excess oxygen can be detected by the intense sparking of
the melted metal and the appearance of a whitish scum.

• fusion welding of:
{{ brass
{{ bronze
{{ zinc die castings
• bronze welding of:
{{ cast iron
{{ galvanised iron
{{ mild steel.
Inner
Outer envelope
cone
Excess oxygen
Fig 17.4 – Excess of oxygen (oxidising flame)

Oxy-welding techniques
Forehand welding technique
The definition of forehand welding is welding with the blowpipe flame pointing in
the direction in which the weld progresses, ie towards the unfilled seam, where the
blowpipe follows the filler rod (see Fig 17.5).
Filler wire
Weld
Direction of travel
Fig 17.5 – Forehand welding
This technique is the most commonly used for mild steel and alloy steels on butt weld
and fillet weld joints, flanged edges, unbevelled plates up to 3 mm and bevelled plates
up to 5 mm. It is also the technique adopted for cast iron and non-ferrous metals.
Backhand welding mild steel

The definition for backhand welding is welding with the blowpipe flame pointing in the
reverse of the direction in which the weld progresses, ie towards the filled seam, where
the blowpipe is ahead of the weld and filler rod (see Fig 17.6).
This technique requires great skill and is the most common method used for full fusion
root welds on pipe.

Weld
Direction of travel
Fig 17.6 – Backhand welding
Tip sizes
Welding tip sizes are designated in tenths of a mm, ie:
zz size 8 = 8/10 = 0.8 mm
zz size 20 = 2 mm.
Tip Filler Thickness of Pressure* kPa

sizes rod diameter (mm) mild steel oxygen acetylene
8 1.6 0.8 mm 50 50
8–10 1.6 1.6 mm 50 50
10–12 1.6 2.4 mm 50 50
12–15 2.4 3 mm 50 50
Table 17.2 – Typical tip sizes and settings
These pressures apply only to equal pressure blowpipes, when you can adjust
both regulators.

Filler rods
Filler rods are available to enable oxy-acetylene fusion welding of a wide range of
materials and these are identified by colour codes or markings in accordance with
the AS 1167.2 Fusion Filler wire code, which contains details of filler specifications in
various tables as shown in the examples that follow.
For example, a steel wire would be shown in AS1167 part 2 in Table 3 as RG and an
alloy steel wire as R1.
Type Marking (eg) Remarks

none Free running, high ductility mild steel and
Mild steel wrought iron, no flux required but susceptible to
AS/NZS 1167.2-3RG oxide inclusion.
High quality rod for flux-free fusion welding of
copper coating
High test mild steel where better mechanical properties
as above
and some de-oxidising is required.
Low alloy steel containing balanced quantities of
copper coat
si and mn (double de-oxidised), produces
Super steel blue tip
flux-free quality fusion welds of high strength and
as above
suitable for many low alloy steels.
A range of fusion welding rods for flux free fusion
Alloy steel AS/NZS 1167.2-3R1 welding of carbon/moly, chrome/moly and nickel
low alloy steels.
A range of fusion welding wires, for austenitic
Stainless
AS/NZS 1167.2-4R308 stainless steel. May need flux to assist in
steel
de-oxidisation of surface.
Fillers are available for fusion welding of pure
Copper copper (de-oxidised). Example is bronze filler for
AS/NZS 1167.2-5CuSnA
and alloy fusion welding of bronze. May need flux to assist
in de-oxidisation of surface.
Fillers are available for fusion and braze welding
Aluminium AS/NZS 1167.2-R1000
of aluminium and alloys. May need flux to assist
and alloys (pure)
in de-oxidisation of surface.
Table 17.3 – Filler rod selection chart
Requirements for fusion welding

1. Flame: a neutral flame is required for the welding of mild steel.
2. Flux: not required for steel because oxides melt at a lower temperature than the
melting point, but flux may be required when fusion welding on metals such as
stainless steel or aluminium that have a surface oxide layer that is promoted by
heat or has a higher melt point than the parent metal.
3. Filler rods: a filler rod of the same composition as the base metal is mostly used.
The diameter of the rod should be selected to enable easy control of the weld
pool and filler rod melt off.

Preparation – tacking and gap
Tack welding is the term given to small welds that are used to maintain the correct joint
gap and alignment of parts and to control distortion during the welding process. The
tack weld is made by producing a small molten puddle across the seam to produce
local fusion of the joint faces. A small circular motion of the tip may be used and filler
rod introduced to assist in making a strong tack weld.
The distance between tack welds should ensure that the joint is stable during welding
operations. On thin plate, eg 1.6 mm thick material, the recommended distance
between tacks should be no greater than 40 mm; this is to stop the plate edges from
distorting between the tacks as the welding heat is applied. Usually one edge rises and
the other drops down, resulting in uneven joint faces.
As the plate thickness increases, so then does the distance between the tack welds. In
many instances, it is wise to make some allowance for expansion and contraction when
tacking up the joint.
Methods in common use are (see Fig 17.7):

zz allowing a slightly larger joint gap than normal
zz setting the gap wider at one end of the joint where welding is to commence
zz combined with the above, plates are usually overset to allow for and use
contraction forces to align the welded plates and reduce distortion.
Tack weld length

usually twice the Extra gap to
material thickness allow for
expansion and
contraction
Distance between tack

welds vary according Tack weld
to metal thickness (see
text)
Slightly wider gap Normal

for full joint length gap
Tack weld
Plates level
Offset plates to after
allow for welding
contraction
Fig 17.7 – Common methods of tacking

Joint gap (refer Table 17.4) sets out the correct edge preparation and accompanying
joint gap for forehand welding in the flat position.
Metal Filler rod

Forehand – preparation thickness diameter
mm (in) mm (in)
1 to 2 t 1/2 t 0.8 1.5

1.5 1.5
t t
1/2 t 2.5 1.5

3.0 2.5
t
60 - 90
4.0 2.5
t
5.0 3.0
1/2 t 6.0 5.0
Table 17.4 – Joint gap examples
Table 17.4 should be used as a starting point, but minor adjustments can be made
to allow for expansion and contraction forces produced during welding. However,
depending on the type and grade of material, thickness and length of weld, the
allowance may vary and only by using experience can the operator decide the most
suitable joint set-up.
A sound weld is produced by the correct employment of such factors as flame setting,
flame control, tip angle, filler rod angle and feed. The operator should choose a
comfortable position and, as the result of experience through practice, be able to
coordinate and control all factors to produce consistently good welds. Welding should
take place with the operator welding across the face of the body. In case of a
right-handed person, from right to left.
1. The flame – The inner core is brought to within 2 mm of the metal surface and
directed at a point to melt the metal and form a molten pool. The flame is kept in
a direct line of the weld joint, maintaining recommended angles – Fig 17.8.
2. The molten pool – Should extend from the top surface of the plate through to the
underside edges of the seam. Welding takes place when the two molten faces
fuse, the forward movement of the blowpipe makes this a continuous process.
3. The filler rod is held in the outer envelope to raise and keep it at a welding
temperature. For the correct angle see Fig 17.8.

Welding technique
The flame is directed at a point to form a molten weld pool. The filler rod is held within
the outer envelope to raise it to a welding temperature. On formation of the weld pool,
the filler rod is lowered into the centre of the molten pool in a constant dipping action,
regulated by the amount of filler metal required.
Do not allow the molten metal from the rod to drop into the weld pool. Keep the flame
on the line of the weld moving forward, without an excessive weaving motion sideways.
Increased angle of the blowpipe slows progress and increases the size of the molten
pool.
It is important that the filler rod be withdrawn from the molten pool, so that the heat
build-up can occur to re-establish the correct pool depth for full penetration.
Care should be taken to keep the end of the filler rod within the envelope to restrict
the formation of oxides that would be detrimental to the weld.
Welding tip
Filler rod
65
35
Direction of travel
Fig 17.8 – Forehand welding
Operator control
Accurate control of the welding rod requires great operator skill. The filler metal should
be deposited at an even rate to form a sound joint with adequate weld reinforcement.
Operator control is also needed to prevent the rod from sticking. If the rod should stick
to the parent metal, simply melt it loose using the welding flame.
When the weld is completed, or in the case of an intermediate stop, the molten pool
should be allowed to slowly solidify inside the flame envelope so that oxides are not
formed and gases are not trapped within the weld.

Gas welding of small diameter pipes

Oxy-acetylene welding of pipe is accomplished by one of three techniques:
zz single-pass or multi-pass forehand technique
zz single-pass or multi-pass backhand technique
zz two-pass technique using a backhand first run and forehand capping run.
Forehand technique
Pipe welds using the forehand technique are started at the bottom or ‘6 o’clock’ position
and welded upwards to the top or ‘12 o’clock’ position. The welding flame points towards
the direction of welding with the filler rod leading the blowpipe (see Fig 17.9).
Direction of travel
Bevel beginning
to melt Torch
movement
Finished
Filler rod weld
Molten
eye
Fig 17.9 – Forehand pipe welding
Pipe should be pre-heated before welding commences, particularly on pipe over 6 mm

thick.
The forehand method is a slow process that involves movement of the flame from one
side of the joint to the other. The filler rod is also moved from side to side, alternating
with the flame. If build-up is required, the rod is stopped momentarily in the middle of the
molten pool to melt off more filler metal.
Backhand technique
The backhand technique is illustrated in Fig 17.10. It involves the welding of pipe from
top to bottom, when the pipe is in the fixed horizontal position. The flame is directed back
into the molten pool and the rod is held behind the welding flame.

Direction of travel
Puddle Bevel beginning

to melt
Finished Torch
weld
Gap
Filler rod Bevel
Movement of
Molten eye flame
in a small circle
Fig 17.10 – Backhand pipe welding
Backhand is faster than the forehand technique. The flame is directed into the root
opening, until both pipe edges are melted to form a molten eye, or ‘key hole’. As the
molten eye forms, the rod is moved towards the forward edge of the pool.
General notes
As gas welding is slower than other processes, it allows more time for change of
operator position when welding small bore pipes. Welds are normally sound and no
grinding or slag removal is required on completion.
Normalising of mild steel is often required. The slow process tends to promote heat
transfer into the parent metal, which causes slow cooling and a relatively coarse grain
structure. Any post-weld heat treatment should be carried out strictly in accordance
with the specifications for the material.
Trade terms
There are four terms used in the oxy-acetylene welding trade that are frequently
confused. The terms must be understood and correctly used at all times. These are:
zz braze welding
zz brazing
zz bronze welding
zz bronze surfacing.
Braze welding
The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding (fillet weld external to
parts to be joined or butt weld that extends to cover the surface). The parent metal is
not melted and the low temperature filler material bonds to the grain structure from the
surface only, but without melting the parent metal (see Fig 17.11).

Filler material
Fig 17.11 – Typical braze welded joint
Brazing
A process of joining metals in which, during or after heating the parent material,
molten filler metal is drawn by capillary attraction into the space between closely
adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined. In general, the melting point of the filler
metal is above 500 °C, but always below the melting temperature of the parent metal
(see Fig 17.12).
0.05–0.25 mm
Filler material
Fig 17.12 – Typical brazing joint
Bronze welding
A form of braze welding in which copper-rich filler metal is used.
Bronze surfacing
The deposition of bronze filler metal over an area of a metal surface, to impart certain
wear resistant properties or build-up of worn parts.
These processes may seem similar in their low temperatures required and in the
method of bonding, however there are differences in the filler material, joint design
and flame type required.

Summary
Bronze welding
Brazing
– braze welding
temperature above 500 °C below parent metal melt point below parent metal melt point
filler material type copper/zinc alloy copper/silver alloy
joint design required weld build-up capillary type
bonding method intergranular intergranular
(filler to metal)
flux type (borax base) bronze GP silver solder GP
flame type required neutral – slightly oxidising neutral –
slightly carburising
Table 17.5 – Similarities/differences between braze welding and brazing
Intergranular penetration
The molten filler metal permeates into the parent metal, around the grains and ‘hooks’
itself in the parent metal. For this reason, the parent metal must be hot (but not molten)
to expand the gaps in the grain. A flux is used to clean out the gaps and help the filler
metal to flow between the grains.
Parent metal Intergranular

penetration
Filler
Fig 17.13 – Intergranular penetration
Capillary attraction
This is the final term requiring definition. It describes where molten filler metal flows
between closely fitted surfaces of a joint, which will even occur against the pull of
gravity.
Uses of braze welding (with bronze filler)

Bronze welding may be employed on cast irons, mild and alloy steels and galvanised
iron. It has a number of advantages over fusion welding for these materials but it also
has some limitations.

Advantages
zz much faster than fusion welding
zz lower heat input will not destroy the properties of the parent metal
zz resultant weld is ductile.
Limitations
Bronze welding is not to be used in the following instances:
zz on joints under stress, as tensile strength of the joint is lower than that of the
parent metal
zz in conditions where the operating temperature is above 260 °C, as bronze loses
strength rapidly at elevated temperatures
zz when the joint comes in contact with ammonia gas
zz when a colour match with the parent metal is required.
Braze welding techniques

Mild steel and galvanised Iron
Galvanised iron consists of mild steel, coated with zinc. Braze welding is especially
recommended for joining galvanised plate or pipe, as the low heat input (compared with
fusion welding) does not appreciably affect the zinc coating. The braze welded joint is
also itself resistant to corrosion and it alloys with the zinc coating to form a continuous
protective layer (bronze consists of copper and zinc).
Precautions
As can be seen from the previous chart, extra care must be taken to prevent the zinc
from vaporising (becoming a gas). Zinc forms an oxide, from atmospheric oxygen,
which is poisonous. On mild steel, only the zinc in the bronze filler can vaporise; with
galvanised iron, the zinc coating can also vaporise. By using the correct flame (slightly
oxidising), this problem can be minimised; but for all braze welding, the operator must
avoid breathing the fumes given off.
This can be achieved by:
zz using a fume extractor (exhaust fan)
zz wearing a personal respirator
zz working in the open air or near a draught (open the doors and windows in the
workshop).
Preparation of materials
The surface of parts to be joined must be absolutely clean, mechanical cleaning and a
corrosive flux being required for most applications.
The base metal must be ‘tinned’ before depositing the bulk of the filler material.

Mild steel
Fillet welds: joint edges should be straight and close fitting. Because of the viscous and
fast freezing nature of molten bronze, a certain degree of poor fit-up may be tolerated.
Butt welds: preparation of butt joints for braze welding is similar to that of fusion
welding of the same thickness, except that a 90° vee is generally employed.
Parts should be held firmly in alignment with tackwelds or clamps and jigs etc.
Galvanised iron
It is not necessary to grind off the zinc coating, but a light rub over the joint surfaces
with emery cloth will remove any grease or oxides prior to joining.
Filler material
A range of filler material is available for various applications. Examples are given from
the BOC Gases range.
Tobin Bronze A low cost copper zinc alloy for fusion weld of brass and bronze.
Manganese Bronze 411 A free-flowing manganese bronze from producing high bond
Blue Tip strength on steel and cast iron.
Nickel Bronze 904 Produces maximum bond strength in braze welds on steel and
Imperial Brown cast iron. Has excellent hardness and wear-resistant properties.
Some of these above examples are also available in a pre flux-coated rod.
Filler material is manufactured in a range of rod diameters to suit various applications.
Fluxes
In general, a flux should be used to remove any contamination from the surface
(oxides) and to help to protect the surface from the effects of the atmosphere. Most
fluxes are slightly acidic and will etch the surface of the material when heated. Fluxes
may be based on resins, borax, sodium or fluorides. There is a particular flux blend to
suit each application.
General purpose flux Braze welding of mild steel and galvanised iron.
Bronze flux Braze welding of cast iron.
Specially designed for difficult tinning situations

Bronze tinning flux
– use bronze flux to complete.
Tip size
Generally, a tip one size smaller than would be appropriate for a similar joint, if fusion
welding were employed, is used for braze welding.
Flame setting
The flame adjustment for braze (bronze) welding is slightly oxidising; this creates an
oxide film over the puddle and prevents the zinc from dissipating (fuming).

‘Tee’
fillet
Lap
fillet If flux is correctly applied
the braze will flow between
the plates
Reinforced pieces
for pipe
Fig 17.14 – Some typical braze welded joints
Method
With the joint edges properly prepared and the equipment set up correctly, the surface
is brought to the correct temperature; this will generally be a dull red colour. The correct
temperature can be ascertained from the fact that if too cold, the filler material will
tend to ‘ball up’ on the surface and not flow out or ‘tin’. Overheating will cause the filler
material to boil, characterised by a spitting and popping sound; zinc fumes will be given
off in large amounts and black, oxidised areas may appear in the weld.
The forehand technique is generally employed, as the backhand method usually results
in overheating. The inner cone should be maintained at approximately 6 mm from the
surface of the metal and the tip and the filler rod should be held at 45° to the surface.
If an uncoated rod is being used, this must be heated and dipped into the flux; some
flux will then adhere to the rod and be introduced to the joint. This procedure is
repeated as the fluxed rod is consumed.

Travel
Welding tip
Fluxed filler rod
45° 45°
Molten
puddle
Fig 17.15 – Forehand braze welding technique
As an alternative, flux powder may be mixed with water to form a paste, this being
painted on the surface of the joint prior to welding.
Flux removal
On completion of the weld, the weld area will be coated with flux residue, a hard glassy
substance; this must be removed by mechanical methods or acid pickling to prevent
any corrosion when the part is put into service.
Silver brazing
Definition
A process of joining metals in which, during or after heating, molten filler metal is drawn
by capillary action into the space between closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to
be joined. In general, the melting point of the filler metal is above 500 °C, but always
below the melting point of the parent metal.
The process involves using an alloy filler rod consisting largely of silver and copper,
with additions of other elements. The materials that can be silver brazed include nickel,
monel, nickel-silver, copper, brass, bronze, stainless steel, carbon steel, alloy steel and
tungsten carbide tool tips.

The process
Silver brazing is extremely easy if a few basic rules are strictly observed. Successful
brazing depends upon:
zz joint design
zz choice of brazing alloy
zz preparation of surfaces
zz technique.
Joint design
Joints must allow for sufficient surface areas to be in close contact – large gaps do not
allow capillary action to take place. Generally, a gap of 0.05 to 0.03 mm is required.
Some of the more common joints are shown in Fig 17.16.
Lap
Sleeve
Saddle
Flange
Fig 17.16 – Typical brazing joints

Choice of brazing alloy
There is a large range of alloys to choose from, using from 2% to 72% silver. Silver
is expensive, so the correct alloy must be chosen for each job and only the amount
required for a sound joint used. Don’t build-up on the joint with alloy, as it is not only
wasteful but it may also harm the joint.
Silver brazing alloys (SBA) are classified into groups according to their uses and silver
content is also indicated.
Group 1 SBA
These are used primarily for the brazing of copper to copper, without flux. They should
be used with flux on copper alloys. They should not be used on ferrous or nickel-base
alloys, as this forms nickel-phosphide, causing severe embrittlement of the weld. These
alloys contain silver-copper-phosphorous.
Group 2 SBA
This group is the most commonly used alloy in industry for the low temperature brazing
of all ferrous and non-ferrous metals. This group should not be used on food handling
equipment, however, particularly where the equipment is subject to high temperature.
The alloys in this group contain silver-copper-cadmium-zinc.
AS/NZS 1167.1-A8 contains 50% silver and 4% nickel. It has been specially
developed for brazing tungsten carbide tool tips. An example is BOC Gases’
ProSilver 494.
Group 3 SBA
These are used for intermediate temperature brazing of all metals and are particularly
useful in the silversmith’s trade. These should be used in the food handling industry.
These alloys are cadmium-free; they contain silver-copper-zinc.
Group 4 SBA
These are used on vacuum units and where high electrical conductivity is necessary.
They are best used on copper, but may also be used on stainless steel, copper alloys
and nickel alloys.
These alloys contain very high proportions of silver (for electrical conductivity), the rest
being copper.
The silver brazing alloys (Table 17.6) for selecting silver brazing alloys has been
included for future reference. Welders need to select the SBA carefully.

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
Alloy designation ‘B’
Alloy designation ‘A’

AS/NZS 1167.1
AS/NZS 1167.1
AS/NZS 1167.1
AS/NZS 1167.1
Grade
Alloys used copper/silver/ copper/silver/ copper/silver copper/high

phosphorus cadmium silver
Temperature 700 °C Av 650 °C Av 750 °C 780 °C

Applications used for flux free used for low cost used for general used for joints
joints on copper general purpose purpose and requiring better
and for joining jointing of in joints where colour match,
copper alloys steel, stainless cadmium would such as silver or
such as brass and steel, copper, be hazardous stainless and/or
bronze copper alloys high conductivity
and dissimilar (weld on copper
metals by low temperature is
temperature slightly higher
than group 2)
Not must not be not to be used not suitable for more costly
recommended used on ferrous for food or water some nickel
materials such as utensils because alloys
steel or stainless of cadmium
steel because a
brittle joint may be
formed
Flux required none required requires a requires a requires an
on clean copper general purpose general purpose aggressive
(phosphorus acts flux on most flux on most flux on most
as de-oxidiser and materials materials materials
flux agent) flux
may be beneficial
on alloys
Table 17.6 – Silver brazing alloys comparison chart

Special hazards associated with braze welding/brazing
It can be seen that metal fumes may be produced by the vaporisation of metals at high
temperatures.
zz Braze welding or brazing on most base metals will not cause parent metal
vaporisation and fuming at the low temperatures involved.
zz Coatings used on materials such as zinc and aluminium (used on galvanised iron
or coated sheet metal) may fume if overheated.
zz The copper, zinc, or cadmium used in the filler material will certainly smoke and
cause dangerous fumes if overheated.
zz Solvents and degreasers should also not be used on materials to be heated.
The fluxes used can also generate dangerous or toxic fumes when heated. Avoid
breathing any fumes at all, always use correct fume extraction methods or proper
ventilation procedures.
Most of the fluxes that are use in oxy-acetylene welding operations are based on
borax, fluorides, or other caustic materials. Avoid contamination of the hands by using
gloves or applying flux with disposable items. After using any flux, always wash your
hands thoroughly before eating.

Chapter 18 – Automatic welding
Introduction
The principles of submerged arc and electro-slag welding processes are similar, to
the extent that they are ideally suited to joints in very heavy materials. Both processes
make use of a continuously fed filler wire and a granular flux. Deposition rates are high
and weld quality is excellent, providing very economical welded joints.
The basic difference between the two processes is that submerged arc is applied to
joints in the flat position and electro-slag to joints in the vertical position.
zz Submerged arc welding principles
{{ the effect of welding variables
{{ submerged arc welding consumables classification
{{ process requirements
zz Electro-slag welding.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) principles

Submerged arc welding is defined as the process where the heat required for welding
is produced from an electric arc (or arcs) created between a bare metal electrode
(or electrodes) and the work piece. The weld area is completely shielded from the
effects of atmospheric gases by a blanket of finely crushed flux, making the arc
invisible; hence the term ‘submerged arc’ (see Fig 18.1).
During the welding operations, the flux in the vicinity of the arc interacts with the parent
metal and filler wire and melts and fuses to form an airtight slag to protect the molten
metal from oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere and to slow down the cooling rate.
As welding progresses, there is no visible arc and a complete absence of spatter. The
fused flux is easily removed when cool; the unfused flux is recovered for re-use.
The process was developed primarily for the production of high quality butt welds
at increased welding rates. Briefly, SAW can be performed using a handheld gun
which makes the process flexible for repetition work where complicated shapes make
fixturing too difficult. The operation is more usually carried out by a unit that moves at a
controlled speed along the joint to be welded. For circumferential joints, the work piece
is rotated beneath a stationary welding head.
Molten flux
From flux Direction of travel
Slag Electrode hopper
Granular
flux blanket
Solidified weld Molten welded Arc path Base metal

metal metal or work
Fig 18.1 – Submerged arc welding
The process
The process is particularly suited to welding heavy plate and up to 75 mm thick plate
can been welded in one pass. With smaller filler rod and low amperages, SAW can be
used successfully on material as light as 2.6 mm. High welding currents can be used
on heavy sections and in some cases this can be as high as 4000 amps. This allows
faster weld deposits to be made with very deep penetration.
Plates up to 12.5 mm thick can be welded without edge preparation. On thicker plate,
a relatively small narrow preparation is used, permitting the use of smaller amounts of
deposited metal.

Submerged arc welding can be carried out using two or three wires simultaneously,
with welding speeds as high as 2.5 metres per minute. It is a fast and economical
method of welding when large diameter rod and high amps are used.
Absence of spatter and easy slag removal facilitates post-cleaning. Completed welds
are of high quality with uniform appearance. Parameters such as voltage and current
are easy to maintain and this, combined with predetermined or constant travel speeds
and arc length, enables high quality welds.
Typical applications for SAW include:
zz mechanised fillet welding of web to flange connections on fabricated beams and
columns
zz butt welding of longitudinal and circumference welds on cylinders and pressure
vessels
zz hand fillet welds on structural fabrications
zz mechanised welds on material handling equipment
zz re-facing or hard facing of material.
The metals that are weldable are:

zz low and medium carbon steels
zz low alloy, high strength steels
zz quenched and tempered steels
zz many types of stainless steels.
Copper and nickel alloys have been welded experimentally.
Process advantages
The SAW process is capable of high productivity rates, because of its automatically
fed filler wire and subsequent high deposition rate. The process also has a high duty
cycle because of its easily mechanised nature. Welds completed by the submerged arc
welding process typically have controlled penetration or are deep penetrating in nature.
Deposited welds display uniform bead width and height with no spatter and are thus
high quality in appearance. Welds produced by the process have good mechanical
properties.
Welding operators like the process because it is mechanised and thus requires less
effort than other processes. The arc is hidden, low levels of radiation and fumes are
emitted and the slag is easy to remove. Additionally, the flux blanket prevents any rapid
escape of heat and the submerged arc welding process produces less distortion than
some of the other weld processes.
Multiple electrodes can be used (ie tandem or twin arcs) and thick materials can be
welded with less passes and less filler metal being required than with other processes.
Small preparations only are required on thin materials.
Process limitations
The major limitations of SAW are the high initial cost of equipment and the inability of
the process to cope with positional welding and poor fit-up or dirty joints.
There is a limited selection of consumables; almost exclusively mild and low alloy high
strength steels.

The high heat input and slow cooling cycle of submerged arc welding can be a problem
when fine grained welds are required, or when welding quenched and tempered steels.
The heat input limitations of the Q and T steel must be strictly adhered to when using
SAW. This may require the making of multi-pass welds, where a single-pass weld
would be acceptable in mild steel. In some cases, the economics may be reduced to
the point where flux-cored arc welding or some other process should be considered.
In semi-automatic submerged arc welding, the inability to see the arc and puddle can
be a disadvantage in reaching the root of a groove weld and properly filling or sizing.
Seam tracking can also be a problem and the operator can only see the completed
weld once all the slag and unused flux is removed from the surface.
Flux hopper
Handheld gun Wire reel
Electrode
wire Wire feeder
Power source
Control system
OR
Electrode lead
Direction of travel
Flux
Work lead
Base metal Auto-torch
Fig 18.2 – Submerged arc welding equipment
Power source
The power source for submerged arc welding can be either constant voltage or
constant current type. Constant voltage is often used with small wire sizes, where the
self-adjusting arc properties are most useful. Constant current type power sources are
generally used on larger wires and these require feedback circuits that change the wire
feed rate to compensate for any arc length or wire burn off variations.
Machines can be either generator, inverter or transformer rectifier power sources. The
rectifier type machines are the most common and modern versions are efficient and
quiet. The machines range in capacity from 300–1500 amperes and must be rated for a
100% duty cycle; they may also be connected in parallel to provide extra power for high
current applications. Both AC or DC current can be used. Multiple electrode systems
require specialised types of circuits, especially when AC is employed.

Current selection – AC or DC
The difference in arcing and operating characteristics obtained from AC and DC
welding supply with the submerged arc welding process has a slight bearing upon the
suitability for a particular application. Generally, the majority of applications can be
carried out equally effectively with either AC or DC, but there are definite advantages at
the extremities of the application range for each current choice.
When selecting the most suitable welding supply, direct current (DC) gives the operator
polarity choice and therefore greater control over bead shape and penetration. Direct
current electrode negative (DC-ve) has a slight advantage in regard to deposition rate
(this is the reverse of GMAW), whilst direct current electrode positive (DC+ve) has a
slight advantage where deep penetration is required. Light gauge applications around
3 mm are best carried out with DC welding power. Weld starting is more positive with
DC and the arc is more stable at the lower currents used. Increased travel speeds can
be obtained.
Square-edge, prepared edge butt welds and standing and positioned fillet welds from
5 mm and upwards may be carried out with either type of supply with equal results.
Arc blow or magnetic disturbance may cause deposit deformation when welding inside
circular vessels with a DC supply.
Arc blow is more likely to occur at higher currents with DC, especially on applications
such as heavy wall thickness, circular vessels of comparatively small dimensions, and
also geometrically complex weldments.
Multiple electrode techniques such as twin (side-by-side wire electrodes) or tandem arc
(where one automatic welding head and wire follows another in a common molten pool)
are used for higher productivity rates. Where more than one power supply is used, one
of the electrodes is often connected to an AC welding supply to cancel any magnetic
effects and help arc stability. Both electrodes can be operated from an AC welding
supply, but higher welding speeds are possible with an AC/DC combination.
Photograph reproduced with permission of Lincoln Electric Co. (Aust) Pty Ltd
Fig 18.3 – Twin/tandem arc/strip

Control box/head unit

The head unit consists of a control box that provides adjustment of arc voltage,
amperage and travel rate. It may have additional functions such as wire inch, start
current, and adjustable rise rate, end current and decline rate and/or crater fill. The
welding head also houses a large reel of wire that is lightly covered with copper to
improve its transport and electrical properties. A wire straightener and a heavy duty
wire feed unit are also incorporated. A flux feed hopper and delivery system is also
provided to deposit the dry, finely divided, free flowing flux automatically along the
weld joint. The unit may also have a travel motor that can allow the unit to travel at a
predetermined speed (forward or reverse) along a weld joint and arc length and seam
tracking adjustments.
Photograph reproduced with permission of Lincoln Electric Co. (Aust) Pty Ltd
Fig 18.4 – Head unit
Submerged arc welding variables

The effect of welding variables
The major variables that affect the weld involve heat input derived from the arc voltage,
the welding current and the travel speed. The quality of the finished weld depends
almost entirely upon these parameters and their proper selection and control.
The variables (in the approximate order of importance) that must be set and maintained
during welding are:
zz voltage
zz the current
zz weld travel speed
zz electrical stick-out
zz arc length and width
zz flux depth.

Table 1 Current ranges for SAW electrodes

Electrode Dia. (mm) Current range (amp)
2.0 200 - 500
2.4 230 - 600
3.2 300 - 750
4.0 400 - 900
4.8 500 - 1050
5.6 600 - 1200
Fig 18.5 – Welding variables – Current ranges for SAW electrodes
Arc voltage
As the arc voltage is reduced, the tip of the welding wires will operate at a lower height
level, giving a narrower weld with deeper penetration than a higher arc voltage would
give under the same current and speed condition. With high arc voltage, the wire tip
operates at a higher height level, allowing the metal to spread out and giving a wider
weld with less penetration. It also allows the fusing of slightly more flux than in the
former case.
An extremely low arc voltage for a given current setting, with the tip of the welding
wire operating at a lower level (which could be well below the surface of plate in
a narrow vee preparation), will cause the molten deposited metal to be forced up
around the sides and the rear of the crater. The resultant bead will be rough, irregular,
comparatively high and narrow, with visible gas holes sometimes occurring in the
crater. With an excessively high arc voltage under the same current conditions, the
tip of the welding wire being rather high above the plate surface will mean that the
covering flux will tend to extinguish the arc. The resultant bead will again tend to be
rough and irregular, but in this case comparatively flat and wide.
For this example:

4.0 mm electrode
600 amps
500 mm/min
Volts 26 33 26 30
Fig 18.6 – Effects of voltage

Wire feed control (amperage)

This may be by either constant speed wire feed or voltage controlled systems.
Constant speed wire feed controls the wire speed (once it is pre-set), by means of
some form of either mechanical or electrical governor. This type of control is usually
used with constant potential power sources, because the constant voltage type power
source will alter the output current to compensate for any arc voltage variation and thus
provide the self-adjusting parameters necessary to maintain an open arc. The desired
arc length (from arc voltage) is selected by setting the constant voltage power source
output voltage at a value suited to the maintenance of an open arc.
Voltage-controlled or voltage-sensing wire feed motors are generally used for constant
current type power sources; the control used may be a ‘series control’, which is
essentially an electric motor that is highly responsive to arc voltage variations, or it
could be an electronic device that senses arc voltage variations and promotes motor
response to these changes as they occur.
In this system, if for any short period of time the welding current melts off filler wire at
a faster rate than it is being fed, the increased distance between the wire and the work
will increase the arc voltage. This increase in arc voltage speeds results in a speed
up of the wire speed motor and restores the wire tip-to-work relationship as previously
established.
With either control system the most critical variables, arc voltage and arc current, are
maintained at constant levels.
Typically, any increase in wire feed rate will increase amperage, penetration and
deposition rate.
For this example:

4.0 mm electrode
34 volts
600 mm/min
Amps 400 600 800 1100
Fig 18.7 – Effects of amperage

Travel rate
Weld size and shape are affected by travel speed. Any increase in travel speed will
reduce weld size and produce a narrower weld bead. Penetration is also affected by
travel speed; an increase over normal settings will give a proportionate decrease in
depth of penetration.
For this example:

4.0 mm electrode
600 amps
33 volts
Travel
speed 1000 700 400
Fig 18.8 – Effects of travel rate
Stick-out
The electrical stick-out must be set correctly, because this will affect arc voltage and
welding current. On a constant voltage power source, any increase in stick-out will
produce a voltage rise and therefore require the power source to reduce amperage to
compensate.
Flux
Submerged arc welding flux shields the arc, and the molten weld metal, from the
harmful effect of atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. The flux contains deoxidisers and
scavengers, which help to remove impurities from the molten weld metal. The welding
flux also provides a means of introducing alloys into the weld metal. As this molten flux
cools to a glassy slag, it forms a covering that protects the surface of the weld.
The non-melted portion of the flux does not change its form, its properties are not
affected, and it can be recovered and reused. The flux that does melt and forms the
slag covering must be removed from the weld bead. This is easily done after the weld
has cooled and in many cases will actually peel without requiring special effort for
removal. In groove welds, the solidified slag may have to be removed by a chipping
hammer.
Fluxes are available in various types similar to MMAW; namely rutile, acid, or basic
type fluxes (hydrogen-controlled). These fluxes are formulated for specific applications
and for specific types of weld deposits. Because a large part of the flux can interact
with the molten weld pool, another method is often used to differentiate between
various types of submerged arc fluxes. A neutral flux has no effect on the finished weld,
in spite of any variable change.

Active fluxes contain elements such as manganese and/or silicon and these can be
picked up in the arc and thus contribute to the weld metal properties. The flux/wire
combination must be carefully selected and is often critical in predicting weld metal
properties. Submerged arc welding fluxes are also available in different particle sizes
and methods of manufacturing.
Vertical displacement
When circumference welds are carried out, the molten weld pool must be kept as near
to the flat position as possible while it solidifies. Some allowance can therefore be
made to deposit the weld before the flat position, to allow liquid weld to cool and solidify
as it travels though the ideal position. Too much lead distance may allow flux loss and
the weld will tend to run back onto itself before the cylinder turns to the ideal position.
Not enough lead distance may allow the molten weld insufficient time to freeze before
the weld goes through the ideal position and the flux spills off.
The best lead angle should be determined by trial runs.
Electrode
TDC
Electrode
BDC
Circumferential welding, spacing of

electrode from top or bottom
dead centre
Fig 18.9 – Vertical displacement on cylinders
Submerged arc welding consumables classification

There are many different types of electrode wires commercially available for mild steel
and alloy steels, but limited choice of stainless steel wires and copper alloy wires.
Some hard facing wires are also available. Solid wires are classified to a particular
standard, which makes it possible to identify and select the most suitable type of wire
for a job. It is important to understand classification systems and the information they
represent.
Consumable classification systems list a number of essential features about
the consumable; for example, consumables are classified based on filler metal
composition, flux type and method and deposited weld properties.

AS1858.1 classifies solid wire electrodes under three groups of elements separated by
hyphens. Each group consists of a number of letters or letters and numbers.
For example, EL12K – FMM – W504.
Group 1 (EL12K)
The first group of letters relates to the filler material and denotes a solid electrode and
indicates:
E = electrode
L = little or no increase in manganese (H = high manganese silicon,
M = moderate manganese silicon)
12 = 0.12% carbon, 8, 12, 13, 14 (a number indicating % carbon)
K = killed (double de-oxidised).
Group 2 (FMM)
The second group relates to the shielding medium used and consists of F for flux shield
and then two letters that indicate the type of flux and contribution to weld metal:
F = flux shield
M = multi run (S = single run, B = basic flux, G = general flux)
M = moderate increase in manganese, (L = little or no increase, H = high
increase).
Group 3
The third group relates to the weld deposit and involves a letter W followed by a
three-digit number. W stands for weld metal. The following two digits refer to the
minimum strength of the deposited weld, which is measured in megapascals. The
third digit refers to the minimum impact value:
W = weld metal properties
50 = 500 MPa strength
3 = degree of impact test.
Process requirements
The successful application of the process of submerged arc welding depends on the
following.
zz Welding conditions and preparation to suit the work.
Correct voltage, welding current and travel rate create the necessary bead
width, weld contour and penetration. The joint often contains more of the base
metal (from 50 to 70%) than applied filler metal, hence the composition of the
base metal plays an important part in this process. Base metal composition and
thickness go hand-in-hand in determining the mechanical properties of the joint.

zz Correct selection of welding wire and flux combination to suit the base
metal to be welded.
The wire and its manganese contribution, combined with flux manganese and
alloy contribution, should be matched to the parent metal and expected weld
metal properties. The depth of flux covering applied should be no greater than is
required to obtain a quiet action and an absence of porosity in the finished weld.
If too deep a layer is used, the rough and uneven surface that results is due to
the entrapment of gases generated during the welding process which cannot
escape through the thick layer of flux. Too shallow a flux results in porosity and
‘open arcing’ occurring.
zz Plate surface preparation other than joint preparation.
It is important that no foreign material is picked up during flux reclamation and,
to prevent this, a suitable width of plate on either side of the joint is cleared prior
to welding. It is essential that the plate and joint surfaces are clean and dry. Oil,
grease, paint and other gas producing mediums remaining in the joint area will
cause porosity. Even a crayon mark on the joint surface can ruin an otherwise
good weld.
zz Heat treatment prior to, during and after welding has been completed
Calculation of pre-heat temperatures and the requirements of post-weld heat
treatment is extremely important. For most plain carbon and alloy steels, only
pre-heat is needed, if any treatment is required at all.
Weld backing
Due to the large volume of molten metal that remains fluid for an appreciable time, it is
essential to provide support to contain the weld until solidification is effected.
Methods used are:
zz non-fusible backing, for example copper backing strip
zz weld backing – this is the most widely used method of applying support.
Some further points to consider on weld backing are as follows.

zz In a ‘root backed’ joint, the root face should be thick enough to support the
incompletely penetrated first pass of weld. It is most important that the joint edges
are tightly butted.
zz Manual welds are sometimes used as backing when it is not convenient to use
other backing methods because of inaccessibility, poor joint preparation of fitting,
or difficulty in positioning the job.
zz The manual weld may become part of the complete joint or it may be removed
and replaced.
zz E4312 and E4313 electrodes are not recommended as backing welds, as they
tend to cause porosity in the finished weld.
zz Preparation is provided to aid weld penetration and control the amount of weld
reinforcement. Preparation is usually provided in accordance with the quality of
the weld metal required in the finished weld.

Causes of porosity
The principal causes of porosity when submerged arc welding are as follows.
Contamination dirty parent metal, rust, oil, paint, grease

Flux cover too thin, contaminated
Voltage voltage too high, causing long arc
Causes of cracking
The principal causes of cracking when submerged arc welding are as follows.
Hardness poor parent metal/wire/flux combination

Rigidity caused by thick plates or reinforced/braced structures
Low ambient
cause an increase in quench rates that might be detrimental on
temperatures and fast
susceptible material
cooling rates
Steels of low high alloy content, high carbon equivalent or large mass can all
weldability contribute to poor weldability
if cracking is due to plate composition, electrode positive polarity is
recommended. The 20% to 30% better burn-off will help to build up
Polarity
an adequate cross section of weld with a proper convex bead which
resists cracking
Manual first pass weld use only recommended hydrogen-controlled electrode types for this
backing function
Bead shape and particularly the ratio between the width and depth of deposit (ratio 3
dimensions width to 2 depth or better)
to prevent internal shrinkage cracking, the bead surface must be
Internal shrinkage flat to slightly convex and the width of the weld must not be greater
than penetration depth
this determines the burn-off rate; a high burn-off rate gives less
Electrode stick-out penetration and weld dilution and reduces cracking, but bead shape
is hard to control
All operating factors are important. With adequate supervision, SAW will provide
the most consistent and trouble-free welding of all production processes.

Electro-slag welding
The electro-slag process was first developed for vertical welding of tank seams on
site, but the process potential for single-pass welds on heavy materials in the vertical
position was soon realised. A unique feature of the process is the absence of an
open arc, because once the molten pool is established, welding heat is developed by
resistance heating as the current passes through the molten slag.
Preparation of plate edges is minimised, since square oxy-cut edges can safely be
welded, but the advantages of this feature are limited to some extent by the need to
provide substantial clamping arrangements to secure the parts during welding.
The slag has no metallurgical function, because very limited amounts of flux are used
in comparison with other processes. Its function is to develop and distribute welding
heat and to protect the molten pool of weld metal from the atmosphere.
In the electro-slag process, the guide and contact tube for the continuously fed
electrode wire is mounted just above the weld pool and mechanically raised as the
weld progresses. An adaptation of this process employs a continuous guide from top
to bottom of the weld, passing down the centre of the joint. This process is referred
to as ‘consumable guide welding’ because the guide is melted into the weld pool as
it rises. The advantage of a consumable guide is that it can be set up before welding
commences, including the wire feed mechanism which remains static, and joints that
change direction and slope away from the vertical can be better catered for.
Guide and contact tube

Unfused Wire
Wire feed
plate on reel
edge
Vertical drive
Flux mechanism
added
Joint
alignment
Water
plates
flow
Solidified weld
Copper shoes or slippers
Fig 18.10 – Electro-slag arrangement

Preparation
A gap is required between square plate edges of between 25 mm and 50 mm,
depending on the thickness of the material. The gap is often set to increase from
bottom to top, in order to cope with the considerable contraction forces as the weld
progresses. ‘Strong backs’ or shaped plates are usually welded on to hold joint plates
in the position required and to maintain good alignment across the face of the joint.
These strong backs must be cut out to provide free passage for the copper shoes and
the vertical drive gear (see Fig 18.11).
Fig 18.11 – Strong backs to secure joint for welding
Preparation also requires the provision of run-on and run-off plates at the beginning
and end of joints. These short extensions of joint plates, approximately 75 mm, allow
full size and full strength welds to be maintained throughout. They can be seen on the
sketch of the consumable guide arrangement in Fig 18.12.
Copper mould
Copper moulds, or shoes, contain the molten metal and slag and are moved forward
as the weld proceeds. Copper is a good conductor of heat and the moulds tend to
cool the weld quickly. The moulds are water cooled internally and form a solidified flux
coating against the weld face, which also serves to protect the copper. Reinforcement
of the weld is created by the shape of the moulds. They are held in close contact with
the joint faces to prevent leakage from the molten pool and are moved upwards as
welding progresses. The molten metal solidifies and becomes self-supporting before
the bottom of the mould moves forward. An alternative to continuously moving shoes is
the stepping of moulds as indicated in Fig 18.12.
Flux
Flux is similar to submerged arc fluxes but has additional amounts of:
zz calcium fluoride – to prevent arcing
zz manganese and aluminium silicates – to raise boiling point
zz fluorspar and magnesia – to improve conductivity and ionisation.

Flux is added as necessary to compensate for losses and the level of molten slag is
maintained between 38 mm and 50 mm. The flux is a non-conductor of electricity when
cold, but in the molten state it becomes highly conductive.
Molten slag that is too deep may trap gas or slag and if too shallow may allow metal to
run out or cause unstable current flow. Steel wool is often used to assist with starting of
the arc.
Continuous
wire
Consumable
guide
Consumable Flux
guide ferrule
Run-off
block
Parent
metal
Water cooled
copper shoes
Cooling
Consumable water
guide and wire
Liquid
weld metal
Molten slag
Cooling
water
Run-off
block
Fig 18.12 – Electro-slag process
The molten slag maintains a temperature between 1700° C and 2400° C, which melts
the filler wire and the plate edges. The actual melting point of flux is much lower than the
melting point of steel, which is designed to prevent slag being trapped. The molten slag
must not be allowed to boil.

Wires
Standard wires are used (as in SAW), but since flux cannot be used to add elements
to the weld, these must be added via the wires and/or the consumable guide when it is
used. Wire oscillation can be arranged to ensure even heat and metal distribution.
Power source
Ordinary arc welding transformers or generators that have high output can be used,
but the duty cycle must be very high. Constant potential machines give better control
of weld conditions than constant current machines. Alternating or direct current can be
used, but alternating is preferred. Welding current is relatively high, depending on the
size of joint and the number and size of electrodes; for example, three wire feeds may
require 3000 amps at 40 to 55 volts.
Metallurgical aspects
Owing to prolonged heating and slow solidification, the welds produced have a very
coarse grain structure and a wide HAZ, often returning low impact values. However,
normalising can give the necessary grain refinement and a resulting improvement in
Summary
Advantages:
zz single-pass only required
zz square edge preparation
zz no visible arc and little heat given off
zz excellent on heavy material
zz no angular distortion
zz more metal is deposited per unit of electric power than other processes
zz flux consumption is very low compared to submerged arc welding.
Limitations:
zz high cost of equipment
zz can only weld vertical
zz setting up may be difficult – strongbacks must be used
zz heat treatment is often required.

Appendices
© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769

Appendix 1

Appendix 1
Metals and fabrication competency mapping
Arc Welding 3
Comp Full 
Book title Chapter title Competency title
code Partial 
Arc Welding 3 1. Distortion 
MEM 05015D Weld using manual metal arc welding process 
MEM 05016C Perform advanced welding using MMAW process 
MEM 05017D Weld using gas metal arc welding process 
MEM 05018C Perform advanced welding using GMAW process 


MEM 05019D Weld using gas tungsten arc welding process
MEM 05051A Select welding process 
& Fabrication
MEM 05026C Apply welding principles 

2. Welding safety Safety precautions 
MEM 05012C Perform routine manual metal arc welding 
MEM 05013C Perform manual production welding 
MEM 05046B Perform welds to code standard using MMAW 
MEM 05049B Perform routine gas tungsten arc welding process 
MEM 05019D Weld using gas tungsten arc welding 
MEM 05020C Perform advanced welding using GTAW process 

Comp Full 
code Partial 
MEM 05044B Perform welds to code standard using GMAW process 
MEM 05050B Perform routine gas metal arc welding 
Appendix 1

MEM 05043B Perform welds to code standards using GMAW process 
MEM 05048B Perform advanced welding using FCAW process 
MEM 05042B Perform welds to code standards using FCAW process 
MEM 05023C Weld using submerged arc welding process 
MEM 05051A Select welding processes 
MEM 05052A Apply safe welding practices 
3. Codes and regulations Welding regulations 
MEM 05014C Monitor quality of production welding/fabrications 
MEM 05046B Perform welds to code standards using MMAW process 
MEM 05019C Weld using gas tungsten arc welding process 

MEM 05044B Perform welds to code standards using GTAW 
Comp Full 
code Partial 
MEM 05052A Apply safe welding practices 
4. Welding terms and symbols Welding terms and symbols 
MEM 05019D Weld using gas tungsten arc welding process 


& Fabrication
MEM 05044B Perform welds to code standards using GTAW process

Comp Full 
code Partial 
5. Welding plain carbon steel Elementary knowledge of welding carbon steel 
Perform advanced manual thermal cutting, gouging and
Appendix 1
MEM 05008C 
shaping
MEM 05044B Perform welds to code standards using GTAW process 

6. Heat treatment Heat treatment 
MEM 06007B Perform basic incidental heat/quenching temping and

annealing
Comp Full 
code Partial 
7. Weld testing Testing of welds 

& Fabrication

8. Weld preparation and set up Weld joint preparation 

Comp Full 
code Partial 
Appendix 1

9. Welding procedures Welding procedures 

Comp Full 
code Partial 
10. Metal cutting and gouging Metal cutting and gouging 
MEM 05005B Carry out mechanical cutting 
MEM 05007C Perform manual heating and thermal cutting 
Perform advanced manual thermal cutting, gouging and
MEM 05008C 
shaping
MEM 05009C Perform automated thermal cutting 

MEM 05010C Apply fabrication, forming and shaping techniques 
& Fabrication
MEM 05011D Assemble fabricated components 

11. Elementary electrical terms Electrical terms 
Comp Full 
code Partial 
MEM 05049B Perform routine gas tungsten arc welding process 
Appendix 1

MEM 05050B Perform routine gas metal arc welding 
12. MMAW, arc conditions and Arc conditions, MMAW and electrodes

electrodes

MEM 05015D Weld using manual metal arc welding 

MEM 05026C Apply welding principles
Comp Full 
code Partial 
13. Welding alloy steels Welding alloy steels 
MEM 05019C Weld using gas tungsten arc welding process 


MEM 05048B Perform advanced welding using FCAW process
& Fabrication

14. Non-ferrous metals Welding non-ferrous metals 

MEM 05017D Weld using gas metal arc welding process

Comp Full 
code Partial 
Appendix 1

15. GTAW and equipment Welding processes GTAW 
16. GMAW/FCAW and equipment Welding processes GMAW/FCAW 

Comp Full 
code Partial 
17. Oxy-fuel gas welding Welding processes OAW 
MEM 05022C Weld using oxy-acetylene welding process 
18. Automatic welding Automatic welding processes 

& Fabrication
Advanced welding
This resource is specifically designed to provide basic underpinning knowledge related to a number of competency units used in the
Certificate IV in Engineering Welding pathway across TAFE WA from January 2007. This pathway was specifically designed to meet the
needs of the metal fabrication and welding industry after industry consultation, WTIA involvement and TAFE WA moderation sessions held
in 2006. This pathway is also designed to be common across all colleges of TAFE WA (customisation to suit local conditions is however
Appendix 1
encouraged). The pathway meets the requirements of AS1796 and guidelines of the MEM05 Training Package.
Context of assessment
Assessors are reminded the individual units may be assessed on the job, off the job or a combination of both on and off the job. Where
assessment occurs off the job, that is the candidate is not in productive work, then an appropriate simulation must be used where the
range of conditions reflects realistic workplace situations.
Project work, integration

These units could be assessed in conjunction with mandatory units addressing the safety, quality, communication, mathematics etc. Units
may also be assessed with other units requiring the exercise of the skills and knowledge.
Method of assessment
Assessors should gather a range of evidence that is valid, sufficient, current and authentic. Evidence can be gathered through a variety of
ways including direct observation, supervisor’s reports, project work, samples and questioning. Questioning should not require language,
literacy and numeracy skills beyond those required in this unit. The candidate must have access to all tools, equipment, materials and
documentation required. The candidate must be permitted to refer to any relevant workplace procedures, product and manufacturing
specifications, codes, standards, manuals and reference materials.
Consistency of performance

Assessors must be satisfied that the candidate can competently and consistently perform all elements of the units as specified by the
criteria, including required knowledge and be capable of applying the competency in new and different situations and contexts.
Appendix 2
Hot-work permit (example)

TYPICAL FORM FOR A HOT-WORK PERMIT
(Informative)
1 Site location____________________________Date_____________Permit No________

2 The hot work that is covered by this permit_____________________________________
3 The location of the hot work_________________________________________________
4 The equipment to be used__________________________________________________
5 The firefighting equipment to be laid out at the worksite___________________________
6 Whether the following checks been made: (Note: All questions are to be answered and
initialled by the issuing responsible officer. ‘N.a.’ means ‘not applicable’).
6.1 Have drains, pits and depressions been checked, isolated and sealed? Yes / N.a.
6.2 Have combustible materials been removed from the work area or made
Yes / N.a.
safe?
6.3 Have tanks, valves, vents and pipelines been blanked off or effectively
Yes / N.a.
isolated?
6.4 Is ventilation adequate? Yes / N.a.
6.5 Are spark and flash screens in place? Yes / N.a.
6.6 Have leaks from valve and pump glands, flanges and the like been
Yes / N.a.
controlled?
6.7 Have pressure relief valves been vented to safe areas? Yes / N.a.
6.8 Has contaminated ground been covered? Yes / N.a.
6.9 Is the fire equipment checked and laid out ready for use? Yes / N.a.
6.10 Is the fire pump or fire brigade on standby? Yes / N.a.
6.11 Is a firewatch required? Yes / N.a.
6.12 If required, has a firewatch been organised? Yes / N.a.
6.13 Is the wind direction satisfactory for hot work to be done? Yes / N.a.
6.14 Has product movement been stopped in the area of hot work? Yes / N.a.
6.15 Has the site of the hot work been isolated and roped off? Yes / N.a.
6.16 GAS TESTING:

Equipment make and model____________________________________________
Serial No.__________________________________________________________
Date of last equipment check___________________________________________
Date of test_________________________________________________________
Time of test_________________________________________________________

Appendix 2
Results of test________________________________________________________________
Percentage L.E.L._____________________________________________________
Is hot-work safe to proceed?_____________________________________________
Initials of tester_______________________________________________________
7 The following conditions and precautions were observed:
_______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
8 This permit is valid from______am/pm on___/___/___ to ______am/pm on ___/___/___
9 Name of contractor performing the work_____________Order or contract no._________
10 Name and signature of firewatch (where required)_______________________________
11 Permit received by:
________________________________ _________________________________
(print name) (signature)
12 Person in charge of location:
________________________________ _________________________________
13 Responsible Officer:
________________________________ _________________________________
Return permit:
This permit was returned/cancelled by:
________________________________ _________________________________
to:
________________________________ _________________________________
at______am/pm ___/___/__
The worksite has been inspected by me at the expiry/cancellation of this hot-work permit and
declared safe for normal operations to resume.
________________________________ ________________________________
(print name) R.O. (signature)
THIS HOT-WORK PERMIT SHOULD BE PROMINENTLY DISPLAYED ON THE WORKSITE

Appendix 3
Compulsory classification designatorsa
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from page 20 of

AS/NZS 4855:2007 ISO 2560:2002.

Appendix 4
Compulsory classification designatorsb
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from page 21 of AS/NZS
4855:2007 ISO 2560:2002..

Appendix 5
Classification systems – Creep resistant steels

A.1 ISO 3580-A
The ISO 3580 Classification system for covered electrodes based upon chemical
composition is shown in Figure A.1.
A.2 ISO 3580-B
The ISO 3580 Classification system for covered electrodes based upon tensile strength
and chemical composition is shown in Figure A.2.
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from pages 14 and 15 of
AS/NZS 4856:2006 ISO 3580:2004.

Appendix 5

Appendix 6
Classification systems – High strength steels

from AS/NZS 4857
A.1 ISO 18275-A

The ISO 18275-A classification system for covered electrodes for high-tensile steels,
based upon yield strength and 47 J minimum impact energy, is shown in Figure A.1.
A.2 ISO 18275-B

The ISO 18275-B classification system for covered electrodes for high-tensile steels,
based upon tensile strength and 27 J minimum impact energy, is shown in Figure A.2.
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from pages 18, 19 and
20 of AS/NZS 4857 ISO 1825:2005.

Appendix 7
Scope for ISO 17632:2006, MOD
This International Standard specifies requirements for classification of tubular cored

electrodes with or without a gas shield for metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain
steels in the as-welded condition or in the post-weld heat-treated condition with a
minimum yield strength of up to 500 MPa or a minimum tensile strength of up to
570 MPa. One tubular cored electrode can be tested and classified with different
shielding gases, if any.
This International Standard is a combined specification providing classification utilizing
a system based upon the yield strength and the average impact energy of 47 J of
all-weld metal, or utilizing a system based upon the tensile strength and the average
impact energy of 27 J of all-weld metal.
1) Paragraphs and tables which carry the suffix letter “A” are applicable only to
tubular cored electrodes classified to the system based upon the yield strength
and the average impact energy of 47 J of all-weld metal in accordance with this
International Standard.
2) Paragraphs and tables which carry the suffix letter “B” are applicable only to
tubular cored electrodes classified to the system based upon the tensile strength
and the average impact energy of 27 J of all-weld metal in accordance with this
3) Paragraphs and tables which have neither the suffix letter “A” nor the suffix letter
“B” are applicable to all tubular cored electrodes classified in accordance with this
It is recognized that the operating characteristics of tubular cored electrodes can
be modified by the use of pulsed current, but for the purposes of this International
Standard, pulsed current is not permitted for determining the electrode classification.

Appendix 8
Classification from ISO 17632:2006
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from pages 2, 3 and 4 of
AS/NZS ISO 17632:2006.

Appendix 9
Classification systems from ISO 17632:2004
A.1 ISO 17632-A

The ISO 17632 classification system for tubular cored electrodes based upon yield
strength and 47 J minimum impact strength is shown in Figure A.1.
A.2 ISO 17632-B
The ISO 17632 classification system for tubular cored electrodes based upon tensile
strength and 27 J minimum impact strength is shown in Figure A.2.
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from pages 20, 21 and
22 of AS/NZS 17632:2006.

Appendix 10
Examples of designation
This text has been removed. It was reproduced from pages 18 and 19 of
AS/NZS 17632:2006.

METALS AND FABRICATION
ARC WELDING 3
Advanced Arc Welding Information Book
Learner’s Guide
DESCRIPTION
This resource supports learners to develop advanced-level skills and knowledge relating
to a number of competency units used in the Engineering Tradesperson Fabrication
learning pathway.
Topics covered include the following.
• Distortion
• Welding safety
• Codes and regulations
• Welding terms and symbols
• Welding plain carbon steel
• Heat treatment
• Weld testing
• Weld preparation and set up
• Weld procedures
• Metal cutting and gouging
• Elementary electrical terms
• MMAW, arc conditions and electrodes
• Welding alloy steels
• Ferrous metals
• GTAW and equipment
• GMAW/FCAW and equipment
• Oxy-fuel gas welding
• Automatic welding
Detailed graphics, technical drawings and photographs are provided throughout the
book to support learners. As the content within this book is of a higher level and is more
technical in nature, it aligns with a range of Australian Standards, and includes extracts
from some Standards documents as references for students.
EDITION
2010
CATEGORY
Metals and Engineering
TRAINING PACKAGE
• MEM05
ENG1769 ADVANCED ARC

WELDING INFO BOOK
ISBN 978-1-74205-714-9
ORDERING INFORMATION:
Tel: (08) 6212 9700 Fax: (08) 9227 8393 Email: sales@dtwd.wa.gov.au
Orders can also be placed through the website: www.vetinfonet.dtwd.wa.gov.au 9 781742 057149

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METALS AND FABRICATION

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Department of Training and Workforce Development

1 Prospect Place West Perth WA 6005

Image used on cover © 2010 JupiterImages Corporation.

Coded welding – Weekly schedule......................................................1

Chapter 2 Welding safety.............................................................31

Chapter 3 Codes and regulations...............................................71

Chapter 4 Welding terms and symbols......................................91

Chapter 5 Welding plain carbon steel...................................... 115

Chapter 6 Heat treatment...........................................................129

Chapter 7 Weld testing...............................................................155

Chapter 8 Weld preparation and set up....................................201

Chapter 9 Weld procedures.......................................................223

Chapter 10 Metal cutting and gouging.......................................237

Chapter 11 Elementary electrical terms.....................................265

Chapter 12 MMAW, arc conditions and electrodes...................285

Chapter 13 Welding alloy steels..................................................307

Chapter 14 Non-ferrous metals...................................................331

Chapter 15 GTAW and equipment...............................................345

Chapter 16 GMAW/FCAW and equipment..................................365

Chapter 17 Oxy-fuel gas welding................................................417

Chapter 18 Automatic welding....................................................445

© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769 iii

Appendix 1 Competency mapping

Appendix 2 Hot-work permit (example)

Appendix 3 Compulsory classification designators a

Appendix 4 Compulsory classification designators b

Appendix 5 Classification systems – Creep resistant steels

Appendix 6 Classification systems – High strength steels

Appendix 7 Scope for ISO 17632:2006, MOD

Appendix 8 Classification from ISO 17632:2006

Appendix 9 Classification systems from ISO 17632:2006

Appendix 10 Examples of designation

iv © VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769

© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769 1

Week 1 – regulations (AS 1796 Item 2)

Week 2 – safety (AS 1796 Item 1)

2 © VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769

Week 4 – elements in steel (AS 1796 Item 4)

Week 5 – heat treatment (AS 1796 Item 5)

Week 6 – weld testing (AS 1796 Item 6)

© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769 3

Week 8 – welding procedures (AS 1796 Item 8)

4 © VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769

Week 10 – electrical terms (AS 1796 Item 10)

Week 11 – arc conditions (AS 1796 Item 11)

© VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769 5

Week 12 – MMAW and electrodes (AS 1796 Item 12)

6 © VET (WA) Ministerial Corporation 2010 – ENG1769

Week 14 – welding non-ferrous metals (AS 1796 Item 14)