Chapter (4)

Chapter 4: Specifying a Purpose
and Research Questions or

Hypotheses
Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Edition 5
John W. Creswell
© (2015, 2012, 2008) by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 5th Ed.
4-2
The purpose of this study is to
test the theory of planned
behavior (the theory) by
relating social support (independent
variable) to college intention to
dropout (independent variable) for
undergrad students (participants) in
Thailand (research site)

4-3
The purpose of this study is to
determine the strength of the
the relationship between
height to weight among
undergrad students in
Thailand.

4-4
Introduction
Purpose statements, research
questions, and hypotheses provide
critical information to readers about
the direction of a research study.
They also raise questions that the
research will answer through the
data collection process.
4-5
By the end of this chapter,
you should be able to:
 Distinguish among purpose statements,
research questions, hypotheses, and
objectives
 Describe why these statements and
questions are important
 Write quantitative purpose statements,
research questions, and hypotheses
 Write qualitative purpose statements and
research questions
4-6
The case of Maria
The statement that represents the
central direction of her study is:
* “I would like to study the reasons
why students carry weapons in high
schools.” Quantitative Research
* “I would like to study students’
experiences with weapons in high
school.” Qualitative Research

4-7
The form of purpose
statement and research
questions will reflect the
decision to engage in
quantitative or qualitative
research.

4-8
Four Terms
There are four terms used in
research to convey the intent of a
study:
1- Purpose statements,
2- Research questions,
3- Research hypotheses, and
4- Research objectives
4-9
The Four Terms differ in:
• Intent (their role in research)
• Form (their appearance in
studies)
• Use (their application in
quantitative and qualitative
approaches)
• Placement (their location) in
research reports
4-10
Purpose Statements, Research
Questions, Hypotheses, and Objectives
Purpose Research Research
Hypotheses
Statement Questions Objectives
Overall Raise questions Make predictions State goals
Intent
direction to be answered about expectations
One or more One or more One or more One or more

Form
sentences questions statements objectives
Use Quantitative Quantitative Quantitative Typically

and qualitative and qualitative research quantitative
research research research
Placement End of End of the introduction, after the
introduction literature review, or in a separate
section of the study
4-11
Example on purpose statement
Teacher–parent communications and student
achievement
Quantitative purpose statement:

The purpose of this study is to examine the
relationship between use of Internet communication
between teachers and parents in a Midwestern
school district and student achievement.
Qualitative purpose statement:

The purpose of this study is to explore parent stories
regarding Internet communications with teachers
about their students in a Midwestern school district.
4-12
Example on research questions
Quantitative research question:
Do parent–teacher Internet communications
affect student performance in the classroom?
Qualitative research question:

What types of Internet experiences do
parents have with teachers about the
performance of the parents’ children?

4-13
Example on hypotheses
Usually researchers advance several
hypotheses, such as three or four. They
appear only in quantitative researches. An
illustration of a hypothesis is:
Students in high schools in which parents and
teachers communicate through the Internet
will have higher grades than students whose
parents and teachers do not communicate
through the Internet.
4-14
Example on objectives
1. To describe the frequency of Internet
communication between parents and
teachers regarding the parents’ children in
high school social studies classes
2. To describe the types (or categories) of
Internet communication between parents
and teachers
3. To relate (a) frequency and (b) types of
communication to student achievement in
the class as measured by performance on
tests
4-15
Why These Statements and
Questions Are Important
 Represent major signposts

 Help identify appropriate methods
 Help link intent with the results

4-16
What We Need to Know to Design
Quantitative Purpose Statements, Research
Questions, and Hypotheses
 What is a variable?
 What is a theory?
 What elements go into these statements
and questions?

4-17
What Is a Variable?
A Variable
(A Characteristic or Attribute)
That can be and
Measured Varies
(Can be assessed (Can assume
on an instrument different values or
and recorded on scores for different
an instrument) individuals)

4-18
Characteristic vs. Attribute
Characteristics of individuals refer
to personal aspects about them, such
as their grade level, age, or income
level.
Attributes represent how individuals
feel, behave, or think such as self-
esteem, engage in smoking, or
leadership behavior.
4-19
Measuring Variables (Attributes
and Characteristics)
Measurement means that the researcher
records information from individuals in one
of two ways:
◆ Asking them to answer questions on a
questionnaire, or
◆ Observing them and recording scores

on a log or checklist
4-20
Scoring
Individuals responses will probably
vary (hence the name variable).
The researcher assigns different

scores to the different response.
These scores are the values for the
variables being measured.
4-21
Continuous and Categorical Scales
A variable measured as continuous is
a variable measured as a point along a
continuum of scores, from low to high.
(Also called interval, rating, or scaled).
A variable measured in categories is
a variable measured as a small number of
groups or categories. (Also called discrete
or nominal).
4-22
Categorical and Continuous
Measures of Variables
 A categorical (discrete, nominal)
measure is a value of a variable
assigned into a small number of
categories (e.g., gender).
 A continuous (interval, rating, scaled)

measure is the value of a variable
assigned to a point along a continuum of
scores, from low to high (e.g., age).
4-23
Variables and Constructs
 A variable is an attribute or characteristic
stated in a specific or applied way.
 A construct is an attribute or
characteristic expressed in an abstract,
general way.
Construct Student Achievement
Variable Grade Point Average

4-24
Families of Variables in
Quantitative Studies
Probable
Effect
Cause
Independent Intervening Dependent

Variables Variables Variables

4-25
Family of Variables
 Dependent variables: Attributes or
characteristics influenced by the
independent variables.
 They are termed in literature as:
 The outcomes
 The effects
 The criteria
 The consequences

4-26
Family of Variables (cont’d)
 Independent variables: Attributes or
characteristics that influence or affect
outcomes or dependent variables.
 Located in purpose statements,
research questions, and hypotheses.
 They are termed in literature as:
 Factors  Determinants
 Treatments  Antecedents
 Predictors
4-27
Independent Variables
Measured Control Treatment Moderating

Variables Variables Variables Variables

4-28
4-29
 Intervening variables (mediating
variables): Attributes or
characteristics that “stand between”
the dependent and independent
variables

4-30
Example of an Intervening Variable
Independent Dependent
Step 1 Variable Variable
Example Convenient office hours Student seeks help

for students from faculty
Independent
Independent Intervening
Step 2 Variable Variable
Variable
Convenient office hours Student becomes willing
Example to take risks
for students
Independent Intervening Dependent

Step 3 Variable Variable Variable
Convenient office hours Student becomes willing
Example for students
Student seeks help
to take risks from faculty

4-31
 Confounding (‫ )مربك‬variables
(unauthentic (‫ )مزيف‬variables):
Attributes or characteristics that
cannot be directly measured because
their effects cannot be easily
separated from the other variables,
even though they may influence the
relationship between the independent
and the dependent variable.
4-32
Example showing some Variables
A fender bender (simple car accident):
The outcome (dependent variable): A car hits
another car at a stop sign—rammed right into the
back of it.
The cause (independent variable): the driver was
talking on the cell phone. Another cause might have
been the slick pavement (control variable), but
the skies were sunny and it had not rained for days.
The fact that you had daydreamed might have
caused the accident (confounding variable). This
fact would be difficult to measure after the accident
4-33
Theory
A theory in quantitative research explains and
predicts the probable relationship between
independent and dependent variables. For example,
researchers test the relationship between peer
groups’ influence and adolescents. This relationship
is tested over and over, such as with the Boy Scouts,
in middle schools, in high schools, and in other
settings. Repeatedly the relationship of a positive
effect holds true. Then someone comes along, calls
this relationship a theory, and assigns a name to it.
Smith’s theory of peer influence is born, reported in
the literature, and tested by other researchers.
4-34
Theories as Bridges

4-35
Different Types of Explanations in
Quantitative Research
Extensive Tests by Broad
Other Researchers Abstractions
As a formal theory that is expressed by connected
hypotheses and variables identified by authors
As a conceptual framework often expressed as a

visual model by other authors for relationship
As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors

based on studies for relationship
An explanation posed by the author as a hunch

No Test for why the independent variable relates to the Narrow
dependent variable Application

4-36
Elements of a Quantitative
Purpose Statement
 A quantitative purpose statement identifies the
variables, their relationship, and the participants and
site for research
 Guidelines for writing
 Use a single sentence
 Use wording such as The purpose of this study . . .
 If using a theory, state the theory you plan to test
 Use quantitative words (e.g., “relate,” “compare,”
“describe”) to describe the relationships between

variables
4-37
Elements of Quantitative
Purpose Statement (cont’d)
 Guidelines for writing (cont’d)
 Independent variable (1st position in sentence)
 Dependent variable (2nd position in sentence)
 Control and/or mediating variable (3rd position in
sentence)
 Research site
 Participants

4-38
Example on relating variables
The purpose of this study is to test
Fines’ theory (1996) by relating
leadership style (independent
variable) to autonomy (dependent
variable) for teachers (participants)
in high schools in State X (research
site).
4-39
Example on compering groups
The purpose of this study is to test
Smart’s theory (1999) by comparing
autocratic leaders (group 1) with
consensus-building leaders (group 2)
in terms of the satisfaction of
teachers (dependent variable) in
colleges in State X (research site).
4-40
Example on hunch or rationale
The purpose of this study is to relate
student misbehavior factors (i.e.,
fighting) (independent variable—
position 1) to attitudes toward weapon
possession (dependent variable—
position 2) for students in the district’s
high schools (participants—site),
controlling for gender, grade level, and
race ( position 3).
4-41
Types of Quantitative
Research Questions
 Describe results of your variables
 Compare two or more groups on the
independent variable in terms of the
dependent variable
 Relate two or more variables
Research questions are found in all designs

in quantitative research, such as in
experiments, correlational studies, and
surveys
4-42
Guidelines for Writing
Quantitative Research Questions
 Pose a question
 Begin with “how,” “what,” or “why”
 Specify the independent, dependent, and
mediating or control variables
 Use the words describe, compare, or relate to
indicate the action or connection among the
variables
 Indicate the participants and the research site for
the study

4-43
Popular Forms
of Quantitative Research Questions
 Descriptive questions
 Relationship questions
 Comparison questions
4-44
Descriptive Questions
 Used by researchers to identify participants’
responses to a single variable that can be
independent, dependent, or intervening.
 Script for writing a descriptive question:
How frequently do ( participants) ( variable)
at ( research site )?
 An application of this script might be:
How frequently do African Americans feel
isolated on college campuses?
4-45
Relationship Questions
 Seek to answer the degree and magnitude of the
relationship between two or more variables.
 Relate different types of variables in a study.
 Script for writing a relationship question:
How does (independent variable) relate to
(dependent variable) for (participants) at (research
site)?
 Application:
How do feelings of isolation relate to (or influence)
the ethnic identity of African Americans in the
United States?
4-46
Comparison Questions
 To find out how two or more groups on an
independent variable differ in terms of one or more
outcome variables.
 Researchers provide some intervention to one group
and withhold it from the second group.
 A script for writing a comparison question:
How does (group 1) differ from (group 2) in terms
of (dependent variable) for (participants) at
(research site)?
 How do African Americans and Euro Americans
compare in their perceptions of ethnic identity?
4-47
Hypotheses
 Similar to research questions, hypotheses
narrow the purpose statement in quantitative
research.
 They advance a prediction about what the
researcher expects to find.
 They are not used to describe a single
variable as in the case of research questions.
 They are not used as frequently as research
questions.

4-48
Hypothesis Example
A prediction that Maria might make

would be:
The more students feel alienated
(‫)يشعرون بالغربة‬, the more likely they
are to carry weapons to school.

4-49
Guidelines for Hypotheses Writing
 State the variables in this order: independent
(1st position), dependent (2nd), control (3rd).
 If groups are compered, explicitly state the
groups.
 If variables are related, specify the relation-
ship among the variables.
 Make a prediction about changes you expect
in your groups, such as less or more
favorable or no changes (e.g., no difference).
 State the participants and the site unless it
repeats information in purpose statement.
4-50
Research Hypotheses: Types
1. Null hypothesis
 No change in the dependent variable
 Example: There will be no significant
difference in test scores between fifth-grade

boys and girls on the XYZ achievement test.
2. Directional alternative hypothesis
 Specifies the direction of the change in the
dependent variable the researcher predicts

will take place
 Example: Fifth-grade girls will have higher
scores on the XYZ achievement test than

fifth-grade boys.
4-51
Research Hypotheses: Types
(cont’d)
3. Non-directional alternative hypothesis

 Does not specify the direction of the change in
the dependent variable
 Example: There will be a difference in test
scores on the XYZ achievement test for fifth-
grade boys and girls.

4-52
Designing Qualitative Purpose
Statements and Research Questions
 Understand how these statements and

questions differ from quantitative research
 Understand the role of a central phenomenon in
qualitative research
 Understand qualitative research as an emerging
process

4-53
Differences Between Quantitative and
Qualitative Purpose Statements and
Research Questions
Qualitative—
Quantitative—more closed
more open-ended
 Probable cause/effect
(“Why did it happen?”)  Descriptive (“What
 Use of theories (“Why did it happened?”)
happen in view of an explanation
or theory?”)  Interpretive (“What was
 Assess differences and the meaning to people of
magnitude what happened?”)
(“How much happened?”)
(“How many times did it  Process-oriented (“What
happen?”)-“What were the happened over time?”)
differences among
groups in what happened?”)
4-54
Two Qualitative Research
Considerations
 The focus of the research is around a
central phenomenon which is an issue or
a process the researcher would like to
study.
 Qualitative research is built on an
emerging design.

4-55
4-56
4-57
Elements of Qualitative Purpose
Statement
◆ Use key identifier words to signal the reader, such
as “The purpose of this study is . . .”
◆ Mention that the study is “qualitative”.
◆ Indicate the type of qualitative research design you
plan to use.
◆ State the central phenomenon you plan to explore.
◆ Use words that convey intent about the exploration,
such as explore, discover, understand, and describe.
◆ Mention the participants.
◆ Refer to the research site.

4-58
Sample Script
A script for a qualitative purpose statement is:
The purpose of this qualitative study will be to
(explore / discover / understand / describe)
(the central phenomenon) for (participants) at
(research site).
Example on study of Internet classroom
learning:
The purpose of this qualitative study is to
describe classroom learning using the Internet
for five high-school students participating in a
sign language class.
4-59
Example from Maria’s study
The purpose statement for Maria’s
study might be:
The purpose of this qualitative study
is to explore the experiences with
weapons (Central phenomenon) of
five high school students
(Participants) in the school district
(site).
4-60
Types of Qualitative Research Questions
 Central question: The overarching question you
explore in the research study
 Subquestions: Divides the central question into
smaller, specific questions
 Issue subquestions: Narrow the focus of the
central question into specific issues
 Procedural subquestions: Indicate the steps to
be used in analyzing the data in a qualitative
study
 Interview questions: Questions that are asked
during your interview that are based on your
subquestions and central question
4-61
Central Research Question
Sample Script :
What is (the central phenomenon) for
(participants) at (research site)?
Example from the study of creativity:
What is creativity for five students at Jenin
Boys Secondary School?
Beginning word: “What”
Central phenomenon: creativity
Participants: five students
Research site: Jenin Boys Secondary School
4-62
Typical Problems in Central Questions
Problems Poor Example
Better Example
Too What is going on here?
What is the process being
general used by the general
education committee at the
liberal arts school?
Too How did the committee What is the process of the
focused make a curriculum curriculum committee in
decision about a course making decisions about
on the environment? courses?
Too laden How did the curriculum What was the role of the
with committee address its college administration
assumpti alienation from the in the curriculum
ons college administration? committee’s deliberations?

4-63
Issue subquestion
A script for an issue subquestion is:

What is (the subquestion issue) for
(participants) at (research site).
Do not repeat participants and research site.
Subquestions come immediately after the
central question as follows:

4-64
Examples on Issue Subquestions
What is self-esteem for high school students?
(central question)
* What is self-esteem as seen through
friends? (issue subquestion)
* What is self-esteem for the participant’s
family? (issue subquestion)
* What is self-esteem as experienced in
extracurricular activities in school? (issue
subquestion)

4-65
4-66

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Chapter 4: Specifying a Purpose

and Research Questions or

© (2015, 2012, 2008) by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

One or more One or more One or more One or more

Use Quantitative Quantitative Quantitative Typically

Quantitative purpose statement:

Qualitative purpose statement:

Qualitative research question:

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

 Represent major signposts

 Help link intent with the results

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

That can be and

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

◆ Observing them and recording scores

The researcher assigns different

 A continuous (interval, rating, scaled)

Construct Student Achievement

Variable Grade Point Average

Independent Intervening Dependent

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Measured Control Treatment Moderating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Example Convenient office hours Student seeks help

Independent Intervening Dependent

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

As a conceptual framework often expressed as a

As a theoretical rationale posed by other authors

An explanation posed by the author as a hunch

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

 Use wording such as The purpose of this study . . .

 If using a theory, state the theory you plan to test

 Use quantitative words (e.g., “relate,” “compare,”

“describe”) to describe the relationships between

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Research questions are found in all designs

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

A prediction that Maria might make

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

 Example: There will be no significant

difference in test scores between fifth-grade

dependent variable the researcher predicts

scores on the XYZ achievement test than

3. Non-directional alternative hypothesis

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

 Understand how these statements and

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

Creswell, Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating